Daniel and Kelly’s Extraordinary Universe - Does Quantum Mechanics make sense?

Episode Date: October 24, 2019

Learn about the concept of quantum mechanics and what our understanding of it is. Learn more about your ad-choices at https://www.iheartpodcastnetwork.comSee omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

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then you know the experience of feeling out of place. There are still some places on Earth where the culture is sufficiently different from ours or from yours that you can no longer sort of trust your instincts that you don't intuitively know how to behave and how to get around. Maybe you don't know what people are saying and you can't read the street signs and things just seem to work differently.

The street food has weird eyeballs in it or looks like it's fried scorpions. Hey, maybe it is. Well, that's the experience physicists have when we discover that the rules of the universe are totally different from what we are familiar with. That's exactly the feeling we're going for. And that's the feeling we get very often when we travel to the quantum realm. Hi, I'm Daniel, I'm a particle physicist, and I'm one half of the dynamic duo known as Daniel and Jorge, hosts of this podcast, Daniel and Jorge, Explain the Universe, brought to you. by iHeart Radio. My co-host today, Jorge Cham, can't be with us, so I'll be talking to you myself

about the amazing secrets of the universe. This podcast is dedicated to revealing truths about the universe, to taking things that seem amazing and mystifying that maybe you've heard about or people talk about when they want to sound smart, but you never really understood. Well, we are here to break it down and make sure you can walk away actually understanding it. You can talk about it like an intelligent person. So if you have questions, about what you've heard today, please send them to us to questions at danielanhorpe.com. It is our goal that you actually understand everything we are talking about and hopefully maybe even get a chuckle along the way. Since it's just me today, we'll probably have fewer

jokes than usual. It's often Jorge that injects the humor into these conversations. So we're little humans, we're here on earth, and we're used to a certain kind of experience. We're used to things a certain size and moving on a certain speed. But the universe is a big place. And there are lots of things out there that are not like our experience that are really big or moving really fast. And what we've learned as humans is that most of the universe is different from what we expected and that it follows rules that are different. And when we try to understand the rest of the universe, the things that are not balls rolling down planes or how water flows down a hill, that we need to do something mentally difficult. We need to do some sort of extrapolation. And that's the job of physics is to take us from the known,

into the unknown to say, well, we understand how these things happen here on Earth. Can we also understand how the Earth moves around the sun? Can we understand the origins of the universe? Can we peel back layers of reality and see how things are built underneath? And in order to do that, we have to describe things we haven't seen in terms of things that we have seen. We talk about particles and we like to describe them as kind of like waves and kind of like little spinning balls because those are familiar mental constructs, those are things we understand, so we can talk to each other about them. It's like if you drink a new wine and you try to describe it to

your friends and you say, oh, it has flavors of oak and maybe blackberry. It's a way to describe things that you don't know in terms of things that you know. It's a basic mental strategy for understanding things. But what happens when you run into something fundamentally different, something unlike anything you've seen before, something where all of your mental constructs fail or are limited? When our experience has just not prepared us for something. That's the topic of today's podcast. Can we ever understand quantum mechanics? And before we dive in, I want to give a music shout out to Casey Hagman, who sent in that alternative question music. Thank you very much. We loved it. And quantum mechanics is one of the

most difficult things for people to grasp, one of the most intimidating topics, because people feel like it just can't make sense to them. And they hear eminent scientists, researchers, philosophers, physicists talking about quantum mechanics as if they don't understand it either. And it's true there's a lot left to be understood about quantum mechanics. Folks like Sean Carroll talk about it very intelligently. And there's lots of lively discussion about what quantum mechanics really means. But I want to talk about something simpler. Just what does quantum mechanics say? What do we learned about the universe via quantum mechanics? Is it possible for us to develop an intuition to understand quantum mechanics

is will it always forever be foreign to us or can we become comfortable with it? Will we by spending enough time in it, by thinking, is it possible that by spending enough time marinating in these concepts and thinking about them in the right way that we could eventually become familiar with them? Sort of the way Chinese might seem impenetable

to a Western person at first, but you spend enough time there and it becomes part of your brain. Your brain develops sort of new ways of thinking, new patterns, new ideas flow through it so that the new language and the topics and the strategies and the tones of that language eventually become familiar. They become how you think. So the strategy there, of course, is immersion. You don't learn a new language effectively by learning vocabulary and studying it in the classroom. The best way I've always found really learned

to speak a new language, to think in a new language, is to spend time doing it, is to go to that country and be part of those people and be there and use that as part of your life and that's how your brain works. So our strategy today for helping you understand quantum mechanics is not to give you the mathematical basics, but to spend some time in the quantum realm until we develop an intuition for how it works. But before we go there, I wanted to know what people understood about quantum mechanics and also whether they thought they understood quantum mechanics. Is quantum mechanics something that everybody out there feels like is impossible to understand, or are most people under the impression that they have it figured out? I walked around campus at UC Irvine,

and I asked people if they thought they could understand quantum mechanics. Before you hear these answers, think to yourself, how good is your grasp on the basic tenets of quantum mechanics? Do you feel fluent? Can you explain this stuff? Do you feel like you can navigate that strange quantum realm? Here's what people on the street at UC Irvine had to say. like you understand quantum mechanics? No. Not really. Anyone who answers yes to that doesn't really

have an understanding of quantum, so no. Very basic. I have working knowledge of quantum mechanics, but I would not say that I understand it at the level of a PhD physicist. I say I understand it decently well. Are you familiar with the double slit experiment? Yes.

Showed that particles, I think it was electrons that they use. They move in waves. So if you were to fire the electrons and observe them, they'd only go in like a line. But then if you cover it, you could see a wave-like pattern in the back, something like that. I honestly don't even know about quantum mechanics. I'm just... The dual nature of light is both a wave and a particle. So as usual, we got a very nice breadth of answers from people who felt like they hardly understood anything about quantum mechanics to people who clearly had some working knowledge.

So that's great. And we're hoping to bring everyone who listens to this podcast up to the... to at least the very basic level of being able to intelligently think about and understand quantum topics. And I think the best way to start off is to hear a listener question. Here's a question from a young listener. Hi, Daniel and Jorge. My name is Robin, and I would love to know what the key differences between quantum and classical mechanics are and to what extent they agree with each other.

This is a great way to start because classical physics is what we're familiar with. Classical physics is what describes how basketball moves or how rocks roll down hills or how things move in the atmosphere, things that we are familiar with, that we have spent hundreds or thousands of years developing an intuition for, things that probably our brains have evolved to be good at understanding, so that in some way they are natural objects to our mental worlds. So the question really is, what's the biggest difference between the classical world and the quantum world? What is it when you go to the quantum world that you can no longer assume that is obviously true in the classical world? The basic difference between,

classical objects and quantum mechanical objects is that quantum mechanical objects do not have a path. They don't have a trajectory through space, a well-defined set of where they were at any given time. That's the key lesson I want you to come away from today's podcast with. So let's talk about what that means. If you have a baseball and it's at one location now and 10 seconds later it's across the baseball field, you imagine that it went from where it was to where it is now. You say, well, if it was over there before and it's over here now, how did it get there? It must have gone between those two locations. You have two pieces of data and you naturally interpolate. Because you make this assumption that a classical object

has a location at every time and that you can stitch those together into a path that traverses space time in some continuous way. And you might be thinking, well, of course, everything does. Everything has, a location at a given time and only one location, but that's an intuition you've developed from experiencing the natural world, from playing baseball or from being chased by people throwing rocks at you. You're used to things moving through the world in a responsible and understandable way, so you've made this assumption. Quantum objects do not have paths like that. They don't have locations that translate through time. For a quantum object, like an electron, you can measure it at one location A and then later measure it at another location B, but it doesn't mean that it's

flown through the universe from A to B in that intervening time. It can be at A, later be at B, but it's not true that it's moved from A to B, meaning that if you made a measurement halfway, you would have found it going from A to B. Now, that's very confusing. That's very hard to understand how can an object be here and later be there and never be in between. And the reason is that quantum objects are just different from the classical objects. They are not the same kind of thing. And this assumption that you have made about the universe comes from only experiencing classical objects, things on our scale.

But the smaller level, the universe just does not work that way. And that's pretty hard to digest. But don't worry, there are things at the quantum realm which do follow your intuition and which you can use to help understand and develop an intuitive sense of the of the universe. And that's the quantum wave function. So how do the quantum object work? Well, a quantum object is here and later it's there. What determines that? It's not like quantum objects don't follow the laws of physics. And you probably know the quantum objects could also be random. You can do the same thing to a quantum object twice and get different outcomes. And that's true. All those things are true,

but the quantum object is ruled by something, and that's this quantum wave function. You don't have to know a lot of complicated math. All you need to know is that the wave function tells you where a quantum object is most likely to be. You probably have heard that electrons don't have a specific location. They have a probability cloud around an atom. That's an extrapolation of the wave function. The wave function tells you where the electron is most likely to be. If it's large over here, it's more likely to be there.

If it's small somewhere else, it's less likely. to be there. If it's zero somewhere, it means the particle cannot be there. Where is the particle actually? We don't know. And there's a lot of discussion about whether the wave function means the particle isn't actually anywhere or just we don't know where it is. But we do know that quantum mechanic says that that information does not need to exist. It's not necessarily the case that there's hidden knowledge, that the electron is actually somewhere and we don't know. So the best way to think about the wave function is that it's physics saying what's allowed and what's more likely. And this wave function is what we can grab on to, what we can understand, because the wave

function does follow rules and the wave function has a path that makes sense. It flows from one spot to the other. It doesn't just disappear and appear somewhere else. So you have to let go of your intuitive desire to understand the path of an electron, the path of a quantum object, because those things don't exist. But instead, when you let that go, you can grasp on to the next layer. The next layer is this wave function, the thing that determines where the electron is, the thing that determines where the electron is likely to be somewhere else.

And that's the key thing, is that the wave function tells you where the electron is, and it responds to stimulation, it responds to the world, and it flows just like a wave. And you can use that. You can understand how that wave flows through time to understand where the electron is likely to be in the future. even if the electron itself doesn't have a path from A to B, its wave function does. So the key to being comfortable with quantum mechanics is to get comfortable with the object's wave function rather than the object. All right. So the best way to learn a new language is to get practice, is to immerse yourself in it. So the next thing we're going to do is a bunch of exercises of diving into the quantum realm and being comfortable with the wave function,

understanding how it flows. And to do that, we're going to explore in some detail, the famous, this double-slit experiment that shows us the crazy behavior of quantum mechanics. And at the end of it, I hope it all makes sense, and the weird results of the double-slit experiment feel totally natural. But first, let's take a quick break. A foot washed up a shoe with some bones in it. They had no idea who it was. Most everything was burned up pretty good from the fire that not a whole lot was salvageable.

These are the coldest of cold cases. But everything is about to change. Every case that is a cold case that has DNA. Right now in a backlog will be identified in our lifetime. A small lab in Texas is cracking the code on DNA. Using new scientific tools, they're finding clues in evidence so tiny you might just miss it. He never thought he was going to get caught.

And I just looked at my computer screen. I was just like, ah, got you. On America's crime lab, we'll learn about victims and survivors. And you'll meet the team behind the scenes at Othrum, the Houston Lab that takes on the most hopeless cases to finally solve the unsolvable. Listen to America's Crime Lab on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. I'm Dr. Joy Hardin Bradford. And in session 421 of Therapy for Black Girls, I sit down with Dr. Othia and Billy Shaka to explore how our hair connects to our identity, mental health, and the ways we heal. Because I think hair is a complex language system, right, in terms of it can tell how old you are,

your marital status, where you're from, you're a spiritual belief. But I think with social media, there's like a hyperfixation and observation of our hair, right? That this is sometimes the first thing someone sees when we make a post or a reel is how our hair is styled. We talk about the important role hairstylists play in our community, the pressure to always look put together, and how breaking up with perfection can actually free us. Plus, if you're someone who gets anxious about flying, don't miss Session 418 with Dr. Angela Neil Barnett,

where we dive into managing flight anxiety. Listen to Therapy for Black Girls on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast. Get fired up, y'all. Season two of Good Game with Sarah Spain is underway. We just welcomed one of my favorite people and an incomparable soccer icon, Megan Rapino, to the show.

And we had a blast. We talked about her recent 40th birthday celebrations, co-hosting a podcast with her fiancé Sue Bird, watching former teammates retire and more. Never a dull moment with Pino. Take a listen. What do you miss the most about being a pro athlete? The final. The final. And the locker room. I really, really, like, you just, you can't replicate. You can't get back. Showing up to locker room every morning just to shit talk. We've got more incredible guests like the legendary Candace Park.

and college superstar A. Z. Fudd. I mean, seriously, y'all. The guest list is absolutely stacked for season two. And, you know, we're always going to keep you up to speed on all the news and happenings around the women's sports world as well. So make sure you listen to Good Game with Sarah Spain on the Iheart radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. Presented by Capital One, founding partner of IHeart Women's Sports. all right so we are talking about quantum mechanics and we're trying to get an intuitive grasp of quantum mechanics we want not just that you say things about quantum mechanics that sound intelligent we want to actually get an understanding how do things work at the lowest level what intuition do we have that we can apply and the key thing again remember is the wave function you have quantum mechanical objects like electrons and protons and photons they are difficult to describe using our classical ideas of balls and objects that move through space because quantum objects don't have paths. Instead, we're going to focus on their wave function,

the thing that says where they are likely to be, and we're going to understand how that wave function changes through time. And we're going to grab onto that. Instead of having a classical path for the object, we're going to understand how the wave function changes through time, because that's the thing that's most like a classical path. All right, so we're going to start very simple, and we're going to work up to more complicated situations.

Imagine that you are a photon. you are a tiny little quantum particle and you're shot out of a laser with a bunch of your friends towards a screen what happens well you leave the laser right later you hit the screen does that mean that you flew through the room from the laser to the screen not necessarily right you do not have a classical path just because you left the laser and later hit the screen doesn't mean you have a trajectory doesn't mean that you necessarily can be found in between. Things in the quantum realm don't go. However, your wave function does. When you're created inside the laser, just at the aperture of the laser, your wave function says where you're likely to be. And then your wave

function flows through the room. If it isn't interacting with everything, it just flows nicely through the room showing the most likely place to find your location. This is not the same as having a classical path. This is sort of the path of your wave function. Then it hits the screen. And the screen essentially measures it. It says, okay, wave function, where is this photon? And that's the moment when the universe has to decide. Instead of having a probability distribution about where you are, it says, where is this actual photon? So you have two measurements, when you leave the laser and when you hit the screen. What happens in between? We don't know. But the wave function tells us, given that you've left the laser, what's the likely place to land on the screen? And then when you land on the

screen, the universe rolls a die and says where you actually are. Okay, that's easy. Now, let's do the experiment again, a bunch of photons flying out from a laser towards a wall. Let's bring in some black walls so that instead of having a totally clear path to the screen, you have sort of a narrow gap, not too small, you know, a few inches. So what's going to happen? Well, some of the photons that leave the laser are going to go right through that gap and hit the screen just like before. Some of them are going to hit the walls that block a fraction of the laser. And so on the screen behind, what you'll get is sort of a geometric shadow. Places where the photon made it through the gap, you're going to hit the screen at the back.

Places where they hit the walls that we introduced to make this little gap, they're going to hit those walls and then not going to make it to the screen. All right. So instead of having just the laser splash on the back screen, now we have something called a geometric shadow, geometric because it has crisp edges and it follows the shape of the thing that the laser went through. No big deal. Now, let's narrow the gap. Let's squeeze those two walls that confine the laser to very, very small, something like hundreds of nanometers. Approximately the wavelength of light that's going through it. Now what we see on the back wall changes. Instead of seeing a geometric shadow, what we see is sort of a spray of light. The light is spreading out a little

bit. It doesn't just become as narrow as the gap it's shining through. It spreads out a little bit. This is a wave effect. It happens any time a wave passes through a slit that's narrow compared to its wavelength. We can do a deep dive on diffraction, and maybe we will in a future podcast, but it's not critical to understand here. The only thing you need to understand is at any time a wave, meaning sound or light or bathtub splashes or wave functions, pass through a narrow slit, they spread out a little bit. You can do the same kind of experiment in a bathtub. If you send water waves through a very narrow gap, you notice that when they come out of that gap, they spread out. They don't just shoot out in a narrow column. All right, so now we have a very

narrow gap. And on the back screen, we have a sort of a spray of results. We have a spray, not just a very narrow geometric shadow, we have a spray of results where the light can land. All right. Now we're going to make a second narrow gap. So we have sources of light in the back, maybe lasers, maybe flashlights, it doesn't matter, and they shoot light out, and then we have two narrow gaps for the light to fly through. And so we have light coming through both of those gaps towards the wall. What do you see on the back screen? You might think, oh, I have two copies of what I saw when I had one narrow gap, because now I have two narrow gaps, so how hard can this be? That's not quite true. What you see is an interference pattern. An interference pattern is what happens when two

waves collide. Because remember that waves are an oscillation. For example, if you have waves in your bathtub, those waves are just the motion of the water moving up and down. They're not their own thing. They're a motion of the water. Same way, sound waves, these sounds that I'm making into the microphone that you're hearing in your earbuds or wherever you're listening, those are oscillations of the air. The air itself is shaking. And because it's the shaking of a medium, if something else comes along and shakes it in another way, those, that shaking can interfere. And you can have two kinds of interference. You can have constructive interference.

Two things are shaking it the same way, so you get sort of double shaking. Or you can have destructive interference, where two things are shaking it in the opposite way, and they cancel each other out. For example, this is how noise-canceling headphones work. They very rapidly hear the noises that are around you and emit exactly the right sound to cancel out the sound. You can create sound, which will negate the other sound, by shaking it the opposite direction. So when the two shakings add up, they add up to zero. So this is an interference

pattern, places where things add up to be stronger and places where things can cancel each other out. If you look on that screen, what you'll see is a very bright band in the middle where the two sources of light from the two narrow gaps are adding up on top of each other. And just to the left of it is a dark band, a band where the things are canceling each other out. And as you move along the screen, you get bands of light and bands of dark, bands of light and bands of dark. And the exact width of those things depends on the wavelength of the thing that's interfering with itself. Now, you're probably thinking, oh, well, light is a wave, right? And if light is a wave, it makes perfect sense for light to interfere with itself, the same way sound does,

and the same way waves in your bathtub might. That intuition makes sense, but unfortunately, that is not what's happening. And the next experiment reveals that it's something much weirder, much more fascinating, which reveals the true quantum nature of light. So we have two narrow gaps, and we're shining light through both gaps, and we see an interference pattern on the back screen. And we think, well, that's fascinating. I bet it's because light is interfering, that light is coming through both gaps, and when it comes out the other side, either it adds up constructively, we get a bright patch, or it cancels itself out, and we get a dark patch. So now let's do an experiment to discover if that's actually true. What we're going to do is we're going

to dial down the source of the light. Maybe we had a laser, maybe we had a flash light. It doesn't matter too much. But let's turn down the source of the light. And as we talked about in a podcast very recently, light is not continuous. It's not just the smooth oscillations of the electromagnetic waves. Light is made of packets, and those packets are photons. So you can't actually turn a light down to any arbitrary value. You have to turn it down, for example, one photon a second or two photons a second or three photons a second you can't have one point five photons a second but what we can do is something really fascinating we can turn the light down so we're shooting out one photon at a time maybe one photon and then you wait five seconds you shoot out another photon the

idea is that one photon has had plenty of time to go through the whole experiment before the next photon comes through now if the interference comes from light coming through both of those narrow and then interfering, then the interference pattern should vanish when we slow the experiment down to one photon at a time because there's only one photon in the experiment at a time. There's no other photon to interfere. That's what you would expect if the interference pattern came from the interference of the light waves. But it doesn't because what happens when we do this experiment is that we still get an interference pattern. I remember learning about this in college and it blew my mind.

You shoot one photon at a time, one photon goes here, another one goes there. And remember, quantum mechanics is random. So there's a wave function for each photon, and that wave function says the probability of any given photon going somewhere. But two photons shot in exactly the same direction under the same conditions don't have to land in the same place. The universe throws a new quantum number for every photon. So the first one might land here, and the next one might land there. And what you do as you do this experiment, which now takes longer because you're shooting a lot of individual photons, what you see is that you very gradually build up the interference pattern again. You get a lot more photons landing where the interference pattern was bright.

And you get no photons landing where the screen was previously dark. And you get a few landing where the screen was a little bit bright. So the photons follow this interference pattern. It's like for each one, it says, all right, well, we got up. have a bunch over here and a few over there and none over there. So let's roll a dye and see where you're going to go. And eventually, you just build up exactly the same pattern that you saw before.

So how is that possible? How is it possible to have an interference pattern if you don't have two photons in the experiment at once? What is doing the interfering? Well, the problem with this thinking is that you're thinking of the photons as flying through the experiment. But remember, they don't have quantum paths. These things exist when they leave the light source and then they exist when they hit the screen.

But in between, they don't necessarily have a location that we can think about sensibly. But what they do have is a wave function. So instead of trying to follow the photon through the experiment and making sense of it, let's follow the wave function. That's the thing we're going to grab onto and try to make sense of, something that we can actually understand. So let's start from the beginning. The photon is shot out from this laser or this flashlight, whatever.

and has a certain wave function to be there. Now, the wave function flies across the room, and it spreads out a little bit because that's the source of the light, and then it hits the wall, the wall that has two narrow gaps in it. Then what happens? Well, nobody's made a measurement yet. The photon is interacting with this wall, but nobody's looking. Nobody's asked, where is the photon? So it has 50% chance to go through one slit and 50% chance to go through the other slit.

So what happens when the wave function hits the wall? And remember, it's okay to talk about the wave function moving through space. The wave function has a path that we can think about. So when the wave function hits the wall, it splits in two. Half of it goes through one slit and half of it goes through the other slit. And that reflects the fact that the photon itself has a 50% chance of hitting one slit and a 50% chance of hitting the other slit. And if nobody has asked which slit did it go through, it just has 50% chance of

going through one and a 50% chance of going through the other. Now let's follow the wave function. The wave function comes out the other side of these slits. And there's a little bit of source of wave function from one slit and source of wave function of the other slit. And a wave function, of course, is a wave. So what happens when you get two sources of a wave coming out from the wall towards the screen?

Of course, you get interference. And so on the screen, what's actually happening is that the wave function is interfering with itself. And it gives the photon a high probability to be in some locations and a low probability to be in other locations and a zero probability to be in some locations. So for the wave function, it determines where that photon, that individual photon that we put into our experiment is likely to land. And so the thing that's doing the interfering is not light because you have a single photon in the experiment at once. And if you're not convinced that this is the wave function interfering, because you think maybe it's really just light interfering. Wouldn't that be simpler?

But remember that we're sending a single photon through at a time in order to prevent the photons from interacting, from interfering with each other. But the real killer is that they did this experiment, not with photons, but later with electrons. And they got the same result. But what's doing the interfering is the wave function. Another way to think about it is that the photon has equal probability to go through one slit and the other, and that probability is doing the interfering. Because remember, the wave function is what controls where the particle has a probability to be. So because it has a probability to be through slit one and through slit two, those probabilities interfere with each other. And those probabilities determine where

the photon can land on the back screen. And that's what we see. And that's why it builds up one at a time. Because for photon number one, it follows that distribution and the universe rolls a die only when it gets to the back screen. That's when we're measuring it. That's when we're interacting with it. That's when we're saying, okay, photon, where are you? So remember that the quantum wave function determines where you are most likely, you the photon are most likely to be found. And there are parts of the screen where the photon has a high chance of landing because the wave function interferes constructively and places on the screen where has no chance of landing. And there are parts of the screen, because the two halves of its wave function are interfering with each other destructively.

They're canceling each other out. And you might be thinking, well, is the wave function a physical thing? Is it just a tool we're using to calculate things? Or is it something that's real and part of the universe? That's a hard question to answer. It's philosophical. But here we're seeing real physical effects of the existence of the wave function. The wave function really does act like a wave and a wave that you can grasp on,

a way that you can use your intuition to understand. You can think of this wave function the same way you think of waves in water, flowing through things and diffracting and interfering and doing all those wave-like things. And this is the key to understanding quantum mechanics is grabbing onto the wave function because it flows and it moves just like a classical wave. It's just that it determines the performance and the behavior in the location of a crazy quantum object. So while that sinks into your brain, you're understanding your classical intuition for the quantum.

wave function and how a single photon's wave function can interfere with itself to give you this crazy pattern on the screen. While that's in your mind, let's take a quick break before we think about the last, the craziest, the most amazing part of this double-slit experiment just after this break. A foot washed up a shoe with some bones in it. They had no idea who it was. Most everything was burned up pretty good from the fire that not a whole lot was salvageable. These are the coldest of cold cases, but everything is about to change. Every case that is a cold case that has DNA right now in a backlog will be identified in our lifetime.

A small lab in Texas is cracking the code on DNA. Using new scientific tools, they're finding clues in evidence so tiny you might just miss it. He never thought he was going to get caught. And I just looked at my computer screen. I was just like, ah, got you. On America's Crime Lab, we'll learn about victims and survivors. And you'll meet the team behind the scenes at Othrum, the Houston Lab that takes on the most hopeless cases

to finally solve the unsolvable. Listen to America's Crime Lab on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. I'm Dr. Joy Harden Bradford. And in session 421 of Therapy for Black Girls, I sit down with Dr. Afea and Billy Shaka to explore how our hair connects to our identity, mental health, and the ways we heal. Because I think hair is a complex language system, right? In terms of it can tell how old you are, your marital status, where you're from, you're a spiritual belief.

But I think with social media, there's like a hyperfixation and observation of our hair, right? That this is sometimes the first thing someone sees when we make a post or a reel is how our hair is styled. We talk about the important role hairstylists play in our community, the pressure to always look put together, and how breaking up with perfection can actually free us. Plus, if you're someone who gets anxious about flying,

don't miss Session 418 with Dr. Angela Neil Barnett, where we dive into managing flight anxiety. Listen to therapy for black girls on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast. Get fired up, y'all. Season two of Good Game with Sarah Spain is under way. We just welcomed one of my favorite people and an incomparable soccer icon, Megan Rapino, to the show, and we had a blast. We talked about her recent 40th birthday

celebrations, co-hosting a podcast with her fiancé Sue Bird, watching former teammates retire and more. Never a dull moment with Pino. Take a listen. What do you miss the most about being a pro athlete? The final. The final. And the locker room. I really, really, like, you just, you can't replicate. You can't get back. Showing up to locker room every morning just to shi-talk. We've got more incredible guests like the legendary Candace Parker and college superstar AZ Fudd. I mean, seriously, y'all.

The guest list is absolutely stacked for season two. And, you know, we're always going to keep you up to speed on all the news and happenings around the women's sports world as well. So make sure you listen to Good Game with Sarah Spain on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. Presented by Capital One, founding partner of IHeart Women's Sports. all right so we are spending time in the quantum realm trying to become familiar trying to develop an intuition and the key point i'm trying to make today is that your intuition cannot be applied

to a quantum object because it's just different from the kind of things you're familiar with it is not a tiny spinning ball it is not a wave it is neither it is both it is something new and weird that possibly we will never understand. But in my view, the best chance to understanding it is to spend time with it, to develop an intuition by immersion. So that's what we're doing today. We are flying our way through experiments conducted by a physicist trying to reveal the true nature of the universe.

So we started out just shooting photons against a screen to get familiar with the idea that the photons don't move from one side of the screen to the other. They have a probability to be in a certain place. They only exist where they are measured. and in between, they do not necessarily have a path. You measure something, you see the photon coming out of the light source, and later you see it on the screen.

Doesn't mean you can draw a straight line between those and say the light was here. But what you can do is talk about its wave function. The wave function leaves the light source and later hits the screen, where eventually the universe demands a measurement, and so the universe has to decide based on where the wave function is, where to actually put the photon. But that wave function is something you can grasp, something you can follow through space in a way that your intuition will be satisfied with.

So then we added these barriers. So instead of just splashing light on the back screen, we saw a geometric shadow. Then we narrowed the barriers until we saw the effects of waves. We saw the fact that waves coming through a very narrow gap will spread out a little bit. And then we added a second narrow gap. So we had two sources of waves and those waves apparently were interfering. And your intuition was suggested that maybe it was light doing the interfering because we like to think of light as a wave.

But then we played a trick. We said, let's slow down the experiment, only shoot one photon at a time. And this, in theory, if light was a wave and it was waves doing the interacting, this should destroy the interference pattern because only one photon was going through the experiment at a time. But it didn't. It slowed down the interference pattern. And it showed us that there was still something there doing the interfering.

And that's the key, is letting go of this. idea that the light is flowing through the experiment because quantum objects don't flow. They don't go. They don't have paths. Instead, what's flowing through the experiment is the quantum wave of the photon. And the quantum wave of the photon can go through either slit. It's a 50% chance to go through one and a 50% chance to go through the other. And then it interferes with itself.

It gives us this interference pattern. And it's hard to get your mind around what it means for the photon to have a chance to go through both slits at once. Most likely you think of it like this. You think, well, the photon either went through one slit or the other, we just don't know. And it's true that often in science and in physics, we use probability to describe our lack of knowledge. We say the universe is 13.8 billion years old plus or minus 100 million. And it reflects not the fact that the universe doesn't have a specific age, but just the fact that we don't know it well enough, that we haven't been able to measure it. But this is different.

It's not true that the photon went through one slit or went through the other and we just don't know. The truth is that its wave went through both. It needed to go through both in order to give us the interference pattern. Remember, we didn't collapse the wave. We didn't interfere. We didn't interact with the photon when it's going through the slit. We just let it fly through one slit or the other. We don't pay attention.

We only are looking at the back screen. So let's dig into that. Let's try to probe that. What if we try to figure out which slit the photon actually went through? Because we are a hardcore classicist and we want to know, did it go through one or the other? So we build a little detector, a detector that doesn't change the direction of the photon in a measurable way, but just tells us whether a photon went through a slit.

And we attach it to one of the slits. And we do our experiment again. And the idea here is just to confirm our intuition, our classical intuition, that the photon went through one slit or the other. We turn on the experiment again. We shoot one single photon at a time. And for every photon, our detector tells us whether it went through slit 1 because it beeps or whether it went through slit 2 because it doesn't beep.

Do we get the same result on the back screen? The answer is we do not. We do not get the interference pattern on the back screen. Instead, what we get are two geometrical shadows. And at first, this might be nonsensical. You might think, well, but the detector is just telling you whether the photon went through one or the other. It's not changing the photon in any measurable way.

What's the issue? How could it possibly change what we're seeing in the back screen? But that's because you're thinking about the photon as having a path, is flying through and you think, well, it either went through one slit or the other. It doesn't matter if I know that shouldn't change what happens. It's like if you're watching a horse race, just watching what happens around the first bend shouldn't change who wins the race, right? Well, that's not the case because remember what's flying through your experiment is not a photon. Photons don't fly through things. They're not classical objects with paths. What's flying through the experiment is a quantum wave. And the quantum wave is sensitive to being watched. When you watch a quantum wave, when you interact with it, when you say, okay, quantum wave of this photon, where's the photon now? Then it changes it. It collapses and it says, okay, the photon is here. And then the quantum wave can continue. But you've narrowed it down, you pinned it down and said, okay, it's right here. And then the quantum wave continues from that location.

So in the first scenario, when we didn't have the detector, the quantum wave flies, it hits the two slits and it splits in half, and some of the quantum wave goes through both slits. Each slit emits some portion of the quantum wave, and those two halves interfere with each other. In the version where you have the detector on, then you're asking the universe to decide which slit the photon went through, not just to reveal, but to decide which slit the photon went through. So the quantum wave can only go through one of the slits and not the other one. Because the detector tells you which slit it went through, it has no probability to go

through the other slit. So all it can do is then emit some quantum wave from one of the slits. If you hadn't looked, then it's free to emit quantum wave from both slits, which can then interfere. But if you look, if you demand an answer, if you want to know which slit it went through, then the quantum wave can only emit from the other slit. And then there's no interference. pattern. It's just like as if you had one slit. And this is the thing that blows most people's minds that asking questions of the universe changes the answer. And it's true because quantum waves respond to measurement. They like to be uncertain. They're happy to fly through the universe, keeping their uncertainty, their probability distribution until they are asked. And that moment that you

ask it, then it collapses and it says the photon is here. The photon is there. So this is an object we can grasp onto because it helps us understand how things move through the universe. But also is something new and something weird and something we have to get familiar with. But the only way to do that, of course, is to spend some time with it. So I hope that's helped you understand a little bit about quantum mechanics. The first step in becoming familiar with the quantum realm is to abandon your idea of a quantum path, that things have to move through the universe in a continuous manner. That if you're over here and later you're over there, you have to have somehow moved from one to the other. But instead, instead of grabbing onto this quantum path, there is something else

you can grab onto, this quantum wave function, which behaves in very understandable ways. And we have equations that cover exactly how it moves. And those equations like the Schrodinger wave equation, treat these things like waves, waves that we can understand that we can actually apply our wave-like intuition to. So if you want to develop an intuition for quantum mechanics, get cozy with the wave function. Now, the wave function, of course, has other mysteries, that continue to confound us. And the biggest one is this business about measurement. How is it the wave function knows to collapse?

That we've asked it a question and it's given us an answer. That when the wave function hits the screen, it says the photon has various probabilities to be in various locations, but then it actually makes a decision. When does the universe decide to roll this dice and say, all right, photon number 74, you are over here. Photon number 78, you are over there. That is a deep and recurring mystery of quantum mechanics that nobody really knows the answer to.

This description I've given you today is sometimes known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, and it has deep flaws in it, flaws like who's doing the measuring? You might ask, for example, if the photons hit the screen, but nobody looks, if there are no humans in that universe, no scientist to do the observing, then does the universe collapse the wave function, or does it keep it vague? We don't know the answer to that question because we can't do the experiment in which nobody looks and also know the answer. So that's frustrating. And that's the source of a lot of discussion about quantum mechanics.

And there are other interpretations out there like the many worlds interpretations that clever people like Sean Carroll find much more natural. But they require you to accept the existence of a huge number of other alternative universes. So every interpretation of quantum mechanics comes with some sort of cognitive load. And today we're not going to understand all of the nuances and open questions. questions of quantum mechanics, we just wanted to spend some time becoming familiar with the quantum realm. So the next time you read about quantum mechanics or think about quantum computers or even just are on a trip somewhere weird and unusual. Remember, you can become familiar with something strange, something out of your experience, as long as you spent enough time immersing

in it, marinating in the mathematics and the logic of it. And eventually, it will become part of who you are. Thanks for listening to this explanation of our amazing and crazy and totally bonkers universe. And if you have things that you'd like us to discuss and to break down in an accessible way, please send them to us at Feedback at Danielandhorpe.com. Thanks for tuning in. If you still have a question after listening to all these explanations, please drop us a line. We'd love to hear from you. You can find us at Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram at Daniel and Jorge. word, or email us at

Feedback at Daniel and Jorge.com. Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe is a production of IHeartRadio. For more podcasts from IHeartRadio, visit the

iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite shows. When your car is making a strange noise. No matter what it is, you can't just pretend it's not happening. That's an interesting sound. It's like your mental health.

If you're struggling and feeling overwhelmed, it's important to do something about it. It can be as simple as talking to someone, or just taking a deep, calming breath to ground yourself, because once you start to address the problem, you can go so much further. The Huntsman Mental Health Institute and the Ad Council have resources available for you at Love Your Mind Today.org. Tune in to All the Smoke Podcast, where Matt and Stacks sit down with former first lady, Michelle Obama. Folks find it hard to hate up close. And when you get to know people, you're sitting in their kitchen tables, and they're talking like we're talking.

You know, you hear our story, how we grew up, how I grew up, and you get a chance for people to unpack and get beyond race. All the Smoke featuring Michelle Obama. To hear this podcast and more, open your free Eyeheart Radio app. Search all the smoke and listen now. Have you ever wished for a change but weren't sure how to make it? Maybe you felt stuck in a job, a place, or even a relationship. I'm Emily Tish Sussman, and on She Pivots, I dive into the inspiring pivots of women who have taken big leaps in their lives and careers. I'm Gretchen Whitmer, Jody Sweetie.

Monica Patton. Elaine Welteroth. Learn how to get comfortable pivoting because your life is going to be full of them. Listen to these women and more on She Pivots. Now on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast. This is an IHeart podcast.