Astrum Space - Mars Has a Fatal Flaw - And No-one Has the Solution (ft. Veritasium)

Episode Date: March 21, 2025

Join us on an epic journey to the Red Planet in this exclusive collaboration with Veritasium! In this Supercut of Astrum’s Mars videos, we dive deep into the harsh realities of the Martian landscape and the extreme conditions future human settlers will face. From colossal dust storms and growing crops in Martian soil to the challenges faced by rovers, we’ll explore the cutting-edge innovations being developed to tackle Mars' unique dangers. Will human settlement really be possible by 2050? Could YOU be among the first humans to set foot on Mars?Plus, don't miss our exclusive special guest feature! Derek from Veritasium shares his insights on groundbreaking Mars exploration technologies being developed at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).Discover our full back catalogue of hundreds of videos on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/@astrumspaceFor early access videos, bonus content, and to support the channel, join us on Patreon: https://astrumspace.info/4ayJJuZ

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When you want savings, not surprises. It matters where you stay. Hilton, for the stay. By the end of the next decade, the first human feat will likely touch down on the dusty red soil of Mars. This is NASA's timeline and it is by no means unrealistic. And while that first visit might be similar to a stop-by, in line with the moon landing, some scientists are claiming permanent human colonies could be set up on Mars as early as 2050. That means it could be you.

today and watching this video? Who is the one who sets out to tame that new frontier? You'd need to get into a space program pretty sharply if you're not in one already, but it is possible that you'll one day look out of a little bay window and watch as our pale blue dot vanishes into distant space. But as you turn your gaze to your new home, what conditions can you expect to find on Mars? What challenges face any would-be Martian coloniser?

What deadly weather will you encounter? What will the red planet throw at you? For, unlike our home planet, Mars is a dead world. And anyone hoping to set foot there will need to overcome its daunting challenges with technology that is at the very cutting edge. I'm Alex McCulligan and you're watching Astrum. Join me and a very special guest today in this supercut on the environment of Mars, as we explain both the hostile conditions and exactly what NASA is developing to help future Martians

like you to tame those arid, rusted wastelands. And stick around till the end of the video for a very special announcement. You don't want to miss it. Obviously, to colonize Mars, you first have to get there. The trip itself to Mars would take about three months, with the most optimal launch conditions. This doesn't seem too excessive. It's like a long voyage on a cruise ship. But you have to consider that you would spend at least three months outside the safety

of Earth's magnetic field. Out here, you are exposed to the solar wind and cosmic radiation. Prolonged exposure to this kind of radiation can cause astronauts to develop cancer and even symptoms of Alzheimer's before they reach Mars. Fortunately, there are some thoughts about how to protect against this. The astronauts could be shielded using materials in the ship's construction that are rich in hydrogen. In fact, the cabin could be surrounded by a water tank in the walls, water being rich in hydrogen. Another option is to create a magnetic field around the spacecraft, but this requires generating

a huge amount of energy from a reactor small enough to fit on the ship, something we don't have the technology to do safely just yet. Once there, for an alien planet, Mars is not as foreign as you might think. Earth of Mars share a lot of similarities, one being the length of day. The solar day on Mars is only slightly longer than it is on Earth, 24 hours, 39 minutes and 35 seconds. Its year is slightly longer than hours, 1.88 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 20 days, and 80.2 hours. But that's to be expected for a planet that's further from the sun, and so has a larger orbit.

Of all the planets in the solar system, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes, 23.5 degrees on Earth and 25 degrees on Mars. So, what does that imply? It means Mars has summers and winters just like Earth does. These temperatures in the different seasons can vary quite a lot, and different locations can widen the range even further. Temperatures can be as low as minus 143 degrees Celsius at the polar winter caps to as high as 35 degrees Celsius in the equatorial summer. It has polar caps just like we do. During each pole's winter, the pole lies in continuous darkness, just like on Earth. However, Unlike on Earth, the temperature gets so cold that the atmosphere there freezes into slabs

of CO2 ice, which collects on the surface of the permanent polar caps there. These caps themselves are not primarily made of CO2, but instead are made up mostly of water ice. The ice at the poles waxes and wanes. In this short video, you can actually see the differences of the size of the polar cap, From the Caps Winter to the Caps Summer. One thing I love about Mars are these strange spiral patterns in the ice. Both of the poles show signs of these beautiful spirals, which scientists believe are a result

of the Coriolis effect. The CO2 at the poles does not remain there forever. As the CO2 ice on the pole sublimates, it has a knock-on effect on another aspect of the planet. It's winds. Sublimation of dry ice. Ice can create enormous wind speeds which causes one of the most unique and terrifying aspects of Martian weather. It's dust storms.

If you peered across the rusted Martian surface through photos, you would be forgiven for thinking that Mars is a place of stillness. Flat, dusty landscapes seem to stretch out in all directions, with nothing but scatterings of rock and the faint whistling of the wind to keep at bay the almost oppressive solitude. stay a while on this red world, and you would soon see a towering wall of dust and sand brewing on the horizon. You might think to yourself that this dust storm is similar to those we see on Earth, and have no idea that this storm is about to grow so large its thick dust will swallow

up not just a region, not just a continent, but the entire planet. This all-enveloping superstorm arises on Mars usually. every three Martian years, or about five and a half Earth years, its choking dust will blot out light for weeks, even months, and represents a huge challenge to the continued functionality of any technology that we put up there. If humans ever want to settle down on the red planet, it will be a hurdle we have to overcome, which is a problem, as there is much about the origins of these storms that we still don't know.

Mars didn't use to have to deal with planet-sized dust storms. Although Mars is now a barren, arid planet, it once had a thick atmosphere that was warm enough to support the existence of running water. However, over the course of the billions of years of Mars' existence, Mars dried out, and his atmosphere bled away until atmospheric volume was at less than 1% of what we have here on Earth. Those dust storms didn't just start happening because Mars became dry. though. Although we don't understand everything about such storm's origins, we assume that a key

component is Mars's temperature. With less atmosphere, in spite of Mars's high CO2 levels, Mars became far worse at retaining heat. When the surface starts to cool, there is no air to catch the escaping warmth. It is at the point where, if you were to stand on the planet's equator during its warmest time of the day, your feet might feel 23 degrees Celsius, while at your head it would be 0 degrees Celsius. As mentioned earlier, this means between day and night, Mars has some intense temperature swings. Temperature differences can cause winds to form, which can bring different weather systems across the planet. However, Mars' arid weather is no longer driven by rain and water cycles, but cycles of dust. Dust plays a superfluous.

surprisingly crucial role on Mars, and without it, those planets spanning storms would likely never form. The atmosphere might be too thin to capture and transport heat, but the Martian dust, now that's another story. It all begins with that Martian dust getting into the air. There are a few mechanisms that make this happen. One is Dust Devils, of which Mars experiences thousands every year, usually during the Martian Spring and summer.

Warm rays from the sun heat the ground, causing the air directly next to it to rise, and cool air from the atmosphere to be drawn down to fill the vacuum. These contrasting winds create rising spirals of air that can end up hundreds of meters wide and 8.5 kilometers tall, although many are much smaller. Regardless of their size, as they meander their way across Mars' all-encompassing deserts, They suck up dust and hurl it up into the atmosphere, creating a haze of slightly darkened skies in their wake. This process is thought to contribute to a miasma of background dust that constantly lingers

in Mars's atmosphere. While this is the flashiest way by which dust gets into the atmosphere, it's not the most prevalent. Far more common is the simple influence of wind moving across Mars's dusty surface, and a process known as saltation. Mars's dust is surprisingly difficult to get up into the air. Small particles have a lot of cohesion due to being slightly electrostatic, kind of like packing peanuts so that they stick together, which means they need a certain amount of momentum to get them going.

Oddly enough, larger particles are actually easier for the wind to get moving as they experience less cohesion. So it's these larger sand grains that are lifted by gusts of wind. wind and are moved for short distances. But because they are ultimately too heavy for the wind to suspend, they crash down again, and the force of these tiny impacts imparts enough momentum to overcome cohesion and get the lighter dust airborne. However, once it gets up there, Mars's lower gravity means that it's easy for dust

to remain in Mars's atmosphere for a really long time, weeks or months. And this is enough to start driving the formation of storms, because unlike the thin air around them, particles of dust are really good at collecting heat from the sun. As the sun warms dust in the atmosphere, they act like little radiators, slowly releasing the gathered heat into the air around them where previously the warmth would have passed through the ground below. This makes the atmosphere nearby much warmer. air rises, but now it begins doing so on a much larger scale than when forming the dust

devils earlier. Wind has to be drawn in from the sides of the rising air mass, but this only adds more fuel to the fire. More wind means more saltation, and more dust being thrown into the atmosphere and more opportunity for the atmosphere to warm. Eventually, this out-of-control process ramps up into a regional dust storm. The good news is that on a local scale, a dust storm on Mars is not very dangerous in and of itself. Wind speeds top out at 97 kilometres an hour, only half the speed of hurricane winds on Earth. And even this is misleading, due to the thinness of the atmosphere. Even when it is travelling quickly, you wouldn't feel much.

In the same way, a single person has less pushing power than a whole crowd. Despite what you might see in some science fiction stories based on Mars, dust storms are not powerful enough to push over spacecraft or break satellite dishes. But that is not to say they can't cause problems. Consider the case of NASA's Opportunity Rover. On the 28th of June 2007, or 1,200 souls into the mission, Opportunity prepared itself for its descent into Victoria Crater. But just as it perched itself on top of the slope, the biggest dust storm opportunity had

seen yet rolled in, decreasing the brightness of the sun by 96%. That's not quite as bad as it sounds, as the dust also scattered some of the sunlight towards the rover too, meaning it was generating 128 watts on the darkest day compared to its usual 700 watts on a clear day. But this is bad news for a solar-powered rover. kind of power level isn't enough to keep the rover going. In fact, anything under 150 watts means the batteries begin to run flat. So operations were cut back substantially until the storm was over, an opportunity was commanded

to only communicate back to Earth once every three days. If the batteries did run flat, the components on board opportunity could be damaged due to the intense cold on the planet during the night. Typically, the motors have heaters powered by the batteries during the night to keep the motors warm. If the batteries run flat, there would be nothing to stop there being extreme temperature differences between the night and day. At the equator, anything up to 20 degrees Celsius during the day, and minus 75 degrees Celsius

at its coldest at night, which would damage the sensitive components. As for the dust storm, mission controllers initially thought it would only last a week, but By the 15th of July, the storm had reached its peak. These are true colour images showing a time lapse of the storm, and as you can see, it does get very dark. Thankfully, the severity of the dust storm was not quite enough to trigger the low power fault this time, although it did get worryingly close for a while. Eventually, by the 21st of August, or Sol 1271, the storm had cleared enough so that opportunity

could start to move forward again. lucky turn of events for opportunity, but not all rovers on Mars are so lucky. At the end of that same year, the Spirit rover was facing serious problems. Martian storms had been increasing in recent months, leaving the solar panels heavily covered with dust, as well as blocking up to 99% of the light through the atmosphere. Survival was becoming harder, and operations were now much reduced from its peak. the aging spirit was generating only 128 watt hours, which is less than the 150 it requires to keep itself warm.

As mentioned, if the heating fails, then the rover's components will eventually fail too. Two small cleaning events took the energy output of the solar arrays to 372. This gave the rover enough energy to charge its batteries and begin to move again, but the The flow of time is always cruel. Spirit began to experience and explained memory gaps in April 2009, with the rover now only four meters away from his resting place. On Seoul, 1892, Spirit hit incredibly soft, dusty soil at the location named Troy, where Spirit would make its last stand.

Underneath its wheels was Jarosite, which is a mineral of iron sulfate. Jarosite has remarkably low cohesion, meaning that achieving enough traction to move was proving impossible. Despite efforts by the JPL back on Earth to explore techniques to escape the sand trap, no progress was made. On Seoul 2155, NASA reclassified the mission as a stationary research platform. While there, our rover took measurements of the atmosphere and several more images, including

its last panorama from Troy. Spirit was still able to perform soil studies and extraction tests because the functionality of its arm was still excellent. Spirit needed to have a busy research schedule to use the power it was generating to maintain good battery health. But the final winter was approaching for Spirit, and it was a bitter one. For the next few months, the power generation continually dropped, and by Seoul 2,196, it was again down to the critical 150 watt hours.

Sometime on Seoul 2,208, it is believed Spirit suffered a low power fault. The Spirit rover went quiet for good. So it's very bad news for any Martian rover that relies on solar power to function if a storm filled with slightly sticky, electrostatic dust particles suddenly passes overhead. Gradually, dust deposited from such storms is enough to block sunlight from reaching a rover's solar panels, which has spelled the end of more than one mission from Earth. But the problems magnify when you start scaling such storms to larger and larger sizes. Mars does not have a perfectly circular orbit.

Every year, around the Martian Southern Hemisphere, spring and summer, the planet is at its closest to the sun and, as a whole, is warmest. For reasons we don't fully understand, during this time of year, regional dust storms start merging into a superstorm the size of a continent. It's of course possible that several storms just happen to be forming anyway, and they started to merge just by proximity. Although, their regularity makes it seem like coincidence is insufficient an explanation. After all, these happen yearly, like clockwork once the temperature gets warm enough.

Those are just the continent-sized ones. Scientists of yet do not have an explanation for the stage above that, the planet-sized storms. These occur once every three Martian years, which seems like a short enough time scale that can rule out Milankovic cycles as their origin, those normally work on timescales of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. Perhaps there is some aspect to the dust cycle that needs to restock and it takes three Martian years, or around five and a half Earth ones, to do so. We don't really know.

While most dust storms on Mars last only a few days, these apex of storms can last for weeks. The impact of these storms can be profound for any human technology around the planet. Scientists can measure the availability of sunlight on Mars using aerosol optical depth, or AOD, to check how much sunlight is being absorbed or reflected by pollutants in the air. The AOD on Mars is usually around 0.5. For context, an AOD of less than 2 is needed before Rovers-like Opportunity or landers-like insight can charge their onboard batteries. The thick smoke caused by a wildfire on Earth that starts to turn day into night is an

aOD of 7. These planet-sized dust storms hit aOD of 9 to 11. They represent a near total blockage of light. In 2018, a storm of this variety killed the Opportunity Rover by swamping its solar panels forcing it into hibernation mode. Without power running through its onboard heaters, the wildly oscillating day-night temperatures caused something critical to break in the rover, and it never woke up. These storms are a problem for other rovers too, even ones with onboard nuclear batteries like Curiosity. The clouds are thick enough to block communication to and from the surface,

meaning scientists have little choice but to wait them out. But that's not all. Even satellites can be affected by these storms. The colossal amounts of warming dust in the air causes the entire atmosphere to expand, bringing some of it into the orbital paths of satellites. They have to burn precious fuel, making coarse corrections to ensure the atmospheric drag doesn't bring them crashing down out of the Martian sky. If you were a human hoping to settle on Mars, you'd need to find a way to overcome these issues. Power-powered settlements would not survive such storms without another source of power, and humans

don't do well at such freezing temperatures. Losing the ability to contact our satellites could also leave us isolated and vulnerable for those few weeks. People would need to have a certain degree of self-sufficiency, as if anything were to go wrong while a storm was blowing, you wouldn't be able to call for help. Still, in time, these storms proved to be their own destruction. So, making so much light eventually means that the surface stops getting warmed enough to create the upswelling winds that lifts the dust into the air in the first place.

Without more rising dust, these storms starve themselves and peter out. Do you want to know what the wind on Mars sounds like? You don't have to imagine it. In 2018, the Insight lander recorded the sound of Mars' wind using its on-board seismometer, which had not yet been deployed to the ground to detect Marsquake vibranes. This is what it sounds like. Although I should note that you will probably either need a subwoofer or headphones to hear this. It's peak pollination season and my business is scaling fast.

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No one goes to Hank's for his spreadsheets. They go for a darn good pizza. Lately though, the shop's been quiet. So Hank decides to bring back the $1 slice. He asks co-pilot in Microsoft Excel to look at his sales and costs to help him see if he can afford it. Co-pilot shows Hank where the money's going and which little extras. make the dollar slice work. Now, Hank says, line out the door.

Hank makes the pizza, co-pilot, handles the spreadsheets. Learn more at M365 copilot.com slash work. This has not been sped up. These literally are the vibrations caused by Martian wind going over the solar panels of the lander. The frequency of the vibrations converted to audio. What is fascinating is that we don't just have to imagine the wind passing by insight,

as it was also able to capture footage of water, water ice clouds passing by overhead, visibly showing the direction of the wind. Yes, although Mars is currently a barren wasteland, there is still a tiny amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Overall, the atmosphere and weather on Mars remains inhospitable. But what of its soil? Many of us have seen The Martian, in my opinion a great film about surviving on the Martian surface.

part of the film focused on growing potatoes using Martian soil. But how practical is that in reality? Does Martian soil really have the nutrients needed for plants to grow? And would there be any adverse side effects from eating produce grown on Mars? As it turns out, Martian soil does in fact have a lot of the essential nutrients needed for plants to grow, depending on where exactly you are on Mars. Like Earth, with some areas that have nutrient poor soil and some with nutrient rich soil, some parts of Mars would be better suited for growing plants than others.

However, the soil on Mars is more like regolith. It hasn't had a history of worms, insect and plants mixed in. In 2016, researchers grew tomato, rye, radish, pea, leek, spinach, garden rocket, cress, kinawa, and chives in an imitating. Martian soil on Earth, producing only slightly less produce than they would have in Earth's soil. Interestingly, they did the same experiment again with imitation moon soil, which produced about half the amount of produce. Yet these crops still grew, with only spinach really struggling to perform. However, it should be noted that organic matter was added to the soil, in this

experiment, cut up grass, to fertilize the soil and flush the soil. it up, allowing water to pass through the soil to the roots. Without that, the plants wouldn't have lasted long. Another barrier scientists would have to get through is the abundance of heavy metals, and importantly, something called calcium perchlorate in the Martian soil. Calcium perchlorate is a salt which, like heavy metals, is toxic, if consumed in large quantities. This perchlorate and metals in the soil would be absorbed into the plant. Not so great for the plants anyway, but humans would then also absorb it into their system when they eat the plants.

But perchlorite isn't all bad. In fact, it could help humans survive on Mars. For one thing, it sucks water out of the air, which can then be used as liquid water, which is critical for survival on Mars. It can also give off oxygen. Again, another critical checkbox for survival ticked. So in short, it seems there are two major problems to be overcome when growing plants on Mars. The first is the need for fertilizer. Going back to the film and book, The Martian, Watney overcame this problem by using feces

from the toilet as fertilizer. Typically, this is dangerous as feces contains pathogens. However, if the feces have been processed to kill the pathogens, it can then safely be used as fertilizer. production gets underway, you could always use the compost collected from old plants and food. The second problem is the toxic pechlorates. Well, this has a simpler solution than you may think. Running water through the soil would rinse the perchlorates out, and you could then separate

the water and perchlorates later so nothing is wasted. The alternative is to use perchlorate eating bacteria, which give off oxygen as a byproduct. There is a reason why growing plants in future colonization efforts is so important. Not only does it make the colony self-sufficient, but there is also evidence that fresh foods, such as tomatoes, blueberries, and red lettuce are a good source of antioxidants. Having fresh food like these available in space could have a positive impact on people's moods and could also provide some protection against radiation in space. So, it is possible to grow plants in Martian soil, provided you could get the fertilizer

right. And adapting to Mars' unique environments is the name of the game when it comes to colonization. NASA and other space agencies are utilizing many different technologies to adapt to the specific environments on Mars. But rather than explain it or myself, why don't I hand over to our special guest from Veritasium to introduce one of those ways? Derek? Thanks, Alex.

The atmosphere on Mars is really thin, so for a long time flying there was thought to be impossible. But we've been working with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory to get exclusive access to Ingenuity, the first helicopter on Mars. Ingenuity made use of super lightweight materials and two sets of carbon fiber blades to achieve a total of 72 groundbreaking flights over the course of her three-year lifespan. She traveled over 17 kilometers and took some really cool shots along the way. It's a great example of how engineers adjust their tech to the environment. Thanks, Derek. Over on his channel, Veritasium, Derek has done an incredible video on the ingenuity helicopter. This will be the first power flight in another planet.

So if you want to know more about this groundbreaking mission, you should really head over there and give it a watch. Helicopters are not the only technology they're developing at JPL for Mars exploration though. One other really cool design is something being developed in collaboration, with Boston Dynamics. Exploration robots that can walk. If you've been keeping up with the sort of robots that scientists have been sending to Mars, you will notice that they all have a fairly similar design. Spirit, opportunity, curiosity, perseverance, even the true or wrong rover deployed on Mars by China are six-wheeled rovers with large bodies, some over two meters tall, carrying

various kinds of scientific equipment and cameras. This is because form follows function. Wheels are an easy way to help a robot to get around on a flat surface, and a large body allows for more scientific equipment to be carried. However, wheels also come with downsides, in that they limit the kinds of places these robots can explore. Remember, Spirit's mission suffered a serious setback in 2009, when it got stuck in soft sand, a trap it never escaped from.

Although scientists wanted to continue using it as a stationary platform, it was a stationery platform, to study the area immediately around it, getting stuck was essentially the end of the mission for Spirit, especially when it drained its batteries trying to get out. And a similar thing happened to Opportunity in 2005, although fortunately in its case, Opportunity was able to escape from wheel spinning after just over a month of being stuck. However, there was also a point in the first year of Opportunity's mission where it was exploring endurance crater. The exposed rock in the sides of this crater were ideal for answering questions about

the history of water on Mars. Opportunity had limits on how steeper surface it could drive on, about 30 degrees, and it was uncertain whether it could get out of the crater again if it drove into it. In the end, scientists decided to send Opportunity into the crater anyway. As it happened, Opportunity was able to drive out and continued exploring Mars's surface for another 15 years. But all that science wouldn't have been possible if Opportunity's wheels had meant it couldn't escape endurance.

Now compare that with this. This robot known as Big Dog was created by Robotics Company Boston Dynamics, a company a company that makes some truly impressive robots. You should check out their parkour robot, Atlas, a humanoid robot capable of running, jumping, and climbing over obstacles in a way that almost feels human. And you can really see the advantages that legs can offer in these kind of situations. Big Dog could easily traverse powdery conditions, even up slopes, allowing it to explore a greater range of areas in an environment like Mars.

However, it was a later version that caught NASA's eye. Meet Spot. Spot is a walking robot originally designed for tasks on Earth, such as data collection and mapping spaces for industry, or going into dangerous areas that humans can't enter. such as in areas that are heavily irradiated. It's able to carry weights of up to 14 kilograms and can perform repetitive tasks and walk upstairs, over gravel, and other uneven surfaces.

It comes with cameras that can see all around it, mapping the space. If it falls over, it can self-write itself even from being completely upside down. Unlike the rovers on Mars, which have top speeds of about 0.2 kilometers per hour, Spot can travel at around 5.8 km per hour. But the cleverest part about it is its intelligent AI. By using information it sees in its cameras,

Spot is able to create a 3D image in its onboard computer, and it can use that information to figure out the best way to travel over obstacles. You don't necessarily control it. Instead, you tell it where you want to go, and it figures out for itself the best way to get there, actively avoiding obstacles if they present themselves. If it does start to fall, it can figure out what it needs to do to stop falling, and moves its legs to arrest its fall in a way that almost feels alive.

It is this autonomy, mixed with spots incredible range of versatility and movement that makes it ideal for exploration of other planets. It's not possible to directly control a robot on another planet. The distance is so great that there would be several minute lags between a scientist sending a signal and the robot taking an action. So, a lot of decision-making needs to be done by a robot on location. This is true of the rovers NASA has sent to Mars already, like Spirit and Opportunity. However, Spot can take this to another level.

Thanks to a collaboration with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Spot is proving to be capable of working with a series of other robots to explore Martian-analog caves here on Earth, completely independent of humans. They are exploring the whole layout on their own, choosing their path, walking over obstacles. They can handle pitch black lighting conditions, smoke, dust, and even water. They can recognise points of interest and investigate them. One area of Mars and the Moon that NASA would like to explore in future are caves. Caves are scientifically interesting for several reasons.

They allow scientists to see deep into the geology of a planet without needing to do any drilling, is a difficult process, helping them tell what the structure is like, or whether water was ever present. They are sheltered ecosystems. While things on the surface might be eroded over time by wind or cosmic radiation, caves offer shelter, preserving anything scientifically interesting for us to find. NASA's Braille program is even interested in whether any bacteria might have survived in such an environment on Mars, or at least if the remains might be there.

Finally, this shelter and protection from radiation also make them a good location for future human colonization, making it all the more important for us to map them out for any future human missions. Currently, we struggle to explore caves on other planets. Taking photos from space only really tells us information about maybe the entryway. Scientists can't map cave structures from orbit. Rovers-like opportunity would struggle to explore such a cave, as the ground would probably not be very flat, the passageway might become too narrow for a two-meter-wide robot, and the

terrain would be uncertain. And perhaps worst of all, signal to Earth would quickly become blocked by all that rock, meaning a robot that requires any human input would not get very far. In other words, a robot that was sent to explore a cave on Mars would need to be able to go in and explore the entire thing on his own, with no prior knowledge of what the terrain might look like in there. It would need to see and map the terrain, decide how to move around it, and finally bring that information back out to the surface. And this is what NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Boston Dynamics are currently doing. By combining Nebula, an advanced decision-making AI, with a versatile platformer spot, NASA is

hoping to one day be able to send several of these robots to a cave on Mars or the moon, and have them go in and map it, independently organizing themselves by working as a group, Using cameras, robotic arms, and scientific equipment to identify objects of scientific interest, relaying that information to each other, and then sending in the robot carrying the right equipment to further study and photograph the object of interest. There is currently no set date when Spot would be ready to explore the moon or Mars, this is still in the testing phase. However, this technology offers a tantalizing possibility. One day, robotic dogs, or things like it, might form the

backbone of exploration, or even labour and construction on Mars. Future humans on Mars would need to be self-sufficient. It's not like they would be able to call for help from home. We take it for granted that on Earth, if you phone someone on the other side of the planet, you might only get a split second time delay. At these distances, the speed of light is incredibly fast. With astronomical distances, it's pretty slow. On Mars itself, the distance to Earth means the transmissions will be delayed by anything

between 3 to 22 minutes. This is only one way, so accounting for the return transmission, the minimum delay is 6 minutes, making a normal phone conversation highly impractical. Text, audio and video messages are possible, but Martian settlers will have to fend for themselves if they need to make any immediate decisions, for example in cases of emergencies or equipment failures, making remote operations or assistance in real time unfeasible. But let's say all these difficulties are overcome and that the colonists reach Mars. Where would they settle?

At the moment there is no one favourite candidate. The North Pole is a distinct possibility due to the presence of water ice in the caps there. Another interesting option is the 81km-wide Corolev crater, as it's also filled with water ice. The atmosphere isn't thick enough for liquid water to pool on the surface of Mars for any lengthy period of time. However, pockets of water locked up in ice can be found at the bottom of craters where it is cold enough. On Mars, there is also the possibility of settling near underground water deposits found

in permafrost under the crust. Studies based on data from a combination of Mars orbiters have revealed and mapped out locations for water under the ground all across the ground. across the planet. Although more difficult to extract than surface ice, it could open the door to colonies in more equatorial latitudes, regions that are much warmer, where solar panels for energy production would be much more effective. Mission planners would probably try to combine this finding with a location in the Northern

Hemisphere. The ground elevation there is much lower, meaning the atmosphere is thicker, perfect for slowing and landing a spacecraft. mentioned. Another consideration when looking for a settlement location is to see if there are lava tubes nearby. A lava tube is basically a long cave that formed when magma flowed through it, that is since emptied, resulting in fairly uniform tunnels. We see many examples of these on Earth, and on Mars they could even be large enough to house buildings inside. While lava tubes and caves have been identified on Mars, suitable candidates will also need

to consider what we mentioned before, the elevation of the location and the prospects of nearby water. Once a site has been chosen, missions can begin to make the area suitable for a human habitat. Not everything colonists could possibly need would fit in one spaceship to Mars, so several forerunner missions will have to take place, laying the foundations autonomously for what the colonists will need. There have been several architectural competitions to find the best design. for long-lasting habitats, although there is no model that is said to be definitive yet.

There are a wide variety of proposals, from creating habitats using ice to habitats built with the design structure of fungi. However, the majority of the suggestions utilised the regolith found all over the surface of Mars to build a habitat using 3D printing techniques through autonomous robots. Unfortunately, robots like these don't exist yet, so they have to be designed. developed before this idea even becomes a possibility. But basically, this concept requires excavating material from the surface, which would then be processed and mixed with water ice into something similar to concrete.

The structure is then 3D printed layer by layer by the autonomous robots. Robotic assistance and artificial intelligence will be invaluable in preparing the habitat for the colonists' arrival. Doing it by hand once they are there would be an impossible task. Since astronauts are confined to their suits, especially things requiring hard and prolonged manual labour. Once the 3D printed habitat is complete, it needs to support the weight of additional regolith.

These habitats must efficiently protect the inhabitants from radiation, so in the final phase of many of these proposals, they recommend covering the habitat with more regalith, simply by shoveling it on top. This is because Mars does not have a magnetic field like Earth, so radiation is a big problem on the surface too. So, the more material there is between the Sun and the colonists, the better they will be protected from its harsh radiation. Once the habitats are suitably prepared for humans, the colonists can begin to arrive. Even with the help of the autonomous robots, they still have a lot to do, connect up power,

set up equipment, just generally get the site up and running. While this is going on, they probably have to reside in temporary habitats, be it their own ship that they arrived with, or maybe inflatable habitats. In any case, these habitats would not be very spacious and only provide the basics for survival. When the permanent habitats are ready, they will need to be pressurized. One method for creating breathable air is acquiring oxygen through electrolysis, and then mix it with nitrogen. Electrolysis has the added benefit of generating hydrogen, which can then be refined into hydrazine as fuel. Once generated, this pressurized environment can easily be

sustained through air recycling systems, something that is already being used by the International Space Station. Another method to get oxygen is from the carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere. That's why the Perseverance Rover also incorporates the Moxie module, which is an experiment to to see if this is possible. However, for these tasks, substantial energy production is needed. One obvious source of energy is solar panels. On Mars, however, solar production is only about 40% of what you would get with the same solar panels on Earth, because Mars is further away from the sun and receives less light.

So it's a source that is helpful only half the time due to the day and night cycle. to mention the sandstorms we talked about earlier. So this by itself isn't reliable enough for a colony. Another option is to send a not yet invented cold nuclear reactor, which would guarantee a more stable energy source. Obviously, the best solution incorporates a hybrid of both, combined with reliable batteries to store power in the event of power outages or emergencies. The settlers would also need to consider the need to produce and purify water for consumption and other purposes. Ideally, they will be able to generate 5 litres per settler per day.

This shouldn't be too much of a problem, because we know where to find water already on Mars in the form of water ice. Additionally, the colonies should also incorporate water recycling systems to minimize water waste. This technology, again, is already used. effectively on the International Space Station. The production of water is as simple as extracting the ice, cooking it in an oven until it evaporates,

condensing it in water, and filtering it again using ceramic and carbon filters. With these steps combined, we have all the ingredients necessary to create a habitat suitable for life, an enclosed, protected environment with a steady production of oxygen and water. With the addition of grown food,

food, which we talked about earlier, the colony would be self-sufficient. Although it would not be an easy life, confined to a small space, stuck with the same people, often eating the same things, and with constant tasks and stress, the psychological demands would be very taxing. Even on Earth we have some very remote and lonely places where people live, for instance scientists in Antarctica or submarine crews. These groups undergo regular psychological checks to protect their mental health, and even in these situations, people there know that they can always be sent back home.

But colonists on Mars are trapped, there's no immediate turning back, if ever, so only individuals with a strong mental fortitude could persevere. In addition, there is an array of health problems associated with low gravity. The zero-gravity experiment with the Kelly twins on the ISS brought up serious health issues that include loss of muscle and bone mass, vision problems, poor fluid distribution, a loss of balanced sense, spine misalignment, cardiovascular problems, and a weaker immune system. While we don't know exactly how the human body will cope in a low gravity environment for extended periods, settlers on Mars may struggle with some of these issues too.

To counteract the risks, the settlers will have to do a lot of exercise, which further lengthens their working hours. NASA has even gone as far as to consider genetic modifications for the astronauts who embark on long-stay missions, to combat the dangers of radiation and microgravity, among others. This could even be plausible with current technology, although a lot of controversy on the moral limits of such manipulation arises. Still, even with all these considerations, there's no sure. shortage of volunteers wanting to go.

Every time there's been an opportunity, agencies and companies have received a barrage of applications from hopeful candidates. These colonies will depend on how technology evolves here, although at the moment it seems that we already have a lot, but not all of what is necessary to create bases outside of Earth. Do you think mankind will ever get a colony on Mars? With NASA's aim for the late 2030s, do you think that's reasonable? And after my travel tour of the Red Planet, how sold are you on being among those early colonizers? Have I scared you off? Or are you thrilled at the thought of rising to the challenge and carving out a foothold in the face of great odds?

Remember, this could happen within our lifetimes. You or people you know could conceivably be among the first to ever live on another planet. Of course, going down in history. Against the backdrop of that, and filled with the curiosity to see what life would be like under a truly alien sky, perhaps a little part of you is tempted, which says all you need to know about humanity, given the context of that dusty, storm-covered planet that is Mars. Humanity has only in the last half century established a foothold in the space beyond our sky, which means that for the overwhelming majority of human history, our home has been right here on Earth. There are still so many mysteries about our home planet that you could spend a whole lifetime exploring it all. Have you ever wanted to learn more about its fiery geology, its verdant life,

its mysterious seas and tumultuous skies. Do you love learning about Earth's processes? its origins, its endings, and everything that comes between, that's what we hope to bring to life in our new channel Astrum Earth. I'm so excited for this channel. Space is incredible, and as I've been making these videos, I've realized there are so many aspects of our own home planet that are incredible too. Astrum Earth will be launching top quality videos every two weeks about our planet,

where you can get a breathtaking look at some of the most amazing sights and phenomena our Earth has on offer. But don't just believe me, the trailer is already live, so go check it out. By subscribing now to Astrom Earth, you'll help support Astrom as well as being one of the first to see the wonders of our own planet. Thanks for watching. And thanks to our crew of Astrom Lords over a Patreon who help us make science knowledge freely available to everyone. Chasing the algorithm can be hit and miss sometimes, so your contributions

help us keep making the content we love. And if you want to join the Patreon, there's never been a better time to get in on the party. Just sign up with the link in the description. When you join, you'll be able to watch the whole video ad-free, see your name in the credits, and submit questions to our team. Meanwhile, click the link to this playlist for more Astrum content. I'll see you next time. Ambition comes in all shapes and sizes. At First Citizens Bank, we roll with your goals because we're built for what you're building. Fit for your ambition for Citizens Bank.

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