Daniel and Kelly’s Extraordinary Universe - Listener Questions #26

Episode Date: January 1, 2026

Daniel and Kelly answer questions about tornadoes, water purification, and massive moons in the sky.See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

This is an I-Heart podcast. Guaranteed Human. Hey, everybody. It's Michelle Williams, host of checking in on the Black Effect podcast network. You know, we always say New Year, New Me, but real change starts on the inside. It starts with giving your mind and your spirit the same attention you give your goals. And on my podcast, we talk mental health, healing, growth, and everything you need to step into your next season, whole and empowered. New Year.

real you. Listen to checking game with Michelle Williams from the Black Effect Podcast Network on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcast, or wherever you get your podcast.

I know he has a reputation, but it's going to catch up to him. Gabe Ortiz is a cop. His brother Larry, a mystery Gabe didn't want to solve until it was too late. He was the head of this gang. You're going to push that line for the cause.

Took us under his wing and showed us the game, as they call it. When Larry's killed, gave Must Untangle a dangerous past, one that could destroy everything he thought he knew. Listen to the brothers Ortiz on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. Who would you call if the unthinkable happened?

I said, it was y'all 22 times. A police officer, right? But what do you do when the monster is the man in blue? This dude is the devil. He'll hurt you. This is the story of a detective who thought he was above the law, until we came together to take him down. I said, you're going to see my face

till the day that you die. Listen to the girlfriends, untouchable, on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast. Hi, Kyle, could you draw up a quick document with the basic business plan? Just one page as a Google Doc. And send me the link. Thanks.

Hey, just finished drawing up that quick one page business plan for you. Here's the link. But there was no link. There was no business plan. I hadn't programmed Kyle to be able to do that yet. I'm Evan Ratliff here with a story of entrepreneurship in the AI age. Listen as I attempt to build a real startup run by fake people.

Check out the second season of my podcast, Shell Game, on the IHeart Radio app or wherever you get your podcasts. On the plains, is that because hills block all the rains? When we treat water, we rotate, filtrate, and aerate. Tell me more, but be careful how you pronounce, floculate. How large can a moon appear in our sky without being shredded by gravity's tides? Whatever questions keep you up at night, Daniel and Kelly's answers will make it right. Welcome to Daniel and Kelly's extraordinary universe. Hello, I'm Kelly Weiner-Smith.

I study parasites and space, and I am afraid of tornadoes. Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist, and I'm afraid of Zach's comments on our poetic introductions. Oh, are we going to let the listeners know that Zach skips the introductions for the listener question episodes because he is actually really good at poetry and finds our poetry sort of nauseating. It's not what we're famous for. Let's just put it that way. We're having fun. But let me put it this way. At least your spouse listens to our podcast. Katrina doesn't? Oh, no. Mm-mm. Oh, I'm mortified. Do we really want to keep having her on our show?

The answer is yes. We absolutely do. This is my secret plan to pull her in to hook her on the podcast. Oh, fantastic. So we're talking about tornadoes today. Let's share our scariest tornado story. Do you have any tornado stories? Oh, I do have a tornado story, though. I wasn't very scared. I was in my dorm room at Rice in Houston and studying really hard for a test.

And I heard a bunch of shouting in the hallways, and I ignored it because I was busy. And then later I discovered there was a tornado that went right through Houston and within about a mile of the campus. and I didn't know anything about it. And that's not very typical for tornadoes to pass through cities. So it was something of an event. How about you? What's the closest you've been to a tornado? So Zach and I moved to Tuscaloosa, Alabama right after, like, the big tornado

that, like, knocked out a bunch of the city. And we were in a hotel before we got our keys to our place. And there was a tornado warning in the area. And I was like, oh, my gosh, another tornado is going to take out half the city. And Zach was not worried at all. and I was panicking, and Zach's like, all right, well, you're obviously not going to sleep. So, well, you're panicking. I'm going to take a shower.

And I was looking up, what do you do if there's a tornado? And you're supposed to, like, get in a tub. Oh. And so Zach finishes the shower. He comes out, and I'm panicking. And I was like, I think we should get in the tub. And Zach is, like, almost to sleep already. And I go into the tub and, like, the tub is filled with water.

Like, something had happened with the drain. And I was like, now we're going to drown. And I was more worried about, like, Zach hampering our ability to to survive the tornado. And anyway, we were totally fine. And I am kind of nuts, is the point. Sounds like a swirling panic attack. I'm known for those.

Yeah. Yeah. Well, today you don't have to panic because you are not going to experience a tornado. Instead, you're going to experience an explanation of how tornadoes work and where they form. Because we are answering questions from listeners like you, people, just like you, who listen to the podcast and want to know how things work out there. in the universe. They can't find answers online. They ask JetGBT. They're not satisfied. So they write to us. And we are very happy to provide some answers. Daniel, how can you know for sure they're not going to be experiencing a tornado? They could be listening to this at any time. There could be a

tornado when they're listening. No, this is a tornado free podcast. I'm providing my guarantee. I think you are violating the rules of physics. And I'm going to write the physicist board and you're going to lose your job, man. I'm going to hedge because everything is statistical and particle physics. So I'm going to give you my 95% guarantee. And that's my highest guarantee. All right. Well, that's a pretty high guarantee. It sounds to me like you just pulled that number out of swirling thin air. All of statistics sounds like that. But really, there's a lot of rigorous calculations behind it. Trust me. All right. Well, let's move on to more solid ground and answer some questions from listeners. Here's a question from Patrick about tornadoes.

Hi Daniel and Kelly. We had some tornadoes touched down outside of Cincinnati recently, and I've noticed tornadoes seem to hit the flatter, more open areas outside the city, more often than the city itself. I was thinking about why this might be and wondering if I'm on the right track. So the weather system builds up enough power to form a tornado over the unobstructed flat land, but in hilly areas and populated areas, the power is attenuated by the hills and buildings. or, alternately, the tornado's oscillation is damped by the obstacles. So thanks for taking my question, and let me know if I'm on the right track. Whoa, tornadoes in Cincinnati. I grew up in Ohio, and I don't feel like tornadoes should be allowed in Ohio. I'm sorry you had to go through that, Patrick. Well, Cincinnati's like kind of on the border, isn't it? It's like partly in Ohio, partly in Kentucky, right?

No, it's in Ohio. Isn't there a river that runs through it? Well, maybe, maybe I'm wrong. It might be a little bit in Kentucky. What? I think technically you're right because the part of the city that's north of the Ohio River is Cincinnati. But there's definitely lots of city on the other side, whether or not you officially call it Cincinnati. Daniel, I am going to have to actually, I'm giving this point to you.

I'm sorry. I did not carefully study Ohio geography because I was trying real hard to. get out of there. Sorry, Ohio. Let me tell you about your home state. That's right. All right. Kelly's batten 0 for one so far.

All right. What is a tornado, Daniel? What am I so afraid of? So we've all seen tornadoes and movies, et cetera. They're essentially rotating columns of air in contact with the cloud and the ground. So you see this tube and it's like twisting and flailing around and they can be very very, very powerful. The winds can be like up to 480 kilometers per hour. Super incredible. What is that in freedom units?

Fast. It's fast in feeding units. It's destructive. Yeah. And they can be quite narrow or they can be really wide, like big monster tornadoes up to three kilometers wide. And for it to be classed a tornado has to come from the cloud and make contact with the ground. And that's where the destruction happens, these powerful winds, the funnel touching the ground, and that funnel travels across the ground and tear stuff up. And it can go for like up to 100 kilometers tearing a path of destruction across Kansas or Ohio or wherever. Alabama. Man, do tornadoes always go from the clouds to the ground? They never go from the ground to the clouds. That's right. They always start in the cloud and then descend to the ground. There are other similar patterns like dust devils you might have seen,

which looks similar to tornadoes but aren't officially tornadoes. Those just are whirling patterns of wind on the ground that touch only the ground and there's no cloud above them. So they're not officially tornadoes. And if it's over water, they can be called a water spout. So there's a few variants of them. Okay. And are those things ever as damaging as tornadoes or are they like tornadoes baby sisters and baby brothers? Well, they can be as powerful because the storms can be powerful.

But unless you're living on the water, they're not damaging houses, right? So the most damaging ones are the ones that touch the ground because that's where the houses are. Got it. Okay. All right. And where, so we've, we've noted that they do sort of tend to be, like, aggregated in certain geographic regions. Why is that? This is something that really America is best at.

American exceptionalism has data to back it up in the case of tornadoes. Most of the tornadoes in the world are in the United States. We have, like, 800 per year. And most of them are in a slice of the year. U.S. in central and southeast corners of the country, which we affectionately call tornado alley. So there's like four times as many tornadoes in the U.S. as there are in all of Europe. You have a few in like South Africa, some in Europe, Australia, eastern India, but primarily it's a thing the U.S. is best at.

The wind really likes us. All right. So why are we cursed with these tornadoes? Yeah. So to understand why tornadoes happen here and less often elsewhere, you have to understand how they form. And this is not something where the science is totally settled. People are still working on this. It's a great example of complexity. You're studying a system which has lots of components, which interact very strongly. Pulling a simple story out of that is not always possible, but people are

working on it. We think that the ingredients are, number one, a huge thunderstorm, but not just like a normal thunderstorm, one with like really powerful, strong winds, hailstones, et cetera. And in particular a thunderstorm called a supercell, which is a set of towering clouds up to 15 kilometers tall. So like a really massive cloud. So that's ingredient number one. It's like a really powerful thunderstorm, a very tall one. And then below that, you need warm, moist air on the ground. And we'll talk about how these come together into a tornado in a minute. And the third ingredient is sheer. You need strong changes in the wind speed as you go up or down in altitude. And so these things, how they come together to make a tornado, again, it's not fully understood. There's a bunch of

different theories out there. One is that it starts in the storm. You have these pockets of rotation in the storm, and then they somehow intensify and touch the ground. And one way this might happen is that the warm, moist air on the ground is rising up. And there's already like pockets of rotation in the storm, and the rising air connects with those and creates like a horizontal rotation, right? So you have this rising pattern, sort of like in a hurricane. You have like rising air in the center, which then moves out to the edges. So you get these horizontal rotation, which then gets tilted into a vertical column somehow. So that's sort of one cartoon explanation. But that kind of sounds like it's starting from the bottom and like meeting the hurricane halfway.

Like it's coming from the top and the bottom. So what am I, what am I missing there? Yeah, you're right. And again, simple story. stories are never going to describe the complexity. What's happening there is that you have this rising air, which is coming up and contributing and helping pull the cloud down. But still, the cloud is moving down towards the ground. It's not like there's a tornado forming on the ground and reaching up to the cloud. It's really the cloud coming down to meet the ground. Yes, being pulled down and contributing by stuff on the ground. Okay. There's another idea that maybe there's a sudden down draft, a special kind of down draft in the cloud that reaches down and squeezes a column

of air, which happens to be spinning, and now because you've squeezed it, it's spinning faster, and that instigates the tornado. This is a third theory that maybe there are a lot of small vortices on the ground, like a bunch of little random ones which merge together and then start spinning and pull the cloud down. And so there's lots of different explanations. And one reason that we don't have an answer is that it is a complex situation. Even if you have all the data, even if you take lots of measurements, answering the

question of like, well, why did this happen is complicated. We touched on this in our episode on causality. Like, is there a single reason why it happens? What are the necessary ingredients? Even thinking about, like, what an explanation would look like is a little bit fuzzy because it's a really complicated environment. It's not like a single Rube Goldberg machine where you say like A causes B, which causes C, which causes D. Right? You have to have a lot of ingredients in place and maybe there's ranges of requirements. A lot of people are doing simulation studies where they try to create tornadoes in simulations to see, like, what ingredients are necessary and how often does it happen? It's very expensive simulations because you have to simulate, like, all the

raindrops and all the different areas of wind here and there. So it's something people are definitely working on, but not something we fully understand. Well, I love that you've been covering the weather lately, and so now I feel like I can ask you any weather-related questions. So this is great for me, so. And I'll give you a 95% confident answer on anything. I don't feel great about that. So do we understand why you get very strong thunderstorms in some area, since that's like ingredient number one that you need? Do we understand that? Not fully. Weather is, of course, chaotic. But we can model storms reasonably well, the formation of storms. Like, we can predict when it's going to rain and when it's going to hail. Check back to our episode about predicting

the weather we did recently to hear all about that. So those ingredients are reasonably well understood. but why they come together to make a tornado sometimes and not others, it's a bit of a mystery. You have like storm watchers on the ground, and they'll be watching a storm. They're like, oh, it feels like it's going to come together, and then it just like fizzles out, and no tornado happens. And we don't have a clear understanding of why that is sometimes. But these rough ideas that you need a combination of thunderstorms and then warm air on the ground and wind shear, they can help us answer Patrick's question about why tornadoes tend to form in the planes

and your question about why tornado alley exists. Well, those things that you said, those seem like there are things that happen just about anywhere, right? Severe, storms, warm, moist air, and sheer. Like, you should be able to get that anywhere, right? Yeah, you can. And there are tornadoes all over the place. But in lots of places, there are mountains which block warm, moist air from coming in from the ocean. Whereas in the United States, for example, you got the Gulf of Mexico, which is a lot of warm water.

And there's a lot of warm, moist air that comes in from the Gulf of Mexico. And there's no major mountain ring. there to block it like Louisiana, no mountains there. That whole state is totally flat, right? So that warm moist air just rolls up into the center of the United States and combines with Midwestern thunderstorms to give you tornadoes. And the reason it doesn't extend like further west is we have the Rocky mountains, like running through New Mexico and Colorado and Wyoming and Idaho. The Rockies block a lot of that warm moist air. And so you don't get tornadoes in Utah, for example, as often as you do in Missouri because they're blocked from the warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico.

Yes, California's got something going for it. We've got two lines that offense, the Rockies and then the Sierra's. So, yeah, absolutely. I mean, we got earthquakes over here, but, yeah, we don't have very often tornadoes. And I just realized we are maybe taking a political stance by calling it the Gulf of Mexico, and I support it 100%. We're taking a stance on facts, yeah. Yeah, well, I just looked up Google Maps and it says Gulf of Mexico.

America now. What? Oh my gosh. So the answer to Patrick's question is that we have tornadoes on flatland because you need that warm moist air and mountains block it. And so you need flatland and you need like an open corridor to a warm body of water that's going to provide that warm moist air. So that's why we have tornado alley. And that's why you have tornadoes in the city of Cincinnati in Kentucky. And I hope this is the last tornado. But I hope this is the last that hits Cincinnati, Ohio, or Cincinnati, Kentucky. Who would you call if the unthinkable happened? I just fail and started screaming.

If you lost someone you loved in the most horrific way. I said through you shot 22 times. The police, right? But what if the person you're supposed to go to for help? is the one you're the most afraid of. This dude is the devil. He's a snake. He'll hurt you.

I'm Nikki Richardson, and this is The Girlfriends, Untouchable. Detective Roger Golubski spent decades intimidating and sexually abusing black women across Kansas City, using his police badge to scare them into silence. This is the story of a detective who seemed above the law

until we came together to take him down. I told Roger Galuski, I said, you're going to see my face till the day that you die. Listen to the girlfriends, Untouchable, on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast.

You know, we always say New Year, New Me, but real change starts on the inside. It starts with giving your mind and your spirit the same attention you give your goals. Hey, everybody. Maddie, it's Michelle Williams, host of Checking In on the Black Effect Podcast Network. And on my podcast, we talk mental health, healing, growth, and everything you need to step into your next season, whole and empowered.

New Year, Real You. Listen to Checking in with Michelle Williams from the Black Effect Podcast Network on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcast, or wherever you get your podcasts. Dad had the strong belief that the devil was attacked. attacking us. Two brothers, one devout household, two radically different paths. Gabe Ortiz became one of the highest-ranking law enforcement officers in Texas. 32 years, total law enforcement experience. But his brother Larry, he stayed behind and built an entirely different legacy.

He was the head of this gang, and nobody was going to tell him what to do. You're going to push that line for the cause. Took us under his wing and showed us the game, as they call it. When Larry is murdered, Gabe is forced to confront the path. he tried to leave behind and uncover secrets he never saw coming. My dad had a whole other life that we never knew about. Like my mom started screaming my dad's name, and I just heard one gunshot. The Brothers Ortiz is a gripping true story about faith, family,

and how two lives can drift so far apart and collide in the most devastating way. Listen to the Brothers Ortiz on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. Hi, Kyle. Could you draw up a quick document with the basic business plan? Just one page as a Google Doc and send me the link. Thanks. Hey, just finished drawing up that quick one page business plan for you. Here's the link. But there was no link. There was no business plan. It's not his fault. I hadn't programmed Kyle to be able to do that yet. My name is Evan Ratliff. I decided to create Kyle, my AI co-founder, after hearing a lot of stuff like this from OpenAI CEO Sam Aldman. There's this betting pool for the first year that there's a one-prone. billion dollar company, which would have been like unimaginable without AI and now

will happen. I got to thinking, could I be that one person? I'd made AI agents before for my award-winning podcast, Shell Game. This season on Shell Game, I'm trying to build a real company with a real product run by fake people. Oh, hey, Evan. Good to have you join us. I found some really interesting data on adoption rates for AI agents and small to medium businesses. Listen to Shell Game on the IHeart Radio app or wherever you get your podcasts. And we're back. We're back. We're transitioning from tornadoes to biology. Yay, biology.

And I get to talk about parasites a little bit. So that's exciting. But we have a connection. Also, this is all about flowing water, isn't it? Warmth and moist are going to be relevant also for your question. Yeah, you're right. But also, there's some chemistry. And I feel like this was kind of a trick chemistry question, but I'm going to forgive John because parasites were tied in. And so that's okay.

All right. So let's hear the question from John. This is John from New Mexico. A topic for biology and a smattering of physics is how do you make water safe to drink without odine on chlorine? You could compare Los Angeles, rural Virginia, background through methods. And a word of the day in water treatment I understand is floculation. And I bet Kelly can't stay. it fast enough without making the show's rating an R instead of a G. All right. So I have practiced saying floculation so that this show can remain G instead of R or PG-13. So when you're trying to clean water, you've got a couple goals. So one, you want to remove debris like sticks and rocks and rags and stuff like that because you don't want to be drinking that, of course. You want to kill parasites, viruses, and bacteria.

and you want to remove toxic stuff like pesticides. So where is this water coming from? We're drying it from like random rivers or we're recycling water that's been used or we're gathering rainwater or what? Yeah, so John wanted to know how you get water for, for example, a big city, a rural area, and if you're a back country hiking.

But I did do a deep dive into like how we treat our sewage. So if Daniel wants to know about treating sewage, I'm happy to tell you because I felt found that fascinating when I got to that. Well, I happen to know that Orange County leads the world with their toilet to tap system. Oh, whoa. That's exciting. Katrina's a big fan.

She's always visiting the Orange County sewage treatment plant to get samples. Well, that's because she wants the phages that are in there, right? She does, exactly. Yes. Everyone should check out our episode with Katrina on phage therapy. That was amazing. All right, well, let's start with. Let's imagine that you are pulling water from a lake or a river or something like that.

And so you've got this water, it might have dirt, it might have sticks, it might have parasites, and so the first thing you're going to do is just like filter out the big stuff. So if there's like a stick in there, you just, you get that stuff out. And so now what you've got is water that has a bunch of little tiny particles in there that you don't really want in there anymore. And because they're so small, they're going to take a really long time to settle out. And so what you want to do is figure out a way to get them to settle out fast. And so the first step is called coagulation because you're trying to get all of these tiny particles to stick together so they'll settle to the bottom. And so these tiny little particles often have charges.

And because they're charged, when they get close to one another, they don't tend to stick together because they might repel each other. And so what they do, and this is where the chemistry comes in. Uh-oh. And so I know. Oh, gosh. Bracing myself. I know. Well, we're not going to get that detailed.

So don't worry. So anyway, so they tend to dump some. stuff in there like salts or kinds of aluminum or kinds of iron. And essentially the goal is to binds to these charged particles and make them neutral so that when these tiny little particles bump into one another, they're more likely to stick together and form bigger chunks. I see. All right. So neutralize their charges. Let them happily clump up together so they're easier to filter out. Yes, exactly. Okay. So now you've got these clumps. But you want to make those clumps even bigger, actually, because that would make it easier for them to fall

down to the bottom so that you can get them all out of there. And so the next step is the step that John mentioned, which is flockulation. And essentially what you're doing is... It sounds like a punishment. It does. Flagellation or something like that. But no, focus on flock. So flock is like a group of things. And the goal here is that you are very gently mixing the water so that the tiny clumps that you've made start... bumping into other clumps, and now they start making much bigger clumps. You know, it's like a flock of birds, you know, as they merge in the sky together and all head to their migration site. But here it's junk that you don't want to be drinking. And so they

bump into each other, form big chunks. And then you bring them to another area, like another big pool. And this is the sedimentation step. So you basically just let the heavy stuff fall out by letting the water sit for a while. And you draw the water off the top. And so we've added salts and aluminum and iron in order to help the stuff clump together. And what is the stuff that we're gathering up? What is the stuff that's clumping? Where does it come from? Why is it there anyway? Well, I mean, we're collecting from a natural system. And so it could be little bits of poop or little bits of sand or, you know, it could be just about anything. There's a lot of things in the river. The technical term, I think, is dirt. Does dirt also cover poop? Because that's

news to me. I think a big fraction of dirt is poop, isn't it? I don't know. Yeah. You should ask your wife. I think I will. Okay. And then we'll ask your husband to write a poem about it. Oh, fantastic. Oh, this is a family affair. I love it.

All right. So you let the heavy stuff settle to the bottom. You draw the water from the top because all the heavy stuff is now down at the bottom. And now you start running it through different kinds of filters. So what you've done is you've removed like, you know, the poop, the dirt, whatever, the, like heavy stuff. But now you want to make sure that there's no bacteria, parasites, or viruses in there anymore. These things are kind of tiny. And so now you need to start passing the water through different kinds of filters that are going to catch these tiny things.

Wow. So even for those super tiny stuff, you're still using physical filters, like super tiny meshes to block like viruses. That's insane. Well, we're also going to get to a disinfection step. And so they get a little bit more serious eventually. But here we're still trying to remove like the bigger stuff. Like, for example, parasites probably get stuck if you make it go through like a big thing of sand and the water has to sort of like filter through the sand. So you get some of that stuff out that way. But it's basically still the pasta strainer strategy. With a very, very fine hole in the pasta strainer. Yeah. So, I mean, think about like passing water over sand or gravel. And in some cases, charcoal.

And charcoal is using like Vanderwals forces to capture stuff. And then, you know, whatever trickles out the bottom is probably pretty clean. But viruses are really tiny. And so the viruses and stuff probably got through. And so the next step is disinfection, where they usually add like chlorine, chloramine, chlorine dioxide, chlorine stuff to try to kill whatever is left in there that might be alive. They can also pass it through like some UV light to try to like break up the DNA in these organisms to kill them. But most places, as far as I can tell, use some version of like, you know, bleach, some version of like chlorine. And the other benefit of using chlorine is that it continues.

used to kill things as the water is passing through your local, like municipal pipes to get to your house. Well, at the Orange County water treatment plant, they walk you through the whole process. And at the end, they have a tap and they, like, pour you a glass of water. And they're like, here you go. And you've seen it come from like raw sewage. Oh, man. And it's crystal clear, beautiful water. And did you, and you drank it? Oh, yeah. And a lot of our water comes from toilets, which is actually the connection with our first question, because, you know, how does that water get to the sewage treatment implant, we'll flush it down the toilet. We create a little toilet tornado. Okay. I didn't see where that was going until you got there, but amazing.

It was a bit of a reach. All right. So does that mean that the water that's coming out of our tap has chlorine in these chemicals in it and also like destroyed carcasses of bacteria and viruses? Because they can't actually remove it, right? It's still in there. Yeah, that's right. And according to the Center for Disease Control or the CDC, low levels of disinfectants like chlorine in your water don't make people sick, but some people are more sensitive to this kind of stuff than other people. If you're worried, you should talk to your physician. But we have been treating water like this for about 100 years. And for most people, it's not a problem.

And are these strategies different from what you might do in a rural region or if you're like in the backcountry? Super different. Really? Yeah. So, for example, I live in a very rural region. I say that I live in Charlottesville, but I actually live on a farm, you know, a bit away from Charlottesville. And what we use is groundwater. So we talked about how in a city you'd go through a bunch of different kinds of filtration methods.

But here, the filtration method that we use is nature. You know, rainwater falls on the ground and it has to trickle through loads of dirt and sand and stuff. And a bunch of the stuff that you don't want to be drinking sort of get stopped by the sand on the way down to become part of. of the groundwater. So the groundwater is like, you know, there's like a hard rock underneath. Groundwater accumulates on top of it. And then you can dig a well that goes into the area where water is stored underground and you can pump that up into your house.

Does that make sense? It's sort of amazing. I mean, you're talking about using nature to filter out nature. Yes, but it doesn't always work fantastically. So if you live in a city, then your water has to pass a bunch of tests before it gets to you. or like the facility needs to regularly do monitoring to make sure that like the levels that it has to hit are being achieved.

Whereas me, I have to collect water samples every year and pay somebody to test our water to make sure that, for example, our septic system isn't leaking bacteria into the groundwater or, you know, I live around a lot of farms if they were using a bunch of pesticides. Maybe some of them could seep down into the groundwater and end up in our drinking water.

So your groundwater has no filters other than this natural system. Like, you just pump it up and drink it? Yeah. Wow. Yeah. It goes through like a sedimentation step just to make sure that any dirt has fallen out of it, but we don't do anything after that.

And when people visit your farm, you don't ask them to, like, sign a waiver or anything? I mean, I've drunk this water. I was going to say, I didn't ask you to sign a waiver or Katrina. I wish I'd heard this podcast episode before I visited. But, but like I said, we get our water tested and our water always has pristine levels of everything. So country living. It was delicious. Yeah, thank you.

Country living. Country living at its best. Wow. All right. Button up your overalls and have a glass. Sounds good. I don't know why I had to go to the overalls. But anyway, all right.

Country living, no? You don't wear overalls around the farm? Not yet. Not yet. I'll get there. I'll get there. But so maybe next year when I start with my dairy goats. And don't misinterpret me.

Overalls was a positive comment. I'm not anti-overalls. No, they do look very comfy. All right. So what about if you're hiking in the back country and you don't have access to any of these things? What do you do? Okay. Well, first I'll note that not everybody is as lucky as I am.

They don't always live in an area where the groundwater is clean, in which case they do have to use extra filters or disinfectants and stuff like that. So we're lucky we don't have to add extra steps, but depending on where you are, you might have to. If you are in the back country, maybe what you're doing is you pull up to a river and you pull some water out and that is the only water you have to drink. So what are you going to do? The first thing you're going to do for all the methods we're going to talk about is strain the big junk out of it. Take out the rocks, take out the leaves, maybe pass it through a handkerchief or something. And then I check the CDC website and they actually have pretty good, pretty detailed instructions for what you're supposed to do. And the best thing to do if you're able is to boil it.

Boiling will kill the bacteria. It'll kill the viruses. It'll kill the parasites. And if you bring it up to boiling for just one minute, that's usually all it takes. But if you're at high elevation, like a. above 6,500 feet. You need to boil it for three times as long. And that is because of chemistry, so you can blame chemistry. Because water boils at lower temperatures at high altitude. Yes, exactly. So you need to do it for longer. And I love how thorough they are in their warnings. They say,

to avoid burns, allow the water to cool before using it. Don't drink boiling water, people. That's right. That's right. Remember to breathe while you're doing this process. Do not take a shower in boiling water. Thank you, CDC. Right. Don't stick knives in your eye. Yeah. But, you know, they're covering their tails. Anytime you read one of these, I imagine that there was some instance where somebody needed that warning, you know, and they're responding to that. They're like, all right, we didn't think we had to say this, but apparently. But here we are. Yeah. Exactly. I do feel like anytime there's a sentence like that, there's a story that you probably would want to hear. But anyway, all right. So what if, for whatever reason, you can't boil? You are hiking and it's raining and you can't.

start a fire or something. In that case, you can hope that you thought ahead to bring a couple different kinds of filters with you. And the problem with filters or the difficulty with filters is something we talked about earlier, which is that viruses are really, really small. So getting a filter that can filter out viruses is really difficult. Very teeny tiny little holes that stuff needs to pass through. You can use a reverse osmosis system where essentially they're like pushing water through a very, very, very, very, very fine mesh, and just about anything that isn't water doesn't make it through to the other side. And so you end up with, like, one side that has all the gross stuff mixed with some water and one side that has clean water. I feel

like I got mixed answers on whether or not this will remove parasites. This might work if you're, like, really in a pinch. But, you know, I think you pretty much always want to boil it or maybe use one of these filters followed by a disinfectant that's more likely to kill the viruses. And so disinfectants is another option. This doesn't work as well against parasites. Parasites are like bigger and a little bit harder to kill. So like chlorine or iodine is maybe less likely to kill them, although it might kill some of them. But you can add chlorine or iodine, but if you're pregnant or have some other issues with iodine, you might want to skip iodine. Check the CDC website. But basically you can add some chemicals to also kill parasites. Finally, if you're really in a pinch and all you have is a plastic

bottle with no filters, no disinfectants, you can still try to filter it to get the big stuff out. And you want that water to be as clear as possible because you're going to be trying to use the sun's UV radiation to kill stuff that's in there. Particle physics is our last line of defense. Oh, does it? This counts as particle physics? Mm-hmm. All right, I'll give it to you. These are high energy photons, exactly, zapping those viruses. I was wondering why you looked like you were getting excited about something, and I realized now you were getting excited because we were about to get to particle physics. But I'm learning to read you. I should have known particle physics was coming. That's how you know. That's how you know. All right. So anything that makes

the water cloudy, you want to get out because any suspended particle in there is going to stop UV radiation from hating the bacteria and viruses that you're trying to kill. If it's a super sunny day and your water's super clear, then you can leave a plastic bottle filled with water under the sun for about six hours, and that will probably kill everything, hopefully. Amazing. Yeah, amazing, totally. And if it's cloudy, you might want to wait, like, as much as two days. I think I'd still feel better if I did some other additional treatments to it.

What if you launched your water into space, so it's exposed to radiation in space? Would that make it safer? How did you not prepare for that question, Kelly? You're an expert on space. Yeah, so what I'm wondering is, okay, so we talked about how space can even kill tardigrades, which are like supposedly indestructible. But what I'm wondering is if you launched it to space, would that, like if there were pesticides in the water,

would that solve the problem of the chemicals? And so I do think that would kill bacteria and viruses and parasites. But I don't know if it would remove pesticides the same way as like a charcoal filter would. And so I think for any of these things, it's important to keep in mind like, what are my goals? You know, if you're drinking from a waterway and there's a bunch of farms upriver,

you might want to worry about pesticides and maybe you want something like a charcoal filter but if you're just worried about you don't want to get Giardia beaver fever then maybe disinfecting is the way to go. Beaver fever? I've never heard of that. Oh, no. I think Giardia became famous when some people were camping

downstream of a beaver dam and the beavers gave them Giorgia which gives them massive diarrhea. I had a friend who got Gardia one. She called it muddy butthole disease. But the good news is if you're an astronaut and you're in space, your water is probably not going to give you beaver disease. That's probably true, but you are probably drinking yesterday's coffee. You're drinking recycled urine and sweats.

All right. Well, let's hear if we have muddied the waters or clarified everything for John. Oh, that was Bravo, Daniel. Bravo. Thank you, Kelly, for the insightful answer. You floculated all the little bits and pieces and a really understandable podcast. Thank you again. Who would you call if the unthinkable happened?

I just fail and started screaming. If you lost someone you loved in the most horrific way. I said through you got 22 times. The police, right? But what if the person you're supposed to go to for help is the one you're the most afraid of? This dude is the devil. He's a snake.

He'll hurt you. I got you. I got you. I'm Nikki Richardson, and this is The Girlfriends, Untouchable. Detective Roger Golubski spent decades intimidating and sexually abusing black women across Kansas City, using his police badge to scare them into silence. This is the story of a detective who seemed above the law until we came together to take him down. I told Roger Galooski, I said, you're going to see my face to the day that you die.

Listen to the girlfriends, Untouchable, on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast. You know, we always say New Year, New Me, but real change starts on the inside. It starts with giving your mind and your spirit the same attention you give your goals. Hey, everybody, it's Michelle Williams, host of checking in. on the Black Effect Podcast Network. And on my podcast, we talk mental health, healing, growth, and everything you need to step into

your next season, whole and empowered. New Year, real you. Listen to checking in with Michelle Williams from the Black Effect Podcast Network on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcast, or wherever you get your podcasts.

Dad had the strong belief that the devil was attacking us. Two brothers, one devout household. two radically different paths. Gabe Ortiz became one of the highest-ranking law enforcement officers in Texas. 32 years, total law enforcement experience. But his brother Larry, he stayed behind

and built an entirely different legacy. He was the head of this gang and nobody was going to tell him what to do. You're going to push that line for the cause. Took us under his wing and showed us the game, as they call it. When Larry is murdered, Gabe is forced to confront the past he tried to leave behind and uncover secrets he'd.

never saw coming. My dad had a whole other life that we never knew about. Like my mom started screaming my dad's name and I just heard one gunshot. The Brothers Ortiz is a gripping true story about faith, family, and how two lives can drift so far apart and collide in the most devastating way. Listen to the Brothers Ortiz on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. Hi, Kyle. Could you draw up a quick document with the basic business plan, just one page as a Google Doc, and send me the link. Thanks. Hey, just finished drawing up that quick one-page business plan for you. Here's the link.

But there was no link. There was no business plan. It's not his fault. I hadn't programmed Kyle to be able to do that yet. My name is Evan Ratliff. I decided to create Kyle, my AI co-founder, after hearing a lot of stuff like this from OpenAI CEO Sam Aldman. There's this betting pool for the first year that there's a one-person billion dollar company, which would have been like Unimaginable without AI in now will happen. I got to thinking, could I be that one person? I'd made AI agents before for my award-winning podcast, Shell Game. This season on Shell Game, I'm trying to build a real company with a real product run by fake people.

Oh, hey, Evan. Good to have you join us. I found some really interesting data on adoption rates for AI agents and small to medium businesses. Listen to Shell Game on the IHeart Radio app or wherever you get your podcasts. So we've established that you can probably get clean water in space by just exposing it to how horrible space is. Another horrible thing that could happen in space would be if your moon broke into many pieces. But one of the amazing things about space is that it exposes us to other kinds of environments and other kinds of. of vistas. And we've all seen movies where you have like two stars in the sky or huge moons. And

one of our favorite listeners, Joe, has a question about what extremes are possible. Hi, Daniel and Kelly. This is Joe from Florida, loving the show. But even more, really appreciate your willingness to answer random questions from any one of us. To that point, I'm playing games and other imagery of sci-fi planets and worlds. It's really common to see a massive planetary body taking much of the sky, kind of like a moon of a gas giant where it's just the whole thing. It creates a very alien appearance. So I got to thinking after the Parker solar probe, quote, touched the sun, I ran those numbers. And even at closest approach, I think it was only about a 12 degree of the sky field of view. So it'd be big, but not completely taking up

your vision big. So my question is, is based on Roche limits and assumptions of standard planetary compositions. What's the largest a body can appear in the sky while your own world is still kind of in a stable orbit and you're not being torn apart or coming into any of those majoras mass kind of situations? Thanks a lot, guys. Love the show. All right. So this is a super fun hypothetical question. He's essentially asking how close can we get to science fiction? How big in the sky can something appear and still obey the laws of physics? Love it. And so did this require you to do some actual math, or was this answer available somewhere? No, I had to do a little bit of calculations here. This was very cool. I like thinking about this

because it's super awesome to have big features in the sky. There's something really powerful about that because you're connected to them. You're like seeing the scale of the solar system and the universe in the sky. And, you know, we're lucky that our moon is so big and so close. And a lot of people aren't aware, but there are bigger things in the sky than the moon. For example, Andromeda, the galaxy, is bigger in the night sky than the moon. We think of it as super distant and it is, but it's also incredibly big. The reason that's a surprise is that most the time you can't see it because it's dim, but if you train a camera on it and follow it and accumulate light, you can see Andromeda in the sky. So not with your eyes, unfortunately,

but it's there dominating the night sky. So it kind of feels like cheating to compare an entire galaxy to a moon. Well, I mean, we're just talking about angular sizes, right? It's just for a reference. All right, all right. Obviously, the moon is much smaller than Andromeda, but so much closer. And that's really the trade-off here. What we're talking about is the size in the sky, which is what we call angular distance.

And the way you calculate this is there's a formula, but essentially depends on the radius of the object and on the distance from the object. So the bigger the object, the bigger it is in the night sky, the further away it is, the smaller it is in the night sky. So to be big in the night sky, you can be pretty small, but very, very close, or you can be far away, but absolutely enormous. And so that's how you calculate it. Okay. So I haven't stared at the sun for very long because I've been told not to. Yes. But if I were to stare at the sun, would the sun and the moon, would they be about the same size? How different in size would they be if I stared? Well, we know this because we have eclipses,

right? The moon is almost exactly the same size as the sun in the sky. They're both about half a degree, which is the unit we use. And that's just an incredible coincidence. Often in science, when we see coincidences, we're like, hmm, what does that mean? Is that a clue? Why is that? But sometimes they're just coincidences. Like, there's no reason that the moon and the sun have to take up almost exactly the same amount of sky. But it does lead to very spectacular eclipses. So we're very grateful for this coincidence. Maybe the aliens knew we would really enjoy eclipses. So they, you know, they work some stuff out for us. Yeah, that or the programmers of the simulation.

I don't know, but it works out pretty well. All right, thanks, whoever. So the biggest easily visible thing in our night sky are the sun and the moon. They're about half a degree. And Joe is wondering about how big things can get. And the physics we have to understand here are the physics of tidal forces. That is, the earth pulls on the moon with its gravity. And we tend to think about the earth as a point and the moon is a point and forces between those two points.

But they're not really points. The moon has a side that's closer. and the side that's further away. It has an extent to it. And the side of the moon that's closer feels the Earth's gravity more powerfully than the side of the moon that's further away because gravity depends on distance. And so because there's a difference in those forces, effectively, it's like the Earth is trying to pull the moon apart. It is. And it actually squeezes the moon and makes it a little bit like a football. And this reminds me of the book Seven Eves. Yes, exactly. Neil Stevenson's really fun novel about what would happen

if the moon was destroyed. And in that novel, it's not really much of a spoiler to say it's destroyed by some like alien impactor. But in reality, the moon would be destroyed if it got too close to the earth. Because the closer you get to the earth, the greater the difference between the forces on your edges. And so effectively the greater the force trying to pull you apart. And eventually, you approach what we call the Roche limit, which is the closest you can get without being pulled into little bits and essentially form a ring. And for two objects of equal density of a planet and a moon, that radius is about.

two and a half times the radius of the planet, which is actually quite close. That would be like 18,000 kilometers from the center of our planet, but the moon currently is like 380,000 kilometers away. So the moon can get a lot closer and be a lot bigger in our sky without being torn into rings. I am feeling like I'll sleep better tonight knowing that. It's not close to the Roche limit. That's good. Not at all. And so if you somehow engineered the moon, you put a rocket on it, and you brought it in closer to the Earth, and all the way to the Roche limit, it would be about 20 times bigger in the sky than it is currently. Wow.

Right? About 10 angular degrees, about the size of one or two outstretched hands. It would be pretty big. It would be awesome. Would that really mess up astronomy? Because it would be, all right. So Daniel and I both have our hands outstretched right now and we're looking at that. Yeah, so how bad would that be for astronomy?

They would be pretty bad because it would make moonlit nights much brighter, right? You'd have much more powerful moon shadows, and already moonlit nights are bad for astronomy because that's light pollution, right? It's like having a big light in the sky. It's like a second sun. You are reflecting the sun, a mini version of it. So this would be 20 times as powerful. So it would be bad for astronomy. I thought you were going to say moonlit nights are bad for astronomers because they're not very romantic or something like that because the rest of us love moonlit nights.

Well, a moonlit night is romantic because the light is dim, right? It's like why you turn down the lights to make them romantic. And so at some point, cranking that thing up by Factor 20, it's no longer as romantic. Okay. Yeah, I can see that. You're going to need much better curtains. Yeah. But let's do a little bit more engineering to try to make this bigger.

What if we didn't just use our moon? What if we took a bigger object? Like, what if we somehow pulled Mars into our orbit? And we used it as a second moon. And we brought it in just outside Mars's Roche limit. Well, that would be about twice as big in the sky as the moon at the Roche limit. because Mars is bigger than the moon. So it would be about 40 times the size our moon currently is in the sky, an angular distance

of about 20 degrees. Maybe it's just that I grew up with the moon being so far away, but I'd feel like a little crowded, you know, like you need to give me some space, Mars. You're getting too close. You're kind of freaking me out. All right. Well, then you're not going to like the next scenario. Oh, boy.

I did a calculation to try to think about how close you could bring any object. Forget the moon, forget Mars. What if we're engineering something that we want to feel? our sky and you could make it out of some natural material. Well, the roach limit depends on density because something that's denser holds itself together better. So if you make it, for example, out of iron, you can get it closer. But then iron is also denser, so the object becomes smaller, so it doesn't take up as much in the sky. So I imagined what if we had a object, the mass of the earth? And my calculation suggests that if you make it about three times as dense as the earth,

So you use like pure iron, then its Roche limit would be about one and a half times the Earth's radius. And this new moon we build because it's denser than the Earth, but it still has the same mass, would have a radius of about one half of the Earth's radius. So this thing would be orbiting just above the ground. What? Just above the ground on Earth? Just above the ground on Earth. You'd have to like duck as this thing goes by.

No, yeah, that's no way to live. But, you know, and these are simplified calculations that we're really pushing to the extreme. We're assuming that the Roche Limit formula applies here, and I'm not sure it really does. And, of course, you know, you've got any mountains. Those are going to get rubbed right off. But you're 95% sure about your answers. 95% sure. So if you're out there and you have an Earth mass worth of iron and you're thinking about building this moon and having an orbit just above the surface, you should know that I only give you my 95% guarantee.

Which is my highest guarantee, by the way. But if you did this, it would fill half the sky. Please don't listen to Daniel, everyone. Look, he would sell us all out to the aliens if it would explain gravity. Oh, yeah. Absolutely. We can't depend on Daniel for our safety, everyone. 95% you can't.

Now, you can also imagine the opposite scenario. What if you're on the moon, right? And you're not on the planet. So in our solar system, if you were to land on IO and look up at Jupiter in the sky, it already fills 20 angular degrees, right? That's the size we're talking about of having, like, Mars in our sky. So that's already the case. Jupiter is huge in the sky above I-O. And in comparison, like, if you're on Titus, Saturn is only like five and a half degrees, which is still big, right? A lot bigger than the moon is in our sky, but not as dramatic.

But I calculated what would happen if you brought I.O. close to its Roche limit with Jupiter, and then it would be like 60 degrees in the sky. So that would be like, wow, what a view at Jupiter, right? And then if you made Io out of like something incredibly tough like diamond, it could get much closer without being torn apart. So the roche limit depends on what the object is made out of. And then you could get Jupiter to be 95 degrees across in the sky before it's going to tear apart your diamond moon.

Holy cow. I mean, you'd be dead long before that, but wow. What a way to go, right? What a way to go. What a way to go. You'd be sitting on your diamond moon, sipping super clean water from your wastewater treatment facility, watching tornadoes play out on the surface of Jupiter. You know what?

That sounds, if you've got to go, that's high up there on my list of ways to go. And this episode will have prepared you to understand the science of each of those elements. That's right. You're welcome. All right, well, let's hear if Joe is satisfied with our answer to his science fiction-inspired question. Thank you so much, Daniel and Kelly, for that answer. It will please you. and other listeners, to know that I do not have an Earth's mass of iron ready to put in dangerously

close orbit. While giant objects in the sky may look pretty epic, sounds like for all our survival, it better they remain comfortably distant. I guess the first human on aisle will have quite the view. But for those of us remaining earthbound, I'm still eager for that binary sunset portrait. So, alien engineers, when you have a moment, that'd be great. Thank you again and keep looking up. All right, well, thank you everyone who submitted questions. If you'd like to ask us a question, you can write us at questions at danielandkelly.org. Or you can join us on our Discord channel.

You can find an invitation to our Discord channel at Danielantkelly.org. Or you could send us a message to our social media pages, although answers there are slightly less reliable. So I suggest email or Discord. We really do reply to every email. People continue to be shocked. when we actually reply. But we will. We will write back to you with an answer to your question. Try it. Yep. We love hearing from you all. Thanks, everyone. Have a great day and stay curious.

Hey, everybody. It's Michelle Williams, host of checking in on the Black Effect Podcast Network. You know, we always say New Year, New Me, but real change starts on the inside. It starts with giving your mind and your spirit the same attention you give your goals. And on my podcast, we talk mental health, healing, growth, and everything you need to step into your next season, whole and empowered. New Year, Real You. Listen to checking in with Michelle Williams from the Black Effect Podcast Network on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast. I know he has a reputation, but it's going to catch up to him. Gabe Ortiz is a cop.

His brother Larry, a mystery Gabe didn't want to solve until it was. was too late. He was the head of this gang. You're going to push that line for the cause? Took us under his wing and showed us the game as they call it. When Larry's killed, Game Must Untangle the Dangerous Passed, one that could destroy

everything he thought he knew. Listen to the brothers Ortiz on the IHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. Who would you call if the unthinkable happened? My sister was y'all 22 times. A police officer, right? But what do you do when the monster

is the man in blue. This dude is the devil. He'll hurt you. This is the story of a detective who thought he was above the law until we came together to take him down. I said, you're going to see my face till the day that you die. Listen to the girlfriends, untouchable, on the Iheart radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcast. Hi, Kyle. Could you draw up a quick document with the basic business plan, just one page as a Google Doc, and send me the link. Thanks. Hey, just finished drawing up that quick one-page business plan for you. Here's the link. But there was no link. There was no business plan. I hadn't programmed Kyle to be able to do that yet.

I'm Evan Ratliff here with a story of entrepreneurship in the AI age. Listen as I attempt to build a real startup run by fake people. Check out the second season of my podcast, Shell Game, on the IHeart radio app or wherever you get your podcasts. This is an IHeart podcast Guaranteed human