I Can’t Sleep - Elements of Style | Educational Bedtime Reading for Sleep

Episode Date: August 13, 2025

Ease into rest with a slow-paced bedtime reading from the classic writing guide, The Elements of Style. Discover timeless principles of grammar and composition while your body relaxes and your thoughts unwind. Benjamin Boster reads in a natural, steady tone — no whispering, no hypnosis, just gentle, fact-filled education to quiet the mind and ease insomnia, anxiety, or late-night restlessness. Press play and let this sleep podcast help you drift into sleep. Want More? Request a Topic: https://www.icantsleeppodcast.com/request-a-topic Ad-Free Episodes: https://icantsleep.supportingcast.fm/ Shop Sleep-Friendly Products: https://www.icantsleeppodcast.com/sponsors Join the discussion on Discord: https://discord.gg/myhGhVUhn7 This content is based on The Elements of Style (1918, First Edition) by William Strunk Jr., which is in the public domain. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

You're listening to a Glassbox Media podcast. What if I told you that most of the modern day self-help advice you've been hearing could actually make you worse? The key to a better life isn't about feel-good gimmicks that sound catchy. The Mentally Stronger Podcast gives you access to a licensed therapist who shares science-backed tools that will actually change your life. Hi, I'm Amy Morin, psychotherapist, mental strength trainer, and international best-selling author. In each episode, we cover research-back strategies, like how to stop relying on willpower and start creating habits for lasting change. And the five mental strength-building exercises you can do from your couch. I also speak to world-class experts like Dr. Nicole Kane, who shares how to permanently heal anxiety by addressing the root cause.

With over 200 episodes in our catalog, this podcast is for you if you're ready to crush self-doubt, conquer challenges, become stronger than ever with therapist-approved strategies that can change your life. Listen to Mentally Stronger with Therapist Amy Morin, wherever you get your podcasts. Welcome to the I Can't Sleep podcast, where I help you drift off one fact at a time. I'm your host, Benjamin Boster. And today's episode is a reading of the first edition of the book, Elements of Style, by William Strunk, Jr. A special thanks to Sarah Fishletter for sponsoring today's episode.

Asserting that one must first know the rules to break them, this classic reference is a must-have for any student and conscientious writer. Intended for use in which the practice of composition is combined with the study of literature, it gives, in brief space, the principal requirements of plain English style. and concentrates attention on the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated. Chapter 1 Introductory This book is intended for use in English courses in which the practice of composition is combined with the study of literature. It aims to give, in brief space, the principal requirements of plain English style.

It aims to lighten the task of instruction. and student by concentrating attention in chapters two and three on a few essentials. The rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated. The numbers of the sections may be used as references and correcting manuscript. The book covers only a small portion of the field of English style, but the experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials, students profit most by individual instruction based on the problems of their own work, and that each instructor has his own body of theory, which he prefers to that offered by any textbook.

The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell University have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript. Mr. George McLean Wood has kindly consented the inclusion under Rule 11, of some material from his suggestions to authors. The following books are recommended for reference or further study. In connection with chapters two and four, F. Howard Collins, author and printer, Henry Froud. Chicago University Press, Manual of Style, T. L. DeVin, Correct Composition, The Century Company.

Horace Hart, rules for compositors and printers, Oxford University Press. George McLean Wood extracts from the style book of the government printing office, United States Geological Survey. In connection with chapters 3 and 5, Sir Arthur Quiller Couch,

the Art of Writing, Putnam's. Especially the chapter interlude on jargon. George McLean Wood suggestions to authors United States Geological Survey John Leslie Hall English usage

Scott Foresman and Company James P. Kelly workmanship in words Little Brown and Company It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules of rhetoric when they do so however

the reader will usually find in the sentence some compensating merit attained at the cost of the violation unless he is certain of doing as well, he will probably do best to follow the rules. After he has learned by their guidance to write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him look for the secrets of style, to the study of the masters of literature. Chapter 2. Elementary Rules of Usage 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns with apostrophe S.

Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write, Charles' friend, Burns' poems, The Witch's Malice. This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press. Exceptions are the possesses of ancient proper names in E.S. and I.S. The possessive Jesus is was just an apostrophe, and such forms as for conscious his sake, for righteousness's sake, but such forms as Achilles' heel, Moses's law, Isis' temple, are commonly replaced by the heel of Achilles, the laws of Moses, the temple of Isis. The pronominal possessives, hers, its, theirs, yours, and oneself have no apostrophe.

2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. Thus write, red, comma, white, and blue. Honest, comma, energetic, comma, but headstrong. He opened the letter, comma, read it, and made a note of its contents. This is also the usage of the government printing office and of the Oxford University Press. In the names of business firms, the last comma is omitted, as Brown, comma, Shipley, and Company. The abbreviation, etc., even if only a single term comes before it, is always preceded by a

comma. Three, enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. The best way to see a country, comma, unless you are pressed for time, comma, is to travel on foot. This rule is difficult to apply. It is frequently hard to decide whether a single word, such as, however, or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slide, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the interruption be slight or considerable, he must never omit one comma and leave the other.

Such punctuation as, Marjorie's husband, comma, Colonel Nelson, paid us a visit yesterday. And, My brother, you will be pleased to hear, comma, is now in perfect health. This is indefensible. Non-restrictive relative clauses are in accordance with this rule set off by commas. The audience, comma, which had at first been indifferent, comma, became more and more interested. Similar clauses introduced by where and when are similarly punctuated.

In 1769, when Napoleon was born, comma, Corsica, had but recently been acquired by France. Another Stoey, comma, where Coleridge wrote the rhyme of the ancient mariner, comma, is a few miles from Bridgewater. In these sentences, the clauses introduced by which, when, and where are non-restrictive. They do not limit the application of the words on which they depend, but add, parenthetically, statements supplementing those in the principal clauses. Each sentence is a combination of two statements which might have been made independently,

such as the following sentences. The audience was at first indifferent, period. Later it became more and more interested, period. Napoleon was born in 1769, period. At the time Corsica had but recently been acquired by France, period. Coleridge wrote the rhyme of the ancient. ancient mariner at Nether Stoey, period. Netherstoy is only a few miles from Bridgewater, period.

Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas, such as the candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place. In this sentence, the relative clause restricts the application of the word candidate to a single person. Unlike those above, the sentence cannot be split into ten. two independent statements. The abbreviations, etc. and junior are always preceded by a comma, and except at the end of a sentence, followed by one. Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting

off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence. The sentence is quoted in this section. and under rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18 should afford sufficient guidance. If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma before the conjunction, not after it. He saw us coming, comma, and underware that we had learned of this treachery, comma, greeted us with a smile. 4.

Place a comma before and or but, introducing not. an independent clause. The early records of the city of disappeared, comma, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. The situation is perilous, comma, but there is still one chance of escape. Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting.

As they may complete sense when the comma is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought. Further, and is the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten. As the early records of the city have disappeared, comma, the story of its first years can no longer be rewritten. reconstructed. Although the situation is perilous, comma, there is still one chance of escape.

Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by these phrases. Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, comma, a story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. In this perilous situation, comma, there is still one chance of escape. But a writer may err by making his sentences to uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal, and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common and easy, unstudied writing, but a writer would be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern.

See Rule 14. two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as, in the sense of because, for or nor, and while, in the sense of and at the same time, likewise require a comma before the conjunction. If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction. The situation is perilous, comma. But if we are prepared to act promptly, comma, there's still one chance of escape.

For two-part sentences connected by an adverb, see the next section. 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma. If two or more clauses grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon. Stevenson's romances are entertaining, semicolon. They are full of exciting adventures. It is nearly half past five, semicolon. We cannot reach down before dark.

It is, of course, equally correct to write the above as two sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods. Stevens' romances are entertaining, period. They are full of exciting adventures. It is nearly half past five, period. We cannot reach town before dark. If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma, rule four. Stevens's romances are entertaining, comma, for they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five, comma, and we cannot reach town before dark. Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required. I had never been in the place before, semicolon, so I had difficulty in finding my way about. In general, however, it is best in writing to avoid using so in this manner. There's danger that the writer who uses it at all may use it too often. A simple correction usually serviceable is to admit the word so, and begin the first clause with as, as I had never been in the place before, comma, I had difficulty in finding my way about.

If the clauses are very short and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible. man proposes, comma, God disposes. The gate swung apart, comma, the bridge fell, comma, the portcolis was drawn up. Six. Do not break sentences in two. In other words, do not use periods for commas. I met them on a canard liner several years ago, period. Coming home from Liverpool to New York, period.

He was an interesting talker, period, a man who had traveled all over the world, comma, and lived in half a dozen countries. In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a smaller letter. It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly. Again and again he called out, period. No reply. The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder and punctuation. Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles

in the punctuation of ordinary sentences. They should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature. 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical, subject. Walking slowly down the road, comma, he saw a woman accompanied by two children. The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence, such as, he saw a woman, comma, accompanied by two children, comma, walking slowly down the road. Participial phrases preceded by a injunction or by a preposition, nouns and apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases,

come under the same rule if they begin the sentence. On arriving in Chicago, comma, his friends met him at the station. When he arrived, or on his arrival in Chicago, comma, his friends met him at the station. A soldier of proved valor, comma, he was entrusted with the defense of the city. Young and inexperienced, comma, the task seemed easy to me. Young and inexperienced, comma, I thought the task easy. Without a friend to counsel him, comma, the temptation proved irresistible. Without a friend to counsel him, comma, he found the temptation irresistible.

Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous. being in a dilapidated condition, comma, I was able to buy the house very cheap. Eight. Divide words at line ends in accordance with their formation and pronunciation. If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down.

The principles most frequently applicable are, A, divide the word according to its formation. Knowledge K-N-O-W-L-L-E-D-G-E, not K-N-O-W-L-E-D-G-E. Shakespeare, S-H-A-K-E-E-H-A-P-S-P-P-E. E-E-A-R-E, not S-H-A-K-E-S-P-E-A-R-E. Describe D-E-E-E-H-E-E-R-I-B-E, not D-E-S-H-I-E-R-E.

AtmN-O-O-H-H-E-H-E-E-E, not A-T-M-M-O-S-H-E-E-H-E-E. B, divide on the vowel. Edible, E-D-I-B-L-E, not E-D-I-B-L-E. Proposition, B-R-O-P-O-S-I-T-I-O-N, and ordinary, O-R-D-I-N-N-N-A-R-C. C. Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of a simple form. of the word. Cincinnati.

C-I-N-C-I-N-A-T-I. Telling. T-E-L-L-I-N-G. The treatment of consonants in combination is best known from examples. Fortune, F-O-R-T-U-N-E. Picture, P-I-C-T-U-R-E. Industry. I-N-D-U-S-T-R-Y.

The student will do well to examine the syllable division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book. Chapter 3 Elementary Principles of Composition 9 Make the paragraph the unit of composition. One paragraph to each topic. If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into topics.

Thus, a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these, is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, it should be examined to see whether subdivision will not improve it. Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been a result. reached. The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short

notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs. A, account of the work. B, critical discussion. A report on a poem written for a class and literature might consist of seven paragraphs. A. Facts of composition and publication. B. Kind of poem. Metrical form. C. Subject. D. Treatment of subject. E. For what chiefly remarkable. F. wherein characteristic of the writer. G. Relationship to other works. The contents of paragraph C and D would vary with the poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem, the situation, if these call for explanation, and would then state the subject and outline its development.

If the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized. A novel might be discussed under the heads, A, setting, B, plot, C, characters, D, purpose. A historical event might be discussed under the heads, A, what led up to the event, B, account of the event, see what the event led up to. In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given. As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made

of sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument. In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by itself. That is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction. 10. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, ended in conformity with the beginning. again the object is to aid the reader the practice here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it and to retain the purpose in mind as he ends it

for this reason the most generally useful kind of paragraph particularly an exposition argument is that in which a the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning b the succeeding sentence explain or establish or develop a statement made in the topic sentence, and C, the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic sentence or states some important consequence. Ending with a digression or with an unimportant detail is particularly to be avoided. If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what proceeds or its function as a part of the whole may need be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase, again, therefore, for the same reason, in the topic sentence.

Sometimes, however, it is expedient to proceed the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph. According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the converse,

by giving illustrations of specific instances. He may establish it by proofs, or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out several of these processes. Some examples. 1. Now to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon alone. Topic sentence.

2. If you go in a company or even in pairs, it is no longer a walking tour in anything but name. It is something else and more in the nature of a picnic. The meaning may clear by denial of the contrary. 3. A walking tour should be gone upon alone, because freedom is of the essence. Because you should be able to stop and go on and follow this way or that as the freak takes you. and because you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside or champion walker,

nor mince in time with a girl. The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form, and supported by three reasons. The meaning of the third, you must have your own pace, made clear by denying the converse. Four. And you must be open to all impressions and let your thoughts take color from what you see. A fourth reason stated in two forms. 5. You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. The same reason stated in still another form.

6. I cannot see the wit, says Hazlitt, of walking and talking at the same time. 7. When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country, which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter. The same reason is stated by Haslet. 8. There should be no cackle of voices of your elbow to jar on the meditative silence of the morning. Repetition and paraphrase of the quotation from Haslet. 9. As long as a man is reasoning, he cannot surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much motion in the open air,

that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of the brain. and ends in a piece that passes comprehension. Stevenson, walking tours. Final statement of the fourth reason and language amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion. Here's another example. One, it was chiefly in the 18th century that a very different conception of history grew up.

Topic sentence. Two, historians then came to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem, to explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth, prosperity, and adversity. The meaning of the topic sentence made clear the new conception of history defined. 3. The history of morals, of industry, of intellect, and of art, the changes that take place in manners or beliefs, the dominant ideas that prevent. failed in successive periods, the rise, fall, and modification of political constitutions.

In a word, all the conditions of national well-being became the subject of their works. The definition expanded. Four, they sought rather to write of history of people than a history of kings. The definition explained by contrast. Five. they looked especially in history for the claim of causes and effects. The definition supplemented, another element in the new conception of history. 6.

They undertook to study in the past the physiology of nations, and hoped by applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the conditions on which the welfare of society mainly depend. Lecky, the political value of history. Conclusion. An important consequence of the new conception of history. In narration and description, the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement

serving to hold together the details that follow. The breeze served us admirably. The campaign opened with a series of reverses. The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries. But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More commonly, the opening sentence simply indicates, by its subject, with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned. At length I thought I might return towards the stuccade.

He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore. Another flight of steps, and they emerged in the roof. The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even the semblance of a topic sentence. The breaks between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action. 11. Use the active voice. The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive. example, I shall always remember my first visit to Boston. This is much better then.

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me. The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting by me, my first visit to Boston will always be remembered. It becomes indefinite. Is it the writer or some person undisclosed or the world at large, so we'll always remember this visit? This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.

For example, the dramatists of the restoration are little esteemed today, or modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the restoration. The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatist of the restoration, the second in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used. The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible writing. This is true not only a narrative principle,

possibly concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is or could be heard. Example 1. There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground, or dead leaves covered the ground. Example two.

The sound of the falls could still be heard. Or, the sound of the falls still reached our ears. Example three. The reason that he left college was that his health became impaired. Or, failing health compelled him to leave college. Example four. It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had said. Or, he soon repented his words.

As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another. Example 1. Gold was not allowed to be exported. Or, it was forbidden to export gold. The export of gold was prohibited. Example 2. He has been proved to have been seen entering the building. Or, it has been proved that he was seen to enter the building.

In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of the first. A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction, a noun, which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence. Example 1. A survey of this region was made in 1900, or this region was made. surveyed in 1900. Example 2. Mobilization of the army was rapidly carried out.

Or the army was rapidly mobilized. Example 3. Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained. Or, these reports cannot be confirmed. Compare this sentence, the export of gold was prohibited, in which the predicate was prohibited, expresses something not implied in export. 12. Put statements in positive form.

Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion. Example 1. He was not very often on time. Or, he usually came late. Example 2.

He did not think the study in Latin was much use. Or, he thought the study of Latin useless. Example 3. The taming of the shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Catherine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. Or, the women in the taming of the shrew are unattractive. Catherine is disagreeable, Bianca, insignificant.

The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention. All three examples shows a weakness inherent in the word not. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not. He wishes to be told what is not. is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express a negative in positive form. Example one, not honest or dishonest. Example two, not important, or trifling.

Example three, did not remember, or forgot. Example four, did not pay any attention to, or ignored. example 5 did not have much confidence in or distrusted the antithesis of negative and positive is strong example one not charity but simple justice example two not that i loved caesar less but rome the more negative words other than not are usually strong for example the sun never sets upon the British flag. 13. Omit needless words. Vigorous writing is concise.

A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines, and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell. Many expressions in common use violate this principle. Example one. The question as to whether, or, whether, the question whether. Example two, there is no doubt but that, or, no doubtless.

Example 3. Used for fuel purposes. Or used for fuel. Example 4. He is a man who, or he. Example 5. In a hasty manner. Or hastily.

Example 6. This is a subject which, or this subject. Example 7. His story is a strange one. Or his story is strange. In especially the expression, the fact that should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs. Example 1. Owing to the fact that, or sins or because. example 2 in spite of the fact that or though or although example 3 call your attention to the fact that or remind you or notify you example 4 I was unaware of the fact that or did not know Example 5. The fact that he had not succeeded or his failure.

Example 6. The fact that I had arrived or my arrival. See also under case, character, nature, system in Chapter 5. Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous. example one his brother who is a member of the same firm or his brother a member of the same firm example two trafalgar which was nelson's last battle or trafalgar nelson's last battle as positive statement is more concise than negative and the active voice more concise than the passive many of the examples given under wool's and 12 illustrate this rule as well. A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences, which might do advantage to be combined into one.

Example. Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become King of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The King of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbass murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. 55 words. Or, encouraged by his wife, Macbass achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches

by murdering Duncan and becoming King of Scotland in his place. 26 words. 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences. This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, a second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable, see under Rule 4, a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious. An unskilful right. will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as consecutives and, but, and less frequently, who, which, when, where, and while, these last and non-restrictive

senses, see under Rule 3. Example. The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest, aroused by the series, has been very gratifying to the committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10th,

when an equally attractive program will be presented. apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is bad because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry in sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraph quoted under Rule 10, or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface before the curtain to Vanity Fair. If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, looser periodic, of three clauses, whichever best, represent the real relations of the thought.

15. Express coordinate ideas in similar form. This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the beatitudes, and the petitions of Lord's Prayer. The unskilful writer often violates his principle from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it, he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 10.

But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction. For example, formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. Or, formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, now it is taught by the laboratory method. The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid. He seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it. By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only by the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Example 1 The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese. or the French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese. Example two. In spring, summer, or in winter. Or, in spring, summer, or winter, in spring, in summer, or in winter. Correlative expressions both and not, but, not only, but also either or first, second, third, and the like. should be followed by this same grammatical construction.

Many violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence. Example 1. It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. Or, the ceremony was both long and tedious. Example 2. A time not for words, but action. Or, a time not for words, but for action. Example 3. Either you must grant his request or incur his ill-will. Or, you must either grant his request or incur his ill-will. Example 4. My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure.

Second, that it is unconstitutional. 4. My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust. second, that it is unconstitutional. See also the third example under Rule 12, and the last under Rule 13. It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say, 20? Must he write 20 consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination, he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary,

that his 20 ideas can be classified in groups and that he need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise, he had best avoid the difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table. 16. Keep related words together. The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible,

bring together the words and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related. The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not as a rule be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning. Example 1. Wordsworth, in the fifth book of the excursion, gives a minute description of this church. Or, in the fifth book of the excursion, Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church. example two cast iron when treated in a bessemer converter is changed into steel or by treatment in a bessemer converter cast iron is changed into steel

the objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause this objection however does not usually hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression and apposition, nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense. See examples under Rule 18. The relative pronoun should come as a rule immediately after its antecedent. Example 1. There was a look in his eye that boded mischief, or in his eye was a look that boated mischief. Example 2. He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine. Or, he published in Harper's magazine three articles about his adventures in Spain. Example 3. This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became president in 1889.

or this is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison grandson of William Henry Harrison. He became president in 1889. If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity. Example 1. The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who Example 2. A proposal to amend the... Sherman Act, which has been variously judged. Or, a proposal which has been variously judged to amend the Sherman Act.

Or, a proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman Act. Example 3. The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who, or William Henry Harrison's grandson, Benjamin Harrison, who. A noun in apposition may come between ante-timore Harrison. is hidden and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise. Example. The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs.

Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested. Example 1. All the members were not present. Or, not all the members were present. Example 2. He only found two mistakes.

Or, he found only two mistakes. Example 3. Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited on my experiences in Mesopotamia at 8 p.m. or on Tuesday evening at 8 p.m. Major R. E. Joyce will give in Bailey Hall a lecture on my experiences in Mesopotamia. The public is invited. 17. In summaries, keep to one tense. In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense.

In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present. though he may use the past if he prefers. If this summary in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect, if in the past, by the past perfect. For example, an unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo.

Juliet, meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, has been compelled to drink the potions on Tuesday night. with the result that Baldassarre informs Romeo of her supposed death before friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter. But whichever tends to be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged. For example, the legate inquires who struck the blow.

Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses he should use throughout, shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution. Compare Rule 15. In presenting the statements were the thought of some one clause, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writers should avoid intercalating such expressions as he said, he stated. The speaker added.

The speaker then went on to say, the author also thinks, or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification. In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable,

and for children in primary schools, it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism, or interpretation of literature, the writers should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject or the opening situation of the work he is discussing. He may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities, but he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence,

not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will, as a rule, do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions. 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end. The proper place for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent, is usually the end of the sentence. Example 1. Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. Or, humanity since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. Example 2. This steel is principally used for making razors because of its hardness. or, because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors.

The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in the sentence, as it is in the second example. The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement. Example 1 Four centuries ago Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure

seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers lighted on America. Example 2 With these hopes and in this belief I would argue you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and inflectioningly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war. The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning.

Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, becomes emphatic when placed first. Example 1. Deceit or treachery he could never for. forgive. Example two. So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem at first side like works of nature. A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence, great kings worshipped at his shrine, the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis,

the subject of ascendance must take the position of the predicate. For example, through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream. The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition. Chapter 4

A few matters of form Headings Leave a blank line Or its equivalent in space After the title or heading of a manuscript On succeeding pages, if using Ruled Paper, begin on the first line. Numerals

Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers Write them in figures Or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate. Example 1, August 9th, 1918. Example 2. Chapter in Roman numerals 12. Example 3, Rule 3. Example 4, 352nd infantry. Parentheses.

A sentence containing an expression in parentheses is punctuated, outside of the marks of parentheses, exactly as if the expression in parentheses were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point. Example 1. I went to his house yesterday, open parentheses. My third attempt to see him, close parentheses, but he had left town.

Example 2. He declares, open parentheses, and why should we doubt his good faith, close parentheses, that he is now certain of success. When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis. Quotations. Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.

For example, the provision of the Constitution is, open quote, no tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state, close quote. Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks. Example 1. I recall the maximum of La Roche-Houcault, open quote, gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come, close quote.

example two Aristotle says comma open quote Art is an imitation of nature close quote quotations of an entire line or more of verse are begun on a fresh line and centered

but not enclosed in quotation marks for example Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the revolution was at first unbounded colon line break indentation bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, but to be young was very heaven. Quotations introduced by that are regarded as an indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks. For example, Keats declares that

beauty is truth, truth beauty. Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin required no quotation marks. Example one. These are the times that crime and souls. Example two. He lives far from the matting crowd. The same is true of colloquialisms and slang. References. In scholarly work requiring exact references,

abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full form in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parentheses or in footnotes, not in the body of a sentence. omit the words act, scene, line, book, volume, page, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below. Example 1. In the second scene of the third act, written as in 3.2.

Still better, simply insert 3.2 in parentheses as the proper place in the sentence. Example 2 After the killing of Polonis Hamlet is placed under guard 4.2, 14 Example 3 Samuel chapter 1, 17 through 27 Ocelo 2.3

264 to 267 3.3 155 to 161. Titles For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The use of editors and publishers varies. Some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials, and with or without quotation marks.

Use italics, indicated in manuscript by underscoring, except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial A or the from titles when you place the possessive before them. For example, the Iliad, the Odyssey, as you like it, to a skylark, the Newcoms, a tale of two cities, Dickens' Tale of Two Cities. Chapter 5. Words and expressions commonly misused. Many of the words and expressions here listed are not so much bad English. English as bad style, the commonplace of careless writing. As illustrated under feature, the proper correction is likely to be not the replacement of one word or set of words by another, by the replacement of vague generality by definite statement.

All right. Idiomatic and familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, agreed, or go ahead. And other use is better avoided. always written as two words as good or better then expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence for example my opinion is as good or better than his or my opinion is as good as his or better if not better as to weather weather is sufficient see rule thirteen bid takes the infinitive without two. The past tense is bade. Case. The concise Oxford Dictionary begins its definition of this word. Instance of a things occurring, usual state of affairs.

In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary. Example one. In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated. Or, many of the rooms were poorly ventilated. Example two. It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made, or few mistakes have been made. See Wood, suggestions to authors, pages 68 to 71, and Killer Couch, The Art of Writing, pages 103 to 106. Certainly, used indiscriminately by some speakers, much as others use very, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind bad in speech is even worse in writing. Character, often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.

For example, acts of a hostile character, or hostile acts. Claim, verb, with object noun means lay claim too. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved. He claims that he was the soul surviving error, but even here, claimed to be, would be better, not to be used as a substitute for declare, maintain, or charge. Compare To compare is to point out or imply resemblances between objects regarded as essentially of different order. To compare with is mainly to point out differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order.

Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle. Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens. It may be compared with modern London. Clever. This word has been greatly overused. It is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters. Consider.

Not followed by as when it means, believed to be. I consider him thoroughly competent. Compare the lecture considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator, where considered means examined or discussed. Dependable, a needless substitute for reliable, trustworthy. Due to. Incorrectly used for through because of or owing to in adverbial phrases. He lost the first game due to carelessness. In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun, this invention is due to Edison, losses due to preventable fires.

Effect As noun means result, as verb means to bring about, accomplish, not to be confused with effect, which means to influence. as noun often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions music painting and other arts an oriental effect effects in pale green very delicate effects broad effects subtle effects a charming effect was produced by the writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness etc not to be used of persons equivalent to and the rest and so forth and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient that is if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full or immaterial words at the end of a quotation at the end of a list introduced by such as for example or any similar expression etc is incorrect fact

use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification not of matters of judgment that a particular event happened on a given date that lead melts at a certain temperature are facts but such conclusions as that napoleon was the greatest of modern generals or that the climate of california is delightful however incontestable they may be are not properly facts on the formula the fact that see under rule thirteen factor a hackneyed word the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic example one his superior training was a great factor in his winning the match or he won the match by being better trained example two heavy artillery is becoming an increasingly important factor in deciding battles or heavy artillery is playing a larger and larger part in deciding battles feature Another hackneyed word, like factor, it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs. For example, a feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A. Or, better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A sang, or if the program has already been given, to tell something of how she sang.

As a verb in the advertising sense of offer as a special attraction to be avoided. fix colloquial in america for arrange prepare mend in writing restricted to its literary senses fasten make firm or immovable he is a man who a common type of redundant expression see rule thirteen example one he is a man who is very ambitious or he is very ambitious example two spain is a country which i have always wanted to visit or i have always wanted to visit spain however in the meaning nevertheless not to come first in its sentence or clause example the roads were almost impassable however we at least succeeded in reaching camp or the roads were almost impassable at last however we succeeded in reaching camp or the roads were almost impassable at last however we succeeded in reaching camp When however comes first, it means in whatever way or whatever extent. Example, however you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best. Or, however discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.

Kind of. Not to be used as a substitute for rather before adjectives and verbs. Or except in familiar style for something like before nouns. restricted to its literal sense, amber is a kind of fossil resin. I dislike that kind of notoriety. The same holds true of, sort of. Less. Should not be misused for fewer.

Example. He had less men than in the previous campaign. Or, he had fewer men than in the previous campaign. Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. His troubles are less than mine, means his troubles are not so great as mine. His troubles are fewer than mine, means his troubles are not so numerous as mine. It is, however, correct to say, the signers of the petition were less than a hundred, where the round number, a hundred, is something like a collective noun,

and less is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount. line along these lines line in the sense of course of procedure conduct thought is allowable but has been so much overworked particularly in the phrase along these lines that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discarded entirely example one mr b also spoke along the same lines. Or Mr. B. also spoke to the same effect. Example two. He is studying along the line of French literature.

Or he is studying French literature. Literal, literally. Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor. Example one. A literal flood of abuse. Or a flood of abuse. example two literally dead with fatigue or almost dead with fatigue dead tired lose out meant to be more emphatic than lose but actually less so because of its commonness the same holds true of try out win out sign up register up with a number of verbs out and up from idiomatic combinations find out run out turn out

cheer up, dry up, makeup, and others. Each distinguishable meaning from the simple verb. Lose out is not. Most. Not to be used for almost. Example one. Most everybody. Or almost everybody.

Example two. Most all the time. Or almost all the time. Nature, often simply redundant, used like character. example, acts of hostile nature, hostile acts. Often vaguely used in such expressions as a lover of nature, poems about nature. Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untract wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.

nearby adverbial phrase not yet fully accepted as good english though the analogy of close by and hard by seems to justify it near or near at hand is as good if not better not to be used as an adjective use neighboring oftentimes oft times archaic forms no longer in good use the modern word is often 1.1. Retain the and in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times. One of the most. Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula as one of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc. Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe. There is nothing wrong in this. It is simply threadbare and forcible feeble. People.

The people is a political term, not to be confused with the public. From the people comes political support or opposition. From the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage. The word people is not to be used with words of number in place of persons. If of six people, five went away,

how many people would be left? Phase means a stage of transition or development, the phase of the moon, the last phase, not to be used for aspect or topic. Example, another phase of the subject, or another point, another question, possess. Not to be used as a mere substitute for have or own. Example one, he possess great courage, or he had great courage. or he had great courage, was very brave. Example two, he was the fortunate possessor of, or he owned,

respective, respectively. These words may usually be omitted with advantage. Example one, works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors. Or, works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors. Example two, the one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings, respectively. Or, the one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings. In some kinds of formal writing, as in geometrical proofs, it may be necessary to use respectively, but it should not appear in writing on ordinary subjects. So, avoid in writing the use of

so is an intensifier. So good. So warm. So delightful. On the use of so to introduce clauses, see rule four. Sort of. See under kind of. State. Not to be used as a mere substitute for, say, remark. Restricted to the sense of express fully or clearly, as he refused to state his objections. Student body. A needless and awkward expression, meaning no more than the simple words students. Example one. A member of the student body, or a student. Example two, popular with a student body, or liked by the students. Three. Example three, the student body passed resolutions, or the students passed resolutions. system

frequently used without need example one Dayton has adopted the commission system of government or Dayton has adopted government by commission Example two The dormitory system Or dormitories Thank you in advance

This sounds as if the writer meant It will not be worse my while to write to you again Simply write thanking you, and if the favor which you have requested is granted, write a letter of acknowledgement. They. A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural noun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as each, each one, everybody, every one, many a man, which, though implying more than one person requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification,

is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent, anybody, anyone, somebody, someone, intention being either to avoid the awkward he or she, or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, a friend of mine told me that they, etc. use he with all the above words unless the antecedent is or must be feminine vary use this word sparingly where emphasis is necessary use words strong in themselves viewpoint right point of view but do not misuse this as many do for view or opinion while avoid the indiscriminate use of this for and but and although many writers use it frequently as a substitute for and or but either for a mere desire to vary the connective or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate in this use it is best replaced by a semicolon this is entirely correct as shown by the paraphrase for example the office and sales rooms are on the ground floor while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing or the office and sales rooms are on the ground floor the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity

example one while i admire his energy i wish it were employed in a better cause example two i admire his energy at the same time i wish it were employed in a better cause example two i admire his energy at the same time i wish it were employed in a better cause Compare, while the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. Or, although the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. The paraphrase. The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime. At the same time, the nights are often chilly. Shows why the use of while is incorrect. in general the writer will do well to use while only with strict literleness in the sense of during the time that whom often incorrectly used for who before he said or similar expressions when it is really the subject of a following verb

example one his brother whom he said would send him the money or his brother who he said would send him the money example two the man whom he thought was his friend or the man who he thought was his friend or the man that he thought was his friend whom he thought his friend worth while overworked is a term of vague approval and with not of disapproval strictly applicable only to actions is it worth while to telegraph for example his books are not worth while or his books are not worth reading not worth one's while to read do not repay reading the use of worth while before a noun a worth while story is in indefensible. Would. A conditional statement in the first person requires should, not would. For example, I should not have succeeded without his help. The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is should, not would. For example, he predicted that before long we should have a great purpose. To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without wood, is usually sufficient,

and from its brevity, more emphatic. For example, once a year he would visit the old mansion, or once a year he visited the old mansion. Chapter 6. Words often misspelled. Accidentally Advice Effect Beginning Believe Benefit

Challenge Critise Deceive Definite Describe Describe Despise Develop

Disappoint Dual Ecstasy Effect Existence Fiery Firing Fiery

Formerly. Humorous. Hypocrisy. Immediately. Incidentally. Latter. Lead. Lose. Marriage. Mischief. Mirmer. Necessary. Occurred. Parallel. Philip. Playwright. Preceding. Prejudice. Pricle. Pursue. repetition rhyme rhythm ridiculous sacrilegious seas separate shepherd siege similar similely two tragedy tries undoubtedly and until write to day to night to-morrow but not together with hyphen write any one every one some one some time except the sense of formerly as two words the end