Ancient Civilisations - The Lighthouse of Alexandria

Episode Date: May 8, 2025

The Lighthouse of Alexandria was a testament to human ingenuity and architectural brilliance. Built in the third century BC on the small island of Pharos, it was the first lighthouse in recorded history and the last of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Standing over 100 metres high, it provided a vital beacon for sailors navigating the treacherous waters of the Mediterranean Sea. But who built the lighthouse? How did it change during its 17 centuries overlooking the city? And, after its final collapse in the 1300s, how does its legend still endure? A Noiser Production, written by Nicola Rayner. With thanks to Professor Islam Issa, British-Egyptian historian, and the author of Alexandria: The City that Changed the World. For ad-free listening, exclusive content, and early access to new episodes across the Noiser network, join Noiser+. Now available for Apple and Android users. Click the Noiser+ banner on Apple or go to noiser.com/subscriptions to get started with a free trial. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit podcastchoices.com/adchoices

It is 1962. The waves of the Mediterranean coast of Alexandria in North Egypt are high, as usual. In the eastern harbor, a couple of young fishermen load up their small motorboat for a short trip and start up the engine. Their masks, snorkels and spears rattle in the bottom of the boat as it slices through the waves. They speed out past the spit of land that is home to the citadel of Cate Bay, the massive 15th century fortress, which stands on the site of one of the most famous buildings in history, the lighthouse of Alexandria. The men head for their usual spot not too far from the citadel. As the driver cuts out the boat's engine, the fisherman pushes his feet into his flippers.

He is a free diver, a risky business, but he knows these waters well, has dived them countless times. After pulling on his mask and snorkel, he nods at his friend. end, then slips into the water. Though he usually has a knack for spotting fish hidden among the rocks and reefs, today his prey elude him. And though the currents are always strong, right now they seem to pull him off course. He re-emerges for a breath, then tries again. Finally, on his third dive, a huge fish darts in front of him. He gives chase, kicking hard, pushing himself deeper underwater. The visibility drops and sand forms clouds before his eyes. The fish within reach, he glides just above the seafloor, his lungs beginning to burn.

But then he catches sight of something unusual, a shape that doesn't belong among the natural contours of the underwater landscape. An unusually shaped rock, perhaps? Curiosity peaked, he abandons his hunt and swims closer. He reaches out and brushes away the fine layer of silt that is settled. There, half buried in the sand, are massive fragments of stone, weathered but unmistakably carved by human hands. Kicking back to the surface, the diver quickly locates the boat and swims over to his friend. The pair of them returned to the shore, chatting excitedly.

Days later, the fisherman boards a bus towards the harbor for his official meeting with a team of archaeologists. The vehicle creaks and groans through the traffic on the Corniche, the famous coastal road that runs along the Mediterranean shoreline. When he disembarks in the center to complete his journey on foot, Alexandria is bustling with life. Hawkers shout out their prices over the din of sputtering injures. The scent of street food drifts from stands, grilled fish, falafel, and the sharp tang of citrus. Old buildings, half faded in color, recede behind him as he heads out towards the citadel,

the Mediterranean glittering on either side of the avenue. As the huge stone castle looms up ahead, he spots some smart men in suits. These must be the curators he's come to meet. But as he calls out to greet them, he notices another crowd just beyond. Some holding notepads, others with cameras slung over their shoulders. He even spots a microphone or two.

There is a crackle of anticipation in the air. The news has already spread. It's possible the remains of the ancient city's great lighthouse have been rediscovered. And everyone wants a piece of the action. The lighthouse of Alexandria was a testament to human ingenuity and architectural brilliance. Brilience. Built in the 3rd century BC on the small island of Ferros, which was linked to Alexandria by a causeway, it was the first lighthouse in recorded history, and the last of the seven wonders of the ancient world. It was one of the tallest man-made structures of its time,

standing more than 100 meters high, made of gleaming white limestone, and crowned by a statue of Zeus, it stood as a beacon for sailors navigating the treacherous waters of the Mediterranean sea into the key Egyptian port of Alexandria. Its bright light, visible for miles, was a symbol of the city's wealth and importance as a center of trade, and, as the home of the world's greatest library, also knowledge. But who built the lighthouse? How did it change during its 17 centuries overlooking the city? And after its final collapse in the 1300s, how does its legend still endure. I'm John Hopkins. From the Noiser Network, this is a short history of the Lighthouse of Alexandria. It is 331 BC in Memphis, Egypt. A 25-year-old man with long hair styled in the image of his

hero, Achilles, steps onto a barge on the Nile. At just five feet tall, he's not an imposing figure, but the expression on his face is one of steely determination. Officially, his title is Alexander III of Macedon, but today he is better known as Alexander the Great. And when he steps on that barge, this leader of the Greeks is already on his way to conquering the great Persian Empire. Egypt has been ruled by the Persians on and off since 525 BC, but when Alexander arrives, the Persian ruler or Satrap surrenders. Alexander is greeted as a liberator of the Egyptians. He promises to to respect local customs and religious traditions, unlike the oppressive Persians. Once he is crowned as the new pharaoh, he begins surveying Egyptian land.

Travelling northwards up the Nile, he is keen to explore an island that appeared to him in a dream, inspired by a mention in Homer's Odyssey. Wherever he goes, Alexander carries a special scroll of Homer's poetry in a gold casket. It was a gift from his teacher, the philosopher Aristotle. But when he reaches his destination, the island of Feros, it's not quite what he expects. Professor Islam Issa is a British Egyptian historian and the author of Alexandria, the city that changed the world. When he arrives in the 4th century BC, he arrives at a series of fishing villages and a barren island. It's an island that was mentioned by Homer called Ferros, where he arrives.

loud the billows roar, Homer writes. So it was already in the Greek consciousness, but it was likely an anticlimax. It was likely just a barren island with not much on it. Though its surroundings are beautiful, standing in the crystal blue waters of the Mediterranean, just beyond the vast sun-soaked Egyptian coastline, it's little more than a tiny hill of limestone. But if the island could be connected to the mainland by a causeway, Alexander can see there's some potential. He could create two harbors, one on either side. Located as it is at the crossroads of Africa, Asia and Europe, the site is ideally situated for a city that could be a link between these regions. It is also the perfect place for a trading hub, and even a base for providing food

and transport for his army as it expands eastwards. What's more, the site is close to the Nile at the western edge of the delta, but not so close that it will be affected by the river's regular flooding. Fresh water isn't a problem with a lake a little further inland. A network of canals links the river to the lake and the lake to the sea. Alexander acts swiftly. First, he orders the building of a temporary connection between the island and the coast. Then a more solid, hourglass-shaped causeway is constructed, mainly from limestone. Stretching 1,300-merect. meters in length, this causeway becomes known as the Heptastadian, meaning seven stadia, the Greek unit of measurement.

Soon after being built, it is cut down the middle to create two channels with bridges above them so ships can move from one harbor to the other without having to go all the way around. If Alexander notices the roughness of the waves and the potential danger to ships coming into these new harbors, he files it away as a problem to be solved at a later point. He gets to work on the design for his new city with his team, which includes the respected architect Dinocrates of Rhodes. One account of the planning process is written by the historian Plutarch some 300 years later. According to him, the excited Alexander starts mapping out his city by using whatever he can find close to hand, which happens to be some handfuls of barley. He sketches the layout of Alexandria with the grain, specifying places for a market square.

temples and a library dedicated to the muses. But just as Alexander finishes his design, a flock of birds descend on the grain and gobble it down. He fears it is an omen, but is reassured by those around him that his new city will become the nurse and feeder of many nations. Shortly after the plans are finished, the laying of the foundations gets underway.

So Alexandria is built on an ambitious scale. It's immediately built. built with wide roads, so plenty of lanes for the carriages on the promenade. Its roads are built at an angle, so it can benefit from the breeze of the sea. So at the time they believe there's a kind of good wind and a bad wind, but the angle benefits from the good winds. And it's got sculptures in the roads, statues. There are reports even of perfumed roads around the Royal Quarter.

There are five districts in the city as well, one of which is the royal quarter, one which was predominantly the Jewish quarter, trade quarter, and so on. And essentially, it's an ambitious project. And I think for many people who went to Alexandria at that time, even before the lighthouse is built, they're seeing a metropolis, and they're seeing the kind of city of the future. Alexander leaves Dynocrates in charge of his plans and rushes off to the next adventure. By October, he has defeated the Great Persian Empire in what is today northern Iraq. Then, barely pausing for breath, he advances into Central Asia and invades India.

In 325 BC, he returns to Babylon, where he focuses on consolidating his vast empire. But a couple of years later, at just 32, and at the height of his powers, Alexander fall. ill after a prolonged period of drinking with his generals and dies. Though it's never confirmed, some say he is poisoned by one of his rivals. It is said that in his last words, he declares that his empire should go to the strongest. But what follows is a period of chaos. The territory is sliced up between his friends and generals, with Egypt going to Alexander's friend Ptolemy. Tolomey I was a fascinating character and his story begins alongside Alexander the Great. So they are friends from a young age.

They attend the same school. They're taught by none other than Aristotle. And it's actually really a fascinating lineage of scholars that teach them. I mean, Aristotle is taught by Plato. And Plato is taught by Socrates. It doesn't get much better than that in terms of knowledge lineage. And so it makes sense that Alexander and Ptolemy want their situation. to be a knowledge base as well.

But to legitimize his rule over Egypt, Ptolemy takes a bold step. He seizes Alexander's corpse as it is being transported from Babylon to Macedonia. Ptolemy brings the body to Egypt and continues the construction of the city of Alexandria around it. The tomb of Alexander becomes one of the key cults and attractions of the city.

Ptolemy also moves the capital of Egypt from Memphis to Alexandria. and establishes his residence there. The city becomes a labour of love. He prioritises the city's interests, so he doesn't wage wars like Alexander. He stays neutral and many wars around the region, with the intent of making Alexandria a great city. So Ptolemy does a lot for the city,

in many ways, Alexander is the founder, but Ptolemy really does build Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy I, Alexandria develops into a major center of trade and commerce. And the Heptus stadium to the island of Ferros means that the city has two ports, one on each side of the causeway, just as Alexander planned. Located on the east side, the Great Harbour is the larger and more prominent of the two ports, a hub for international commerce.

The western port of UNostos, meaning safe return, is used for local and regional trade, as well as ship repairs. These two ports allow Alexandria to manage a vast amount of trade. It has the potential to become one of the most prosperous cities in the ancient world, but for this to happen, ships must be able to dock safely.

And right now, that is far from guaranteed. Alexandria is positioned in such a way that there are really quite severe winds, especially in the winter, but also really striking waves. Even today, if you go to the city, you'll recognize how high the waves are, how loud the waves are.

So it's not the safest place for boats and ships and so on. And there are other natural issues as well. So, for example, the Egyptian coastline has very few contours. The coastline there is rather broad. It's rather featureless. And also, once you arrive, you want to make sure you arrive at the right place. And the issue with the shore like that is you could find yourself in a desert upon arrival. So you've got all these issues, and that's not mentioning the night time.

So at night you navigate without light. That can be very difficult. It's like pitch black. Adding to the danger are so-called wreckers, essentially land pirates who purposely bring about shipwrecks. They create so-called false fires near jagged rocky coastlines that give the illusion of a safe place to land. The unfortunate sailors who fall for these traps crash on the rocks where their vessels are then looted. Fires are used to guide ships in for legitimate purposes too, but in response to the proliferation of land pirates and the coastline's dangerous waves, Ptolemy I decides to take the matter further.

Around 290 BC, he commissions the building of a lighthouse, the first in recorded history. We don't know too much about how it's built, but we do know that there were lots of jobs available. So the city needed a population, needed to attract people. And one of the things that attract people to move is work. And so it's likely that it had a huge workforce. We don't have evidence of slavery being a very common thing in Alexandria, so they were likely paid for their work in the construction of the lighthouse, and we do know as well that it took 14 years to build at a huge cost as well. Finished during the reign of Ptolemy II, the building costs 800 talents, today the equivalent of 16 million pounds. The lighthouse is made from gleaming white limestone, which glows in the strong Egyptian sun.

It is known in Alexandria as the pharos, named after the island on top of which it stands. The word will endure in Greek and many other languages to mean lighthouse. The structure comprises three tiers. The lowest and largest is rectangular and forms almost half the total size of the structure. The second tier is octagonal. On top of that is the third layer, a hollow cylinder encircled by pillars, which contains a furnace and a mirror to reflect the light. Weary donkeys make endless trips to supply firewood and fuel on their backs to feed the furnace.

Even animal dung is said to fuel its famous light. A long, arched ramp provides access to the lowest tier of the lighthouse, from which stairs connect to around 70 rooms in the bottom two tiers, including one room that leads down to the sea. The rooms are constructed with vents and windows to allow wind to pass through, helping protect the lighthouse from the force of strong gusts. On the second and third floors, galleries offer visitors the chance to take in views from an elevation that dwarfs the rest of the city.

For particularly distinguished guests, special suites are available for lavish entertainment. At the very top of the lighthouse stands a statue of Zeus, the god of sky and thunder, who has a special link to the city. In some versions of ancient mythology, Helen of Troy, the daughter of Zeus, is linked to the island of Phaeros. Indeed, Alexandria's founder himself had a special connection to the king of the gods, claiming to be his descendant. At more than 100 metres in height, the lighthouse is one of the tallest buildings in the world, rivaling the great pyramid of Giza. The lighthouse goes well beyond practical purposes, because it's a symbol of the symbol. of power, it's imposing, it's grand, it's tall, it's strong. So it suggests all of those things

about the leaders of the city, about the Ptolemy's, that they have this kind of supremacy. I would say it also has a symbolic importance that it's spreading light, and we see that as a city that becomes a knowledge capital of the world, spreading light of knowledge far and wide. And Alexandria, to a large extent, becomes defined by this famous building. It's a rich city, at the time. It's a new capital city. So it's undergoing this constant renovation and it's undergoing lots of migration because Alexandria starts with nobody there, so they have to basically attract people to come. They attract people through things like jobs, through low taxation, through freedom of worship. So the lighthouse is a symbol of this power. It's a symbol as a grand

entrance to a city that's trying to say that it's the world's most impressive city. And it's a kind of new world feel, I think. It's dazzling. It's supposed to be dazzling. It's a welcome to those who are coming for a better life in Alexandria. And I call that the Alexandrian dream in its early days. And I guess the lighthouse could be something of Lady Liberty at the time. But who is responsible for designing this majestic structure? historians can't be sure, but it's possible that credit should go to Sostratus of Nidus. According to different reports about this man, Sostratus is either the benefactor who pays for the lighthouse to some extent or the architect who designs it. In one version of the story, which comes from the Syrian writer Lucian in the second century AD, Sustratus inscribes his own name on the lighthouse.

Lucian writes that Sustratus wrote his name on the lighthouse, covered it, and then inscribed the name of Ptolemy, knowing that before long those letters would fall away from the plaster, and his name would be revealed. And a claim is that it said Sustratus and Idas has dedicated this to quote it for the sake of them that sail at sea. So the claim here is that there was a dedication made behind the king's back that changed the dedication from Ptolemy to Stratus. Adam Asaoudi, who's a 10th century historian, he writes that he saw an inscription in large lead letters. And he says that each one's about a cubit, so that's about half a meter in size, so that everybody could see this dedication as they were arriving into the city. and recently some led has been found in the sea under where the lighthouse would have been,

so it's quite exciting that that might be part of the dedication. The lighthouse becomes the last of the seven wonders of the ancient world, a list that begins taking shape in the 5th century BC, with the final, widely recognised version emerging a few hundred years later. It is a status symbol for the city to be proud of. The Roman poet, Lucan, celebrates it as a beacon for salvation. Historians and travellers from all over the world praise its height and grandeur. Replicas begin to be built around the region and beyond.

Meanwhile, the lighthouse stands proud, visible from more than 30 miles away. The mirror at its apex, made from polished metal and burnished bronze, reflects the strong sunlight during the day when maritime traffic is heaviest. But sometimes nighttime journeys are unavoidable, and then the light-time journeys. and then the lighthouse's fire comes into its own. It is 240 BC. In the dead of night, an ancient Greek ship, known as a hippos, carves its way through the ink-black sea.

A merchant vessel from the island of Rhodes, with neat square sails and a broad, rounded hull. Right now, it is loaded with olive oil, wine and pottery from the Aegean Islands. The captain stands at the helm, his weathered hands. steady on the wheel. His crew have been traveling for almost six days. They're not far from their destination, the Egyptian port of Alexandria. So far, the winds have been steady and favorable, so they've decided to push on through the night. After all, the city is protected by the light of the famous pharos. But now, at the final hour, the breeze turns capricious, tugging at the sails

and forcing the captain to tighten his grip on the wheel. the ship's timbers begin to creak. Overhead, clouds shroud the moonless sky. Alexandria is close now, but not yet in sight. By day, the city is a trader's paradise, a glittering jewel. But by night, this coastline can become a graveyard for the unwary. The usual banter among the crew fades to urgent instructions as the storm picks up. The seasoned sailors man the ropes as their ships bow

Dips perilously, sending spray shooting across the deck. The captain squints into the blackness, searching for that beacon of hope. They're approaching from the east, hugging the invisible coastline on their port side. Now a younger sailor shouts over the wind of the appearance of light. Following his gaze, the captain sees it too. A weak flicker in the distance. But it's not right. It's too low.

faint. Reckers trying their luck. He shakes his head, keeping his hand steady on the wheel. The ship rocks again, dipping low. The wind whistles loudly as waves slap against the hull, and then it appears. A faint but steadily strengthening gleam on the horizon. As the ship draws nearer, the glow intensifies, becoming a pillar of fire against the night. The captain exhales, the pharos. The word echoes around the ship. There it is, the great lighthouse of Alexandria. Even from miles away, the flame at the top of the towering structure is unmistakable.

A signal that safety is close. And, as if by magic, the wind seems to drop. The worst of the storm seems to be over. As they approach, the younger sailors fall silent in awe at the scale of the lighthouse. It is gigantic, dwarfing the ships that pass beneath its gaze with its three-tiered design. And there is Zeus with his thunderbolt at the top. The crew adjust the sails and prepare for the final approach, the mood on board becoming one of relief, celebration almost.

Soon they will be unloading their goods from row. and refilling the ship with silks from the east, spices from Arabia, and grain from the Nile. And there should even be a little time to enjoy the bustling streets of the city, where merchants haggle and scholars debate, and the great library is said to hold every book in the world. But for now, the captain says a prayer of thanks as they sail into the harbor, the lighthouse bathing them in its warming glow. The lighthouse continues to stand proudly as the century's part. while the city over which it towers undergoes many changes.

Alexandria flourishes as a center of learning and culture under the Ptolemis, from its founding in 331 BC until the reign of Cleopatra the 7th, which begins in 51 BC. Known for her political acumen, intelligence, and charm, Cleopatra is most famous for her alliances with two of Rome's most powerful men, Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Raised in Alexandria, aside from a brief spell in Rome, Cleopatra is tutored privately in the royal palace, which is close to the harbour overlooked by the lighthouse. At just 21, following the

death of her father, she finds herself in a power struggle with her younger brother, Ptolemy the 13th, for the throne of Egypt. Meanwhile, in 48 BC, Rome is engulfed in its own turmoil. Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, the two surviving members of the allegiance known as the first triumvirate are at war. Caesar arrives in Alexandria seeking his rival Pompey, who has fled there, but he is greeted with a grim gift from Ptolemy the 13th's Egyptian forces in the form of Pompey's severed head. Disturbed rather than pleased by this brutal display, Caesar then occupies the royal palace, barring the warring siblings, Ptolemy and Cleopatra from their former home, but the wily young queen arranges for herself to be smuggled into Caesar's quarters

rolled up in a carpet. When she appears, as if by a magic trick before the 52-year-old dictator, he is captivated. The two become lovers, and Caesar supports Cleopatra in her quest for the throne. In the ensuing conflict with her brother's forces, a great fire engulfs Alexandria, and the library is badly damaged. But the lighthouse stands strong, even as the island on which it stands is captured by the Romans. Eventually the rest of the city falls, and Ptolemy the 13th is drowned in the Nile. Cleopatra's younger sister, Asinuei IV, who sided with her brother, is taken as a captive to Rome, where she is paraded in chains alongside a burning effigy of the Ferros Lighthouse. Caesar returns to his own capital, leaving Cleopatra to give birth to his son.

But before long, the great Roman leader is assassinated in the Senate. After his death, his old ally, Mark Antony, takes the eastern Roman territories, while Octavian rules the West. But Anthony's growing relationship with Cleopatra alienates him from Rome, and soon the arrangement dissolves into conflict. In 31 BC, Anthony and Cleopatra are defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium. And as Octavian closes in, they both take their own lives, ending the Ptolemaic dynasty and marking the start of Roman rule in Egypt. Alexandria endures as a key city in the Roman Empire, not least by connecting the largest supply of grain to Rome.

And the lighthouse continues to play an important role in overseeing ships. arriving and departing from its harbours. But during the Byzantine era, when the Eastern Roman Empire holds sway from 3.30 AD onwards, the city's prominence starts to wane. Three centuries later, the Muslim world begins a period of rapid expansion after the death of Muhammad. Alexandria falls once more in an invasion in 641 AD. While it remains a significant port under Islamic rule, it gradually loses its state. to Cairo, 140 miles southeast, on the banks of the River Nile.

The lighthouse, once a symbol of the city's prowess, begins to deteriorate after a series of earthquakes, including a major one in the 8th century. Meanwhile, the city is governed by various caliphates, a form of Islamic government. Alexandria has many different caliphates take charge of it over the years. The Abbasids, one of them, they sent somebody called Ahmadis. Ibn Toulun to Egypt as a governor. He went with his army and he decided to make use of the splits in the caliphate at the time to take Egypt for himself. And so he establishes the Toulunid dynasty in the 9th century. And Ibn Toulon makes Egypt an independent power again for the first time

since the Ptolemies. So with the Romans and with the Islamic annexation, they are, ruling from other cities, whether that's Rome or Mecca or Baghdad. Ibn Toulon renovated a lot of the city and one of the things he renovated was the lighthouse, but he also added a dome at the top of the lighthouse where Zeus used to be. And whether Zeus had already gone or was replaced isn't clear, but in the 9th century did have a dome at the top. The new version of the lighthouse doesn't last for long, and an earthquake in the 10th century causes further structural collapse. By the 1270s, we know that the Sultan Biboddus orders its restoration, so we know that it's obviously been in a bad state, but that it's still standing.

And then in 1303, this is a really tough century for Alexandria, we have an earthquake, again, that seems to collapse some of its key structures. and then another earthquake, just a couple of decades later, is probably when it suffered the most damage. The explorer Ibn Batuta visits a few years after the disaster and reports on the state of the lighthouse. He's struck by its height, but he does also say that it's disintegrated. But then when he travels there in 1349, he says it's completely ruined.

And he couldn't go into the lighthouse, and he says that they're now using, redimentary hill instead of the lighthouse. By the end of the 14th century, the lighthouse is gone. For the best part of two millennia, it has endured earthquakes, floods, and conflicts that changed the lives of the city's people. But eventually, it falls bit by bit into the sea. Some of the remaining rubble is recycled in the building of the city's Citadel of Kate Bay,

a sturdy fortress built by Mamluk Sultan to protect allegation. Alexandria from invasion by the Ottomans. But though the citadel endures, it's not enough to keep them at bay for long. In 1517, the city is conquered yet again, this time by the Ottoman Empire as part of their larger invasion of Egypt. Earthquakes and rising sea levels claim many remnants of the ancient city. However, reminders of the lighthouse still turn up in the most unexpected of places. In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte embarks on an expedition to Egypt, and his scholars begin documenting the country's ancient treasures. What follows is an international craze for Egyptian art, architecture and artefacts known as Egyptomania. It is 1903. Three tomb raiders in well-worn khaki shuffle along a cramped tunnel cut into rock, an Egyptian tomb just south of Cairo.

The flickering glow of their kerosene lanterns casts shadows against the ancient stone walls. The boss, a man with a bushy beard and sun-weathered skin, leads the way holding the lantern. Experience has taught him that this tunnel should lead to a burial chamber, but they've yet to find it, or the treasures it could hold. The flame sputters, and the men glance nervously at each other. Even the leader is jumpy. Strictly speaking, his line of work is illegal, and there are whispers of curses that follow those who disturb the sleep of the dead. The tunnel twists again, but just as the bearded raider is starting to worry, the passageway opens out into a chamber. He holds up his lantern.

There, in the center of the rectangular room is an ornately carved sarcophagus, the stone coffin of an unknown ancient Egyptian. The man exhales. and turns to his younger companions, raising a finger to his lips in warning. He can see they're excited, but they must stay silent. He places the lamp carefully on the ground, then gestures for the others to position themselves on either side of the coffin. With a low grunt of exertion, they begin to lift its heavy lid. The sound of stone, grating against stone, echoes in the confined space.

Though they pause intermittently to check no one's coming, Eventually they get the lid off. All three gasp as they take in what's inside. A mummified body tightly bound in linen wrapping, undisturbed for millennia. But there's still more to do to get at the stuff that fetches the real money. Once the lid has been placed to one side, the older man leans in and begins to carefully peel away the fragile bindings. Each layer reveals more of the desiccated form beneath.

The linen crackles softly. the silent chamber, falling away in strips. This raider knows something of the mummification process, how the organs are removed and dried, the body rinsed with wine and spices and covered with salt. Then at around the 40th day, the corpse is stuffed with fabric, sand or sawdust. Later, it is wrapped with yards of linen, like the pieces coming away in his hands. But now he feels something unexpected, There is a crackle beneath his fingers. He beckons to his friend to bring the lamp closer. There, in the chest cavity of the mummified body,

is a rolled piece of papyrus. And there is writing on it. He peers closer, trying to decipher the lettering. He has a little ancient Greek, but he will need the help of an expert. Days later, the raider enters the study of an archaeologist he knows in Cairo. The room is a clutter of ancient artifacts and leather-bound. books. The archaeologist closes the heavy oak door to ensure they're alone, then nods, signaling for the tomb raider to proceed. With a cautious hand, he removes the fragile scroll of papyrus

from his worn leather satchel, laying it gently on the desk. The archaeologist adjusts his pince-nez and bends over the scroll reading in silence. His eyes widen as he deciphers the faded Greek characters. He can't be sure what the raider has discovered, but it seems to be a collection of poems, and he has seen at least one mention of the Great Lighthouse of Alexandria. These Tomb Raiders have uncovered our sole contemporary source on the lighthouse. But it isn't until many decades later that the papyrus becomes available to the public. Lots of the Tomb Raiders were obviously doing illegal activity. So once they find something, they don't distribute it, they don't sell it for a while. And so we don't know what happens to this papyrus for the next few decades. What we do know is that it

appears in 1992. On the grey market, the grey market's not illegal like the black markets, but it's also not an official market. It's purchased by the University of Milan. The papyrus, which was inscribed in Ptolemaic Alexandria, features writing on both sides. On one, there are more than 100 poems written by a man called Posidippus, a courtier of Ptolemy I and Second. We know he was a member of the courts of the first two Ptolemy, so right at the beginning of its history. It turns out that he had written a poem about the lighthouse and possibly at a moment of the lighthouse and possibly at the beginning of his history. possibly at its founding, actually, at its inauguration by Ptolemy II. So it's the earliest and only piece of writing on the lighthouse from the period of its inauguration.

It is in this poem that Posidipus calls to our attention Sustratus of Nidus by thanking him. Initially, it was thought that the poem was addressed to the lighthouse itself. But a more recent theory makes the case that the poem might have been dedicated to the statue of Zeus at the top of the lighthouse and not the pharaohs itself. I think that Sostratus may have been the one who designed the sculpture of Zeus, or if he is a wealthy courtier, then he's the one who paid for the sculpture of Zeus at the top, because I don't think that the lighthouse would have been funded by anybody but the state. It was far too expensive and far too much of a power move.

Another key discovery about the lighthouse occurs in 1962, when a local fisherman spots some unusual looking rocks on the seabed. The archaeological investigation that ensues uncovers a six-meter-long fragment of the statue of Zeus. Further dives in the 1990s uncover the piece of another figure, this time female. The first item that was fished out of the sea was a torso, and it turns out that it's an unidentifiable goddess. It's not the only such statue that's been found in that region. There was another one earlier in the 20th century where they managed to raise a statue of the queen

who seemed to have the features of ISIS, so it was likely to be Ptolemy's wife. So it suggests that the area around the lighthouse and near the royal quarter had these magnificent statues and sculptures, both of gods and goddesses, but also of the royal family. Alexandria's National Museum is now home to many items that have been found under the water in such dives. But it is estimated that only 3% of these submerged artifacts have been found. Earthquakes and rising water levels over the centuries mean that many remains of the ancient city endure

in the depths of the sea. Though there has been talk of an underwater museum, it looks unlikely to be constructed any time soon. Plans to rebuild the lighthouse itself were approved in 2015, but those two are on hold because of financial constraints. So what is the legacy of the lighthouse today? Several centuries after the lighthouse, we have Napoleon and Admiral Nelson,

and we have all sorts of people who want a piece of Alexandria going forward. And so that keeps the lighthouse in the popular imagination because it's a part of Alexandria. It holds a prominent place. We could say also that it starts a kind of trend. The word Ferros is the word for lighthouse in many languages. The way in which it was built is taken to become a standard way of building a lighthouse, both east and west of Alexandria. It affects some of the architecture that follows.

in Alexandria and the region as well. So you have mosque minarets, for example, in Egypt that look like the lighthouse. So it's got an enduring influence architecturally. But today it holds a prominent place in terms of the city as a kind of emblem for the city. It's on the flag. You'll find graffiti of the lighthouse around Alexandria. So it still feels like an important part of the city. Replicers of the lighthouse endure, notably the pharos of Abusir. Built in the 13th century, 30 miles southwest of Alexandria, it's a fifth of the size of the original, and recent excavations have suggested that it may be the burial site of Antony and Cleopatra. Perhaps the great lighthouse lingers in the collective imagination as a testament

to our obsession with wonder, with buried treasure and lost cities. But it is far from the only mystery that lives on in Alexander's dream city. The lighthouse is one of the many fascinating aspects of Alexandria's history. It's an ancient wonder, but also there are other aspects of Alexandria that are equally wondrous and wonderful, whether that's the Great Library of Alexandria or the museum, which was opposited, in which many discoveries were made and many advances in science and philosophy took place. And there are other legends in Alexandria as well. that have been lost, we don't know where Alexander's tomb is, despite the fact that many Roman emperors record visiting it, we don't know where Cleopatra and Anthony's tomb is. And there was a

caeserium as well built in honor of Caesar by Cleopatra. So there is lots in Alexandria that we're still looking for or that we keep thinking about as part of our imagined city. Next time, we'll bring you the first Persian Empire. It's really only in the 20th century, and in particular with the nation building that takes place even after the Second World War and the last Shah of Iran, that you get a lot of looking back nostalgically to try and create this narrative of 2,500 years of continuous kingship. And it's kind of also a way of saying fairly, right, that Iran is a player on the world stage, that it has a role to play in the history of the world

and in the history of civilization. That's next time.