Astrum Space - This New Evidence Just Gave T. Rex a Serious Upgrade | Astrum Earth

Episode Date: July 22, 2026

Did we get the T. Rex all wrong? New evidence suggests it was even bigger, stronger and deadlier than scientists previously thought. From its teeth, to its size, strength and speed, find out how recent breakthroughs have turned what we knew about T. Rex upside down.▀▀▀▀▀▀🔒 Remove your personal information from the web at https://joindeleteme.com/ASTRUMEARTH and use code ASTRUMEARTH for 20% off DeleteMe international Plans.▀▀▀▀▀▀Astrum's newsletter has launched! Want to know what's happening in space? Sign up here: ⁠https://astrumspace.kit.com⁠A huge thanks to our Patreons who help make these videos possible. Sign-up here: ⁠https://bit.ly/4aiJZNF

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Just combine your car and home insurance with Bel Air Direct and save. Get a quote at bellair direct.com. T-Rex is not what we thought. Thanks to the 1993 classic Jurassic Park, this giant bulldozing, seemingly half-blind wall of teeth has been seared into our central consciousness. A Tyrannosaur-sized trope that's kept Jeff Goldblum running across our screen, ever since.

Luckily, none of us will have to contend with this monster, not just because Dinosaur D-Extinction is virtually impossible, sorry Steven Spielberg, but because the T-Rex was in fact nothing like this at all. In fact, it was much, much worse. From 2023 to 2026, a wave of breakthrough discoveries transformed this brute with a set of pretty serious upgrades. T-Rex was more cunning, more stealthy and frankly more weird looking than we'd thought. So how did we get T-Rex so wrong? What new scientific approach changed it all? And what does this new vision of T-Rex tell us about just how effectively it dominated its domain?

I'm James Stewart and you're watching Astrom Earth. Join me as we take a tour through 120 years of our relationship with the coolest creature in the Cretaceous. From the bone-collectine trailbases who catapulted the T-Rex into the spotlight, all the way to the latest remarkable scientific techniques that have unlocked this great beast's true nature. Discoveries that paint an entirely new picture of the dinosaur we love to fear. To understand why these recent discoveries are so earth-shattering, we first need to go back to the birth of T-Rex. No, not 68 million years ago, but to the dawn of the 20th century.

century. The year is 1905 and we're in Hell Creek, Montana. The race for the world's greatest fossil is very much on. Here, a relentless young paleontologist, Barnum Brown, is armed with several cases of dynamite and determined to make the discovery of a lifetime. Three years earlier, Barnum had left Hell Creek with little more than a pubic bone and the femur of what seemed to be a large carnivorous predator. Intriguing, but nowhere near enough, to make a splash. Now he was back, baking in the same merciless heat, and this time he had something extra driving him.

Jealousy. Edward the 7th, King of England, had recently paid a visit to the rival Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh to admire their new shiny Diplodocus. If Barnum was going to put the American Museum of Natural History back in the spotlight, he needed something even better. After three months of blasting and digging, Barnum finally had enough bones. But, rumour had it, the Pittsburgh team were just about to name their own large carnivore find.

Back in New York, Barnum's boss Henry Fairfield Osborne wasn't waiting around. Desperate to get there first, he began writing up the discovery before a single bone had even arrived. In late July, a letter reached Barnum in the field. I have just described the big dinosaur under the name Tyrannosaurus Rex. The king of the tyrant lizards was named without Osborne ever laying eyes on it. But when the grand reveal came, it was a flop. With still only a handful of bones and a whole lot of speculation, the public preferred the more complete dinosaur superstars of the time,

such as Diplodocus, Stegosaurus and Brontosaurus. It wasn't until 10 years later in 1915 that Barnum and his team finally had enough bones to piece together a near-complete T-Rex skeleton. The American Museum of Natural History mounted the new finds and this time the public lapped it up. The T-Rex was a global sensation, sparking newspaper and magazine articles across the globe.

And so, the king of the beasts was born. Barnum himself remarked, T-Rex is my favourite child, the most formidable fighting machine ever devised by nature. Barnum's vision was an imposing beast, standing upright like a kangaroo with a terrifying set of teeth. This spawned the archetype for Hollywood's vision of terror and set the template for what we thought the T-Rex looked like. thought that maintained for nearly a hundred years.

But this creature was, in many ways, a work of fiction. A terrifying beast stitched together with incomplete evidence and educated guesswork, a sort of prehistoric Frankenstein's monster. T-Rex was undoubtedly a supreme apex predator. But this version was riddled with errors. So, where did they go wrong? Well, firstly, T-Rex was basically, T-Rex was, put together using a combination of finds.

As Professor Thomas Holtz from the University of Maryland told new scientists in 2005, it was like placing Arnold Schwarzenegger's legs on Brad Pitt's body. Barnum's team also used allosaurus hands, which have three fingers, not the two digits that T-Rex was later found to have. It also transpires that this version of the T-Rex would have a pretty tough time walking around with a long, heavy, heavy, tail, dragging behind it like an anchor, not very efficient for the greatest predator to have ever stalked the earth. It wasn't until the 1970s that T-Rex's shape began to change from Barnum's vision. Barney Newman from the British Museum of Natural History in London

investigated where T-Rex's vertebrae fused together and ligaments attached and soon realized that its spine couldn't have been upright without the head being out of joint. Instead, a horizontal posture was much more likely, with a tail lifted off the ground like a counterweight. He also shortened the tail by about 3.7 metres. The old version was longer because it was thought to act like a third leg to balance, as well as being based on the allosaurus. The real T-Rex was slowly coming to light, but rearranging bones can only get you so far. What scientists needed to know now was not necessarily how these bone fragments sat together, but what the individual bone fragments themselves could tell us.

This new thinking was the driver behind what paleontologist Gregory Erickson dubbed the microscopic revolution, transforming how scientists integrated dinosaur fragments. And what it revealed was a T-Rex that went from dangerous to profoundly terrifying. Let's start at the sharp end of the T-Rex's bone-crushing bite. T-Rex's teeth are massive, the largest of any carnivorous dinosaur found so far, reaching up to 30 centimetres in length. And in 2015, a study led by Kirsten Brink at the University, Toronto Missy's Saga, showed T-Rex teeth are far more formidable than we thought.

No filler or killer. Under the microscope, each tooth has. serrated edges like a steak knife designed to slice through meat and reinforced with extra dentine to absorb tremendous bite force. Since these gnashes were so large and sharp, it was thought they sat on the outside of the mouth, much like the crocodile, an animal whose lip-less mouth scientists had long use as a reference point for T-Rex. But in 2023, Thomas Cullen at Auburn University led a study that changed all of that. Cullen's team ran three separate tests. First, they measured skull length against tooth height across a range of two-legged dinosaurs and

modern lizards. They found the T-Rex ratio most closely matched modern-lipped lizards like monitors and iguanas. Next, they took a thin slice of T-Rex tooth and looked at the enamel. Now, crocodile teeth are permanently exposed to the air, so over time, their enamel is worn thin on the outside and thick on the inside. However, the T-Rex had even thickness of enamel on both sides and hardly anywhere. Finally, they looked at the small holes in the jawbones called pheramina. These carry nerves and blood vessels to the soft tissue of the face. Crocodiles have feramina scattered all over their snouts in a distinctive power. Lipped reptiles like lizards and iguanas have them arranged in a single line along the jaw margin.

Again, T-Rex matched the lips group. Three lines of evidence, all pointing to the same remarkable conclusion. T-Rex's teeth sat behind scaly lips, like a giant, terrifying, Komodo dragon. So why does this matter? Well, keeping the teeth continuously bathe in saliva behind lips, would have prevented their tooth enamel from becoming brittle and prone to fracture. So T-Rex teeth were always in peak killing condition. Yeah, basically moist teeth are also the secret behind T-Rex's greatest weapon, its bite.

With the most powerful bite of any known land animal, up to three times more powerful than today's record holder, by the way, the Nile Crocodile. Even microscopic brittleness in a tooth could cause catastrophic chipping, at the moment of impact, damaging T-Rex's primary weapon. And a T-Rex unable to use its teeth is no T-Rex at all. Cullen's team sectioned a tooth from a closely related Tyrannosaurid under a microscope to count their daily growth layers called von Ebner lines, and they found well over 500. The same would have almost certainly applied to a T-Rex too, meaning a single tooth took over a year to grow.

So, putting its teeth behind the lips to protect them from wear and erosion was doubly important, as they took such a long time to replace. A bone-crushing jaw with a set of giant flesh-ripping teeth kept in perfect condition, well, T-Rex truly earned the deadliest bite on earth. But things get even crazier when you look at the rest of the body. T-Rex is often portrayed as a scaly beast. there are hints of a rather more feathery past. Feathered dinosaurs became a point of renewed scientific interest

after the discovery of feathered Sinosaur Optorex in the 1990s. The first dinosaur to be found preserved with filaments of proto-feathers and bolstered by a wave of other discoveries, such as Dylong Paradoxus, Cordyptoix, and Baye Piaosaurus. So, when a Tee-Lewasaurus, So, when a T-Rex relative, Yu-Tiranus Ha-Lee was found by Shu Xing and colleagues covered in proto-feathers, the question became impossible to ignore.

Did T-Rex have feathers too? Well, it's an intriguing idea and quite a comical vision, but let's look at the evidence. Exhibit A, T-Rex skin. In very rare instances, dinosaur skin presses into the sediment before decaying, leaving a perfect imprint. of what that animal actually looked like on the outside. Now in 2017, Phil Bell and his team from the University of New England in Australia examined a T-Rex specimen from Texas, nicknamed Y-Rex, with skin preserved from the neck, hip, and tail,

and they showed no evidence of feathers. So had we all been tricked by this feather fads? Well, hang on a sec, not so fast, because the same 2017 study by Bell and colleagues looked at the whole theropod family tree, the clay that includes T-Rex, and found that while some theropods develop feathers, large tyrannosaurus-sorids like T-Rex subsequently lost them. Why? Well, it comes down to heat and a question that's been debated for decades.

Was T-Rex warm-blooded? Recently, our company's softball team lost the big game by one run. Then Dale tried to constern. soulless with the quote, winning isn't everything. Well, Dale and I are very different. I get early payout from Bed 365. If my team goes up big, I get paid out instantly, even if they blow the lead later. Sound familiar, Dale?

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or quarter pounder BLT. At participate in McDonald's restaurants in Canada, product availability varies by restaurant. Before we answer that, there's actually one other T-Rex-Sized problem I need to get off my chest. Data brokers. Yeah, those annoying people who are more than happy

to dig up your personal information and sell it to the highest bidder. Things like your email address, home address and even your family information. Honestly, it's like they built their own Jurassic Park of personal data. Except instead of dinosaurs escaping, it's your private details running wild.

This year, though, I've been fighting back because I've been using Delete Me. It helps remove my personal information, from those data broker websites, and honestly, it's been a total game changer. When I first started using it, my details were scattered across the internet like fossils in a dig site, leaving my data more exposed than a T-Rex with tiny arms trying to cover its tracks. Luckily, thanks to delete me, those exposed listings have been getting cleared out. No amber, no mosquito, and no questionable science required.

Even when the odd spam email does claw its way through the fences, All I have to do is make a request through the online portal. They look into it, sorted out really quickly, and I must admit, it's very satisfying to watch those digital raptors extinct. So, if you'd like to stop data brokers from turning your personal information into their own little Jurassic marketplace, why not join Delete Me? They can help you make your private details a lot harder to find,

unlike a T-Rex, which, let's be honest, is quite hard to miss. They're giving our viewers an awesome deal right now, with 20% off using my link, join delete me.com slash astrum earth. And use code Astrum Earth at checkout. Thanks to Delete Me for sponsoring this video. The link is in the description if you want your digital life a bit more private. As we have back to everyone's favourite monster. For most of its existence, T-Rex was imagined as a sluggish, cold-blooded brute.

But in 2022, a remarkable paper by Yasmina Weeman at Yer. Yale rewrote that entire picture. Her team used twin techniques called Raman and Faria transform infrared spectroscopy. F-T-I-R measures which specific frequencies of infrared light a sample absorbs, while Raman measures how a laser's light scatters off the sample at different frequencies. This provides a complete and unique chemical footprint to identify the substances present. In this case, scientists run the hunt for advanced lip oxidation end products, or ALEs, tiny molecular scars left behind by an animal's metabolism.

The faster your metabolism runs, the more of these scars accrue in your bones during life, and crucially, they survive fossilisation. Weiman's team analysed 30 dinosaur bones for ALEs, and they found that every theropod they tested, T-Rex, including, plotted right alongside modern birds and mammals on the metabolic chart. Meaning they were warm blooded. Yes, T-Rex generated its own heat. This is so important because for warm-blooded animals,

the larger you are, the more heat you generate and retain. So, if you're a small young T-Rex, you might need feathers to keep warm, but once you get big enough, you retain heat so well that the extra insulation actually risks overheating you. This led scientists to suggest that baby T-Rex may have had feathers, but shed them as it got older. It's possible some feathering persisted in places we haven't yet found impressions for, but the picture we have right now for T-Rex is of a large-scale predator,

with pristine teeth built for explosive bursts of energy to take down its prey, a deadly killing machine with or without feathers. But the most shocking revelation was yet to come. Its size. The biggest T-Rex we've found so far is a specimen called Scotty, discovered in Saskatchewan Canada. It was first spotted by a schoolteacher, Robert Gebhardt in 1991, but took over a decade of painstaking excavation

before scientists could study the complete animal. This whopper of a T-Raebhart, was estimated to be 13 meters long, and using the circumference of its massive thigh bone, estimated to weigh over 8,800 kilograms. As one of the largest terrestrial predators we've ever found, it was rightly crowned the rex of rexes. But these impressive numbers don't actually tell us what T-Rex looked like, and for decades that's been a surprisingly difficult question to answer. For a long time, scientists trying to work out the size of dinosaurs like the T-Rex, stuck with the convex hull expansion method. This is when you take the 3D skeleton of a T-Rex and surround it in a skin wrapper as tightly as possible.

This is the convex hull. Then you expand the hull, the skin, outward, are decimated where the soft tissue, muscles, organs, fat, etc. would be. Now, the problem is this led artists and scientists to come up with some. some wildly diverse size estimates for T-Rex. But two new studies, one by Sophie McCauley at the University of Liverpool and her colleagues in 2023 and another by Matt Dempsey at the University of Liverpool and his colleagues in 2025 have removed that guesswork. Instead, they use CT scans of living birds and reptiles, T-Rex's closest living relatives, to define how much soft tissue each segment of the body,

should have. They essentially created a series of ratios showing how big a body part should be compared to the underlying bones for every part of the animal. They then used those ratios as a recipe to flesh out 52 dinosaurs skeletons, including the T-Rex. They found that many of the old reconstructions for non-avian dinosaurs were too slim. The real animals were more muscular, heavier, than previous artistic depictions suggested. For T-Rex, the weight was roughly in keeping with previous estimates, but the old visuals were underselling how heavily muscled it really was, because the truth is, T-Rex was stacked.

And this fits in with what paleontologists already knew about T-Rex anatomy. It had longer distal limb bones, larger muscle attachment surfaces on the hips, and more rigid tails than any other large theropod. This all points to an animal that was capable of more vigorous and more powerful physical movement than any predator its size. T-Rex wasn't just the biggest. It was also the most powerfully built land predator that ever lived.

For years, scientists thought Scotty at just under nine tons was the upper biological limit of T-Rex. But in 2024, new research, suggested something far more menacing. T-Rex may have been much, much bigger. The study was based on the idea that of the estimated 2.5 billion T-Rex to have ever lived, we only have 84 reasonably complete skeletons. And that means the chances that we've already found the maximum-sized T-Rex are basically zilch. And that inspired analysis by Jordan Mallon from Canadian Museum of Nature.

and David Hohn from Queen Mary University in London, who built a statistical model of the full range of T-Rex sizes. Staggeringly, their results show that, in fact, the absolute maximum body of T-Rex could have actually been more like 15 tonnes. That is 70% heavier than Scotty, the largest specimen we've ever found. They also calculate that a full-sized T-Rex would have exceeded 15 metres in. length. Oof, that was a lot to digest and I don't know about you, but if I were the paleontologist discovering that T-Rex was actually almost twice the size we thought, well, that would make my entire

career. I mean, this is the stuff of dreams for paleontologists and for many of us, the stuff of nightmares. This new vision of the T-Rex blows everything else out the water. This beast was likely bigger, stronger and more terrifying than we could ever have imagined. But we're not done yet because the Dempsey study also reveals something about how T-Rex carried all of that mass. Compared to other giant theropods of similar size, T-Rex's centre of mass sat further toward its head, implying a more crouched, actively balanced posture than its rivals. And that leads to one big question. How did it actually move? Hot off the press just this year in 2026, Adrian Bowai at the College of the Atlantic and his colleagues,

turn their attention to the T-Rex foot. Combining trackway evidence with biomechanical analysis, they found that T-Rex almost certainly hit the ground toe first, like a bird, with shorter, faster strides than its size would suggest. Yeah, that probably means no thundering water in glass shaking steps that we see in movies, but something much closer to a giant power-walking ostrich. This style of movement means T-Rex was much more stable on it. its feet and could move its head sharply for more precise hunting.

It also means the T-Rex was quieter and more agile than Jurassic Park suggests. Based on analysis, depending on their mass, T-Rex could run between 18 and 40 kilometres per hour, with heavier adults at the slower end. So Usain Bolt might be okay running away from these things at 44.72 kilometers per hour, but it's not good news for the rest of us, or any other large Cretaceous Herbert. for that matter. Bowie and colleagues also looked at juvenile T-Rex speeds and found that these younger, lighter T-Rex were significantly faster, fast enough to chase down different kinds of prey to their parents. This opened up the possibility that young T-Rex could have lived a totally different

kind of life before it was fully grown. So what were the T-Rex's wonder years like? We used to think that T-Rex reached adulthood quickly, reaching eight tons, Wrong, within 20 years. But more rigorous testing by Holly Woodward at Oklahoma State University and her team, counting growth rings in bone cross sections under polarised light microscopy, showed that T-Rex reached full size around 35 to 40 years old, a whole 15 years later than previously thought. This meant T-Rex grew rapidly from early juvenile to late sub-adult stages,

over a period of 30 plus years. So it must have had massive energy demands for most of its life. If you ever saw a T-Rex, it was almost certainly hungry. There were some alarming behavioural conclusions that came out of this too. We know from predators today that sub-adults are often the most active, bold and aggressive hunters. Now, seeing as T-Rex was in this phase for something like two decades, that was very bad news for its prey. And once a T-Rex was fully grown, it already had 35 years of accumulated hunting experience.

Its strategies, to put it lightly, were pretty finely tuned. This slower sustained growth also meant T-Rex terrorised ecosystems for longer and with potentially more aggression than we previously thought. But Woodward's growth modelling came with another surprising twist. Two of the 17 used T-Rex specimens didn't. quite fit the growth curve. Enter Jane, BMRP 2002.4.1 and Petey, BMRP 2006.4.4. Who would turn the T-Rex Kingdom upside down again? At the same time Woodward's team was scratching the heads over Jane and Petey strange number of growth rings. Another group led by Lindsay Zano from the North Carolina

Museum of Natural Sciences and James Napoli at Stony Brook University, were looking at the spaces between growth rings. They knew that as an animal matures, the gaps between each growth rings shrink and then stacked together, indicating a full-grown animal that's reached adulthood. Their star specimen was NCSM-40000, a teen rex, nicknamed Manteo, from the famous dueling dinosaurs' discovery, where a triceratops and a smaller-bodied Tyrannos were discovered locked in ancient combat. The result? This tiny T-Rex was actually fully grown.

They also noted that despite weighing less than a tenth the size of an adult, its arms were already longer than the fully grown T-Rexes, and it had fewer vertebrae in its tail. The final nail in the coffin was when Zano and Napley looked at specific features of skull and skeletal anatomy that are locked in and don't change as an animal develops and grows. For instance, the pattern of sinuses inside the stout. Specific bone projections on the upper arm and pelvis. Again, they were different from T-Rex.

And that's because teen rex was not a T-Rex at all. A few weeks later, a separate team, Christopher Griffin at Princeton and Caitlin Cullery at the Cleveland Museum, re-examined a juvenile T-Rex fossil called the Cleveland Skull. This skull had a history. Back in the 1980s, a research and a researcher, named Robert Bacca made a controversial suggestion, that it didn't belong to a younger T-Rex at all, but to an entirely different, smaller Tyrannosaur, a nanotyrannus Lansensis, or Pygmy

tyrant. Since skulls are notoriously hard to age, discussions over its identity were abandoned. The scientific community largely dismissed the idea. But Kauleary spotted something researchers had overlooked. A tiny throat bone called the hyoid, tube shaped like a limb bone and therefore capable of holding growth rings. When they sliced it open, the answer was clear. Like our Jane and Pity, the Cleveland skull was not a young T-Rex, but an adult of a new and different species, the pygmy tyrant, nanotyrannus. This rewrites the life story of T-Rex. For decades, paleontologists had used fossils. like Jane, Petey and the Cleveland Skull as their reference point for what a teenage

rex looked like, how it hunted, how it grew, how it fit into its ecosystem. But this new work reveals all those comparisons were built on the wrong animal. In one fell swoop, it was back to the drawing board for teenage T-Rex. What we now do know instead is it a young T-Rex shed its ecosystem with other predators, which means it needed to be utterly laser-focused, on its niche. And that's where there's some good news, because clues are now emerging that shed light on how it did just that. T-Rex had a giant olfactory bulb,

the part of the brain that deciphers messages from the nose. So it obviously devoted a lot of brain power to smell. But receptor genes within the olfactory bulbs can tell scientists how many different channels the brain can tune into. In other words, it can tell scientists how good T-Rex was at discriminating between different types of smell. So, a group from University College in Dublin, led by Graham Hughes, had the idea that rather than just looking at the size of the olfactory bulbs in skullcasts,

they should combine that physical data with genomic information from living birds and reptiles. To estimate how many actual smell receptor genes T-Rex probably had, the more genes, the richer and more detailed the T-Rex's olfactory world would be. They discovered that its olfactory system was exceptional, suggesting upwards of 600 receptor genes, on par with a domestic cat, the highest of any theropod ever studied. The UCD group also postulated that T-Rex had the ability to smell blood from far away, allowing it to track prey over large distances like modern wolves or scavenge carrion like today's vulture. So in reality, it probably sniffed out its prey long before,

before it ever saw it. So once the T-Rex had prey in its sights, what did it actually see? We can infer a few things. First, both crocodiles and birds had the retinal or capacity to see colour, so it stands to reason that T-Rex had it too. T-Rex's eye positioning gave it stereoscopic vision, so it would see well in three-dimension, with some suggesting it had a binocular field of vision of 55 degrees,

on par with modern hawks. Which means even if you stood still, T-Rex would still spot you, which would have made Jurassic Park a much shorter and much bloody of film. Prime presents perfect pairings. What pairs with Reacher on Prime? Reaching for a sparkling punch delivered with Prime. It's an unbelievable feeling when you're enjoying a punch. At the same time, Reacher is enjoying punching people. Wow.

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Taste. View. And enjoy. Via Rail, love the way. What started off as a handful of bones blasted out of a Montana hillside It has become 120 years later something completely different to what Barnum Brown imagined. T-Rex was bigger, sharpest sensed and more cunning than the monster we thought we knew.

And yet, for all the breakthroughs, we're still only working from fragments. To remind you, of the estimated 2.5 billion T-Rex that ever lived, we found the remains of fewer than a hundred. But the tools and techniques of today still continue to squeeze remarkable new insights from these fragments. A generation of scientists armed with technology Barnum Brown could have only dreamed of are slowly, painstakingly bringing this animal into focus. And the clearer the picture gets, the more terrifying it becomes. The king tyrant lizard we knew is dead. Long live the king.

Let me know in the comments what you think about these new discoveries and revelations. And whether it's changed your view on the T-Rex and whether that's a good thing or a bad thing the next time you watch Jurassic Park. And if you're still here, please do hit subscribe. We are a new channel and that's one of the best things you can do to help a channel like ours. Keep making awesome content like this. Thank you so much and I'll see you the next one. Rosen lasagna, medium power. 15 minutes.

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