Let's Find Out - Overview of the Quantum Universe: Particle Physics, Nuclear Forces and Binding Energies | ASMR

Episode Date: August 13, 2024

This one is about the general ideas surrounding the quantum realm of the universe. Thanks to all my Patreon and Paypal supporters. You guys are awesome. ▸ Want to leave a tip or connect?: https://linktr.ee/letsfindoutasmr ▸Part 1: The Macroscopic Universe: https://youtu.be/eeM7_LOtNtg?si=2kjNy4mvwCMr8VJQ #educational #letsfindout #ASMR #relaxing #space #science

So we'll call it quits for now. Thanks for watching guys. I'll see you next time. So it was about four years ago that we last looked at this book in a video called the macroscopic universe. And I have since purchased it because this book is so awesome. But we are focused tonight on the quantum realm, the margins here of the entire introduction trails of particles the gas chambers and particle accelerators blind protons and other particles together these are the generations of products of those collisions and we're gonna find out tonight the fact that the universe is so

grand and massive I think sometimes allows us to forget that is gargantuan is the entire universe and all in the galactic structures and then the galaxies and then the stars and the solar systems and even the planets are all of that is made up of much smaller building blocks at the tiniest scale the universe's matter is composed of fundamental particles some of which governed by various forces grouped together to form atoms and when atoms gain or lose electrons then they're called charged particles or ions now when they gain or lose neutrons one of the nucleons in the center that form the nucleus of an atom those are called isotopes it's the proton, the positively charged nucleon, in the center of the atom that defines what type of element that the atom is. You can have different isotopes of the same element like gold, and if it loses or gains a neutron, if the neutron degenerates into other particles, then the gold is still going to have the same number of protons so it's still going to be gold

it's only when the proton decays in some shape or form or the atom fuses or breaks apart the nucleus of it through fission then it becomes two products that have different numbers of protons and those are different elements So you have isotose which are varying numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. Then you have ions, which are varying numbers of electrons in the outer shells surrounding the nucleus. And the element itself can be take various forms of ions or isotopes. of any particular element.

Now to me it's again looking at real pictures of what we're talking about here because it's easy to see this and I don't know get too lost in the abstraction of it. This is on a grid of green carbon atoms by a scanning tunneling electron microscope that's an actual

It's digitally filtered, but nonetheless that data is the actual boundaries of the electron clouds around the atom itself. I want to see what scanning, tunneling microscope is a type of microscope used for imaging surfaces at the atomic level. It's development in 1981 earned Horizon Physics in 1986. So it uses a Okay, and I just called it An electron microscope And it says I just got that up there

Not to be confused With a scanning electron Michael's microscope Produces images of a sample By scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons The atoms in the sample Surface topography

So a scanning tunneling microscope uses extremely sharp conducting tip that can distinguish features smaller than a tenth of a nanometer with a hundredth of a nanometer depth resolution. This means that the individual atoms can routinely be imaged and manipulated. Conducting tip. Most of them are built for use in ultra-high vacuum at temperatures approaching absolute zero, which makes sense because so the atoms aren't.

oscillating, vibrating a lot with heat. But variants exist for studies in air, water, and other environments, and for temperatures over a thousand centigrade. So they're based on the concept of quantum tunneling, which specifically is objects like electrons or atoms pass through a potential barrier according to classical mechanics, that the object shouldn't have sufficient energy to surmount. So here's a video showing the tunneling effect.

Quantum Tunnel effect and its application to the scanning tunneling microscope. The quantum object is sent on a thick barrier. It bounces off. If the barrier is thin enough, the object may sometimes get through, or tunnel through. The thinner the barrier, the more likely the object is to pass. There's the conducting tip of metal is made up of quantum. atoms and electrons if we approach a very thin tip electrically powered it may tear the electrons tear the electrons from the metal by tunnel effect current through the tip we can

reconstruct where the atoms are this is the principle of the scanning scanning tunneling microscope then the precision for that tip to be able to get well to be to be that small to begin with, but then to be able to get that close. That close to the, that it's trying to probe, Wikipedia, Rabidol. Quantum toning plays an essential role in the physical phenomenon like nuclear fusion, alpha radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. The atomic number, two protons, two neutrons. Atomic nuclear are always spontaneously decaying.

Probabilistic, but not a directly predictable manner. So you can kind of, that's where the concept of half-life comes into play, is that you understand that any given sample of a particular element, each element has its own half-life, will decay half-life, will decay half-of-ve, that sample will decay in a given period of time but you don't know which atoms are going to decay and you don't know how how well you don't know how the sample will evolve as it goes it's just over general periods of time you have the idea that there's a high probability of half of those atoms decaying by the measured half-life.

So uranium 238 decays to thorium 234. So it decays and loses the atomic mass number is the total number of nucleons it loses, which is four, two protons, two neutrons. But the atomic number is the number of protons. again that defines the actual element of the atom the decay is believe it's a result of the weak nuclear force or the weak interaction it's the strong nuclear force okay in the electromagnet so it's an interplay so beta decay is where an atomic nucleus emits a

beta particle transforming into an isobar of that nucleine Decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an anti-neutrino. So beta decay is when the up quarks and down quarks that compose and that make up protons and neutrons, when the weak force allows a quark to change its flavor by emission of a W boson leading to the creation. of an electron antineutrino or a positron neutrino pair, neutrino. For example, a neutron composed of two down quarks and an up quark decays into a proton composed of a down quark and two up quarks. Immediate W boson's getting into a proton, that positive charge is offset by the electron.

talking about scanning tunneling microscopes and they're different than electron tunneling microscopes it's so fascinating that the energy you know governing that these physical when you get down to the quantum realm things become more energetic it becomes a more a matter of probabilities and energies than it does physical constant and characteristics like speed and location and size. It just becomes a matter of how a cloud, an electron cloud is distributed. It becomes a matter of what energy level, what binding energy the electrons around a nucleus have. And it's just so amazing that the forces that govern those.

the use of those forces in the universe are what they are and now electrons can be bound to a location roughly it's so interesting that it's roughly to the concept of binding energy is really interesting there's multiple types of binding energies from the quantum to the nuclear to the atomic the electron around the atomic then the bond energy between atoms and the valence electrons at the furthest position or orientation configuration around the atom together and then there's gravitational at the furthest levels of furthest distances in the universe binding energy is the smallest amount of energy required to remove a particle from a system of particles or to disassemble, disassemble a system of particles into individual parts.

So it's the minimal energy you have to either inject into a system and to disassemble the system. So it could be gravitational where you perturb it with a minimal amount of energy to be able to below the gravitational potential apart to the point where they are no longer bound and they've reached escape velocity from the central gravitational force attracting them all on the microscopic scale that we're focused on today you have the bond energy the minimal amount of energy it gets increasingly at the molecular level down through the atomic nuclear and then fundamental elementary particle level it gets increasingly

larger. So you have a body like going through gravitational all the way to quantum chromodynamic binding energy here. Body, gravitational section here says if a body with the mass and radius of earth

were made purely of hydrogen, then the gravitational binding energy of that body would be about 0.39 electron volts per atom. and if a hydrogen body had the mass radius of the sun its gravitational binding energy would be about 1,200 electron bolts per atom

and so that's how much energy it would take to rip those to break the force gravitational purely gravitational force due to a mass of hydrogen atoms the size the mass the volume of the sun, 1200 electron volts. Now, if you move down and you think about the actual,

the bonds between the electrons, the molecular bonds holding two individual carbon atoms or hydrogen atoms together. So now you're in the gravitational example. We were ignoring all the other binding energies, the molecular, bonds the atomic nuclear elementary particle bonds now we're ignoring the quantum or the the gravitational bonds between them so if you ignore that weak

gravitational attraction between two carbon atoms for instance the bond disassociation energy here is 3.6 electron volts association energy bond energy and bond in how to disassemble or break that bond bond disassociation energy are measures of the binding energy between atoms chemically it's the energy required to break them apart such as in chemical explosions or reactions the burning of chemical fuel or biological processes bond energies are typically in the range of a few electron volts per bond. So while 3.6 electron volts are less, much less than, you know, 1,200 electron volts per atom,

if the gravitational binding energy to break it apart and have those particles expand, accelerate, or move apart from each other into infinity without being gravitationally attracted back falling back towards each other we see it's only 0.39 electron volts per atom when it's the size of the earth and you can imagine how small

that binding energy or the gravitational bind dissolution energy would be as you get smaller and smaller clumps of matter and so

we go down here now from the molecular level of 3.6 electron volts and by the way that's what causes sunburn from UV radiation 3.6 volts electron volts is right around the energy of UV radiation

as you go from infrared which is weaker and longer wavelengths to increasingly higher energy wave length of visible light from red all the way through the visible spectrum to blue and then beyond blue and violet you get ultraviolet UV and it's at that point that the energy in the waves or photons becomes high enough the wavelengths become short enough each individual photon at the ultraviolet level has enough energy to actually break the covalent bonds

of the atoms in our skin and so as you increase beyond ultraviolet you go to soft and then hard x-rays and then gamma rays those are called ionizing radiation because they split they rip the electrons off of the atoms in our skin, making them ions. And so anything below, UV radiation or visible light, visible light and longer wavelengths, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radio waves, those are all non-ionizing radiation

because any individual photon from regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, at the visible wavelengths or longer, do not have enough energy in them to burn us, to ionize the electrons off our atoms, to ionize the atoms in our skin. And now the binding energy we can see increases as we move down the scale in size.

So from atom to atom at the, atom to atom at the molecular level, 3.6 electron volts roughly around that range. And then the atomic level, we start to get into, see the, what does it say, the outermost electron, in an atom of cesium, to the innermost electron of an atom of copper. It's 11.5,000 electron volts. The electron binding energy, more commonly known as the, ionization energy so so the bond energy there at the molecular level was explosions that's ripping two atoms apart but not necessarily ionizing them and so to correct

kind of clarify that I had that wrong three point it's more like 3.9 electron volts is the ionization energy but you know roughly the same order of magnitude there. Once you hit UV light, you're hitting close to four electron bolts, and that's the energy required to free an electron from its atomic orbital. And then the binding energy, if you were to take, so the ionization energy is the outermost electron. But if we were to take the summation of all the electrons of any given atom,

which as you increase the atomic nucleus that positive charge you're increasing the number of protons that is the larger nucleus that increases and changes the chemical the actual element of the atom as you get larger and larger elements with larger mass numbers larger nuclei larger numbers of protons and of course neutrons in varying amounts, different isotopes that go along with that, you are also increasing the central positive charge of the atom there. And to have a relatively balanced atoms do generally tend to want to be neutral electrically. So you'll have a fairly proportionate amount of electrons.

balancing the negative with the positive charge of the nucleus there. And so if you sum up the energy would take to rip the bonds of all the electrons, which can be a lot if you have an atom with dozens of electrons around it, that is the atomic binding energy so the ionization energy the electron binding energy is just the outermost valence electrons which are typically the weakest the least firmly bound of course you know that's the first to get ripped off a from the shell of an atom because they are the furthest away from the center, the nucleus. There you have the weakest binding energy.

They're the most easily stripped off from that atom. As you get closer and closer, the orbitals that are closer and closer to the nucleus, those add electrons in those orbitals. Take more higher, more and more energy, higher and higher levels of electron volts. to be stripped clean from their atoms, at which point you would have a completely disassembled atom, disassembled, dissolved into free electrons and free nuclei. So you'd have protons and neutrons just entirely moving, independent of their electrons,

which is what we had at the beginning of the universe. there is a phase after which matter had congealed out of the forces into matter, into protons, and the quarks had bound up and emerged out of the super force and the grand unified force after those broke into the strong, the electro-week, and then the electro-weak force broke into its, the individual weak force and electromagnetic force. the quarks eventually in trillions trillions of a second here the soup of energy bound together in triplets in different flavors configurations created protons neutrons but the universe before the soup that is denoted by the cosmic microwave background the universe

was still so hot that the electrons were moving, had too much energy, way beyond the binding energy, to have a tendency to stably bind and attach themselves to the nucleons, the free-leased floating protons and neutrons to form the first atoms. So it took a while before they were formed and as we go further and further down now to beyond the electron binding energy the atomic the nuclear binding energy of the nucleus of the atom is even more powerful going well beyond the electron bolts and thousands of electron bolts of the atomic binding energy we're in the realm of the nucleus in which we have to talk about the energy required to disassemble the nucleus into free unbound neutrons and protons and this is this is where we're talking about

the strong force and the energy liberated in atomic fission bombs and it's the energy equivalent of the mass defect the difference between the mass number of nucleus and its measured mass nuclear binding energy derives from the nuclear force or the residual strong force which is mediated by three types of mesons so the average nuclear binding energy

per nucleon neutron or proton ranges from 2.2 million electron volts for hydrogen to 8.79 million for nickel the isotope of nickel nickel 62 and then finally once you get down to breaking up the nucleons themselves

into the quarks that compose them the nucleons of protons neutrons are composed of quarks that themselves are bound mediated by gluons also by the gluons connecting them holding them into a bound state through the strong force or the strong interaction. And this is not just single-digit millions, but hundreds of millions, almost a billion electron volts that you would need to inject into a system of particles to rip the quarks apart. Quantum chromodynamics binding energy is misusing the denomination of a lack of. of energy.

It addresses the mass and kinetic energy of the parts that bind the various quarks together inside a hadron. Hadron being held together. Dynamic binding energy in a nucleon amounts to 99% of the nucleon's mass.

So at the level of the quark, at the level of the nucleon that triplet, quark triplets comprise 99% of the measured mass of a proton or a neutron is pure energy pure energy

quarks being bound together and I wouldn't even know what a quark would mean at that level if it's a you can't even talk about again locations positions really size beyond

approximations when you're talking about the heaviness the matter of an object you know we're touching this this book the way we feel things layered deep inside the the molecular bonds the electrons that create those bonds and then the electrons surrounding the individual atoms that make up the molecules then those electrons stripped off, leave just a bare nucleus made up of nucleons. Then we go down into the nucleons. The neutrons and protons themselves are bound together. And then we talk about the proton individually. And what comprises that as quarks made of almost pure energy. 99% of a nucleon's mass is energy.

The chromodynamic binding energy of a proton is about 928.9 million electron volts, while that of a neutron slightly less massive is 927.7 million electron. Large binding energy between bottom quarks, 280 million or mega electron volts, causes some theoretically expected reactions with Lambda barions to release 138 million electron volts per event. The missing mass may be lost during the process of binding his energy in the form of heat or light with the removed energy corresponding to the removed mass through Einstein's equation,

which is so, so, so fascinating that you can actually measure the reduction of mass of any system all the way from gravitational systems of stars to molecular bonds and then the electron binding energies around the atoms and then you know the nuclear unbinding and fissioning of nucleons and fission bombs to theorizing to theoretical. radical, uh, ravelling, or not theoretical, because this is what they do in the particle accelerators of protons into their constituent particles. The loss of mass can be accounted for by Einstein's equation. The energy is equal exactly to that mass times the speed of light squared. And that's one of the greatest mysteries in physics is why the universe has these,

baked in values. Speed of light being one of the one of the most dominant values ever. Anyways, a scanning tunneling microscope. Back to our crawling back out of our rabbit hole here is it uses quantum tunneling, which is the tendency

now that we understand all the binding energies here Therefore, electrons around the nucleus of an atom two sometimes creep beyond the known binding energy, binding them into their orientations, their electron orbitals around the nucleus. They sometimes the probability wave distributions of where the electron should be measured sometimes goes extends. beyond. And two atoms in close enough proximity are going to sometimes interact with each other in a way that this microscope consistently enough is able to detect

oscillations as disruptions in a continuous signal which like all digital equipment from your phone microphone monitors there is anything you think about that it's electronic. It's simply distortions of a constant signal. And then those distortions, those patterns of distortions,

are decoded and transmitted into whatever it is that you're trying to harness, whether it's an image, a matrix of images, audio, or even gravitational wave detected from a satellite orbiting a million miles away. A scanning tunneling microscope here looks really crude, really cool, but not as clean and polished as I would have expected. A large scanning tunneling microscopes at the London Center for Nanotechnology. That looks more like it. cool it down, zero. The tip right there, a vacuum in the sample, the energy tunnels across the vacuum. So there's no air, no other atoms to be the intermediate transmitter of

energy or signals. And thick silver islands grown on terraces with the surface of Palladium. 150 nanometers wide. This is a 10 by 10 nanometer image. Each individual gold atom is 1.4 nanometers wide. Single walled, a single layer wrapped into a cylinder. The surface of a crystal of silicon carbide are arranged in the hexagonal lattice, part of a third of a nanometer. They're only superficially related, but now that fuzziness. It's like the black hole image of M87. It just reminds me of just the spectrum of the boundaries of our technology at the moment. We're able to see the hazy outlines of individual atoms,

and then the hazy outline of an accretion disk of a multi-million, or billion solar mass black hole millions of light years away cluster distance 50 million light years away we read like a single sentence out of it um now we have an idea of what matter is of course we as much as we know about the ordinary matter on earth and so much that we can detect from the cosmos raining in through its emission of light, the photon, the momentum, the energy carrier between atoms, which, by the way, it's interesting to think about if a photon is the ultimate speed limit of the universe, and Einstein's relativity indicates that the faster you go, the smaller duration of time will elapse for you.

Between any distance in the cosmos, billions of light years, will seem like an instant. The closer you are to going the speed of light, than a photon that is light itself, therefore traveling at the speed of light unless it's in some medium. But if it's in a vacuum of space, will, to the extent that it has consciousness, perceive no duration.

between the Big Bang, its emission from that soup of hot. Ones and electrons that would emit those photons, this massive, bright, 100 million, you know, maybe billions, billions of light years wide, you know, boiling soup that would look like a single star, a single furnace at the beginning of the universe. that photon, those photons traveling and hitting our detectors who's measuring the now shifted visible photons or ultraviolet photons that shifted all the way down to lower energy in the microwave region. Now those photons wouldn't have noticed any elapse in time. Zero time.

From the Big Bang. until it hit our detectors, which for us, at the rate we measure time at least, would be about almost 14 billion light years, billion years. So it's interesting to think about how light things moving at the speed of light, maybe future civilizations able to harness light speed or faster than light travel, won't even have the barrier of the future civilizations able to harness light speed or faster than light travel, of a duration of a trip that takes time to go from one star to the next, one galaxy to the next. So we have atoms and ions being the ordinary kinds of matter.

We have photons and they transmit energy in this simple model here of an electron orbiting a nucleus, negative electron orbiting a positive nucleus. we have the absorption of the photon at point at that which point the photon becomes annihilated it just no longer exists gets absorbed in the most literal sense I guess by the electron the electron absorbs its energy which increases its valence that goes into an outer shell that is at a higher energy level that takes energy to arrive at, which point after some time, the electron, if there's a vacancy there, has a tendency to want to drop back down. And there's a spontaneous emission of a photon of that exact energy that it had

previously absorbed. So it's fascinating to think about in what sense was the photon actually annihilated, in what sense was it of the electron in that intervening time period? You have ionization, that's just when the outermost electron, there's the photon, the wavelengths of light, the energy packed in each individual photon, is so well. high that it knocks the electron entirely out of orbit. We already touched upon dark matter and the potential possibilities of what it might be in our greatest mysteries in physics video recently, so I won't go into that too much, but it's worth commenting, remarking that it's, it makes up most of the universe's matter.

It has some gravitational interaction with ordinary matter, but that's it. It doesn't interact in electromagnetically or in any other detectable way. So for as much as we know about ordinary matter, there's dark matter. At least as far as we know, it's only around corraling galaxies, being a nest, a cocoon. within which nearly all galaxies exist but if it's elsewhere if it's surrounding us on a smaller scale if it actually pervades inside the galaxy where we are then we don't know we have no way of detecting it currently at least excerpt on this bore here the Danish physicist Niels Bohr was the first to propose that electrons and an atom move within discrete orbits.

He really kicked off the quantum era of quantum physics. Blanc and Einstein's ideas of photons only having discrete energies, or at least interacting with electrons and atoms in when they had, values of very specific discrete energies. He said that he suggests that these orbits have fixed energy levels, the electron orbits, that atoms emit or absorb energy in fixed amounts are quanta as electrons move between the orbits. These are now called orbitals and they are the substructures of electrons shells. Not all the same.

They can hone different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons. A substance made of atoms of just one type is called a chemical element. Number is equal to the number of protons are all the same size and crucially contain the same configuration of electrons, which is unique to that element and gives it its specific chemical properties. So it's, I want to say the geometrical, the topography, topography of, of, The atom is made of the electrons surrounding it. And the electrons have a unique fingerprint, each nucleus with a certain amount of protons. You know, carbon atom having six protons, helium having two, oxygen having eight, gold, having 79, something like that.

Those protons have a positive charge, and therefore they collectively have a collective positive charge. and therefore they collectively have a collective positive charge, 6, 8, 79, respectively. And they are going to attract, that positive charge will attract a negative cloud of negatively charged electrons around it in a specific, proportionate way. And so that proportionate attraction

allows a elemental atomic fingerprint to exist. And therefore, each atom, even though it can have varying numbers of neutrons, that won't change because their neutrons are neutral. They have no negative or positive charge, so that won't change the overall electrical charge of the nucleus. And therefore, the resultant electron, negative electron, cloud around it that's attracted to that particularly charged nucleus. And so despite having very little chemical differences between isotopes or atoms with different

numbers of neutrons, they for the most part are almost exactly the same. And that's why you can have something called heavy water, which is instead of H2O, where a hydrogen atom has one proton and then naturally wants to have one electron surrounding it you have teuturium you spell that deuterium which is called heavy hydrogen one of two stable isotopes of hydrogen the other being proteum so when hydrogen has It has one proton, so when it has one, just one proton in no neutron, it's called proteum, a single positively charged proton in a single negatively charged electron. The nucleus of a deuterium atom is a single proton in one neutron, whereas the far more common proteum has no neutrons. So Deuterium has one proton, but because it has that extra neutron, that extra nucleon, it means it has two nucleons.

You can see the table here of all the elements in their isotopes. So these are them naturally, I believe blue means it's naturally occurring, and maybe red means it can exist, but isn't very, natural earth's oceans one atom of teetium among every 6,500 atoms of hydrogen. So hydrogen quickly occurs in pairs just like oxygen doesn't like to exist in isolation. But so yeah you either call it proteum when you're specifically talking about the individual hydrogen. atom and how many nucleons it has. You have proteum with no neutron, deuterium with one neutron, and that proton. So deuterium accounts for approximately 15 and a thousand

naturally occurring hydrogen atoms in the oceans. or about drink heavy water which is instead of H2O it's D2O Instead of hydrogen 2 hydrogen atoms And an oxygen atom It's two deuterium

atoms So you have two extra neutrons there And you can drink it concentrations of it 90% heavy water will kill Fish and tadpoles and Flatworm but yeah there's a so you take a very large amount to replace 25 to 50% of the human bodies water with heavy water accidental or intentional poisoning with heavy water is unlikely to point to the point of pepper so because it doesn't really exist much in nature it would have to be artificially produced and fed to you over many days and there's many more efficient ways of causing someone's demise

and procuring very expensive heavy water. Then we have chemical compounds. Most matter in the universe consists of a few chemical elements, but a significant amount of... Exists as compounds containing atoms of more than one element joined by chemical bonds. In ionic compounds we've got such as salts, atom-straight electrons, and the resulting charged ions are bonded by electrical forces,

arranged in rigid crystalline structures, such as water. The atoms are held by structures called molecules by the sharing of electrons between them. The outermost electrons are typically called the valence electrons, or the valence shells and when you have the sharing of two outer of electrons so you have electrons of two atoms coming together electrons and the outer shells are shared between the two outer shells of those those atoms it creates a covalent bond that we we talked about being not very difficult to break and once you do if you have a just like lighting a candle

you have a an initial energy like this we have the energy created by the flame this this system right here is its own system but it's creating a flame and you can light a candle cause the covalent bonds in the wax oxidize with the oxygen in the atmosphere creating a combustion the bonds break they release energy and then when they drop back down when those the excited electrons excited the higher energy states by that release of energy of the surrounding reactions when those electrons drop back down this happens billions, billions of times a second. That's why we, they produce photons when they drop back down,

just like we see right here. They emit photons. So that's why we humans perceive flame. And I don't even know if they would have fast enough cameras to detect, you know, or at least precise enough, high resolution enough cameras, but we detect it as a single fluid. Essentially, the flame is a fluid. It's not, we're too, it's too small

and happening too fast for us to detect any discrete reactions. Certainly any discrete, any discrete, any discrete release of, photons we are way too macroscopic for that page two hours later so ordinary matter exists in solid liquid gas or plasma so ordinary matter exists in four states solid liquid gas and plasma these differ in energy in the energy of the matter's particles molecules atoms or ions In the particle's freedom, so it's different energies with solids, I guess increasing in energies from solids to liquid to gas to plasma.

If you think about a simple melting ice cube, melting into a liquid, then eventually even in room temperature evaporating into a gas, and in the particles, freedom to move. relative to one another. Substances can transfer between states by losing or gaining heat. The constituents of a solid are locked by strong bonds and can hardly move whereas liquids they are bound only by weak bonds. And in gas the particles are bound very weakly and move with the most freedom. And then a gas becomes a plasma when it's so hot and that collisions start to knock electrons out of its atoms.

So a plasma is ions or nucleons, a nucleus nuclei, with its valence electrons removed, knocked out from their orbital. So it's ions and electrons moving extremely energetically. and stars are made of plasma so being the most abundant as far as we know until we discover the true nature

of dark matter the abundant the most common composition or a constituent common form of matter they are made of plasma and so plasma is the most common state of ordinary matter

in the universe that we know gaseous being the second most common. Forces inside matter here, the bonds that link the constituents, solids, liquids, gases, and plasma are based on the electromagnetic force.

Gravity contains matter and binds it at the largest scales, but at the weakest, with the weakest binding energy, electromagnetism binds

matter or atoms together much more with a much higher binding energy but on much shorter scales electromagnetism overpowers gravity very very easily this is what attracts particles of unlike charge the other two forces that control matter on the small scales are the weak in the strong nuclear force holds together the protons and neutrons and the atomic nuclei together strong force here is like we talked about is what holds the quarks together and through another variant of the strong force it holds the protons and neutrons themselves together also known as the color force controls the quarks color property as it operates the

quarks constantly change color by exchanging virtual gluons. And the gluons are the force carrier particles. It is much of a force because red and green is already a very attractive pair. That's why everybody loves crissual. The residual strong force. So yeah, the fundamental strong nuclear force holds together to make protons. Then the residual strong nuclear force is what's holding individual nucleons or protons neutral electrons together. So we have strong force being essentially what keeps nuclei held together in such a compact local space.

It's carried by instead of gluons. The residual strong nuclear force is called or generated carried by particles called pyons. and pyons are generated from energy created with nucleons try to move apart. This energy arises as a byproduct of one of the fundamental strong force, of the fundamental strong force. Once generated, pyons are exchanged back and forth between the nucleons creating a binding force. Electromagnetism, although it's, you know, the most of the most, you know, the most of the nucleons, creating a binding force. common to us it's still just as mysterious because it's photon it's light itself electromagnetic waves that carries between like charred or opposite charges attracting each other and like charges repelling each other the EM force holds

electrons within the shells surrounding the nucleus It attracts negatively charged electrons toward the positively charged nucleus and keeps electrons apart. The force carrier for the EM force is light itself, the photon. Then you have the weak interaction. Kind of did those out of order, but the weak interaction here, the force that governs radioactive decay among other interactions, its force carriers are the W plus W negative in Z bosons. Here a W plus boson controls the changing of a neutrino into an electron and the transformation of a down quark into an up quark,

converting a neutron into a proton. Neutrino into an electron. W boson exchanged. You have a neutron. composed of two down quarks and an up quark. The neutrino and neutron appear to interact here. W. boson is exchanged. It's exchanged between the neutron and the neutrino.

And then instead of two down quarks and an up quark, now you have the down quark, one of them, the red, has transformed it to an up quark. Now you have two up quarks. So the neutron is now changed into a positively charged, proton and then one of the byproducts is a neutrino transformed into a negatively charged electron Stephen Weinberg he I've never read it but um I think I should wrote a great book he's a famous physicist and wrote a book about the Big Bang the first three minutes it's called

and he's a physicist best known for his theory of the two fundamental forces, the weak interaction and the electromagnetic force being unified. What won him at the Nobel Prize in 1979 was saying that the electromagnetic and weak forces, the weak interaction, work in an identical way at extremely high energy levels, such as those existing at the Big Bang. Weimberg's so-called his so-called electroweak theory was confirmed by particle accelerator experiments

so we were not able to perform experiments that allow energies high enough to detect or confirm that the electroweak force was and can be at high enough energies unified with the strong nuclear force

but we can detect, can recreate energies high enough to confirm that electromagnetism and the weak interaction are indeed the same force that congeals, cools out into two separate sides of the same coin, two different means of exchanging energy. between matter at cool enough, cooler temperatures that are more typical of today's universe. So he predicted that, which gave him and two others the Nobel Prize in physics in 1979. Much of what happens in particle physics, in quantum physics, is trying to understand just what happened in the Big Bang. When energies were high enough, when you had these forces interacting in a way that they suppose were identical to each other. So research is now centered on smashing particles together in particle accelerators.

And these experiments have identified hundreds of mostly highly unstable particles, but different, unique particles, which differ in their masses, their electric charges, properties like spin, and in the fundamental forces that they, that are characteristic of them. The standard model of particle physics is the current theory that tries to envelop them all under the same umbrella. It shows us how to classify them how under the standard model of particle physics currently. we have fundamental distinction here is that you have composite particles

which have internal structure so a proton and a neutron those are not fundamental particles because they are made of quarks now quarks themselves are fundamental particles

as far as we know they are not made up of anything smaller as far as we know another division is between fermions and bosons we talked about in the greatest mysteries and physics video which dirac coined naming after enrico fermi and indian physicist named bows which i believe is the also you know he's uh his name was used in the Bose, Einstein, condensate. Fermions, it might be the same guy.

There's another guy named Bose. No, I'm thinking of Bohm, David Bohm, different guy. So, Fermions, leptons, quarks, and barions are the building blocks of matter and bosons. Gage bosons and mesons are primarily force-carrier particles. Leptons and quarks form matter, leptons and quarks. Six different leptons exist, but the two above are the only two stable ones in those that occur in ordinary matter. Whereas quarks, which have charges, electromagnetic charges, of two-thirds, the up has a charge of two-thirds, positive two-thirds, and the down has a charge of negative one-third, which is really interesting. the only fractional charge known in nature.

There's six flavors of quarks, but only two occur in ordinary matter, up and down, and each can exist in any of the three red, green, and blue colors. Gage bosons. Now, these are the force carrier particles, some shown are hypothetical here, but a photon, gluon. the W intermediate vector boson, and the Higgs boson, which is interesting. That's what was discovered at CERN, cool collisions. It says here that it's theoretical or hypothetical, along with the graviton,

which would theoretically be the force carrier of gravity, which I know has not yet been discovered, but revised in 2012. And the Higgs boson white rabbit back down the rabbit hole here is uh Let's see The Higgs boson Sometimes called the Higgs particle or The God particle is an elementary standard model The massive scalar boson with zero spin

Even positive parity note no color charge that couples to mass Also very unstable decaying and other particles almost immediately a 40-year search, a subatomic particle with the expected properties was discovered in 2012. So it must have been to, unless they just forgot to update this small little chart and they did somewhere else in the book. It must have been before, after the editing, the final editing was done in 2012 of this book. It's discovered a subatomic. particle with the expected properties of the Higgs boson was discovered in 2012 by the Atlas and CMS experiments at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland.

Switzerland, the new particle was subsequently confirmed to match the expected properties of a Higgs boson. Physicists from two of the three teams were awarded the Nobel Peace. prize in 2013. Associated with it several researchers between 1960 and 72 independently developed parts of the theory that predicted it.

And you have anti-particles. Most particles have an anti-matter equivalent that has the same mass, but whose charge and other properties are opposite. So the same mass is a characteristic feature. They used to think of antiparticles, particles and matter and antimatter.

They used to think that you had before, I forget, physicists in particular, but generally in the late 1800s, early 1900s, before particle physics and quantum physics really started maturing, I guess, or is even developed. You had, it was known that a positive nucleus existed, and you had a negative outer shell. After Rutherford did his famous gold foil experiments where he fired protons, or was it electrons? I think it was protons.

He fired positively charged protons, Proteum's, hydrogen atoms with no electrons, so ionized hydrogen fired them individually at a very, very, very thin gold sheet. Now this thin gold sheet, and he had a detector, detectors centered around which the gold foil was, or in which the gold foil was centered so that any particles for, flying off in the plane of the projection could be detected on the outside. They probably have a picture of it somewhere here. But when most of the time the positive proton was shot at the gold foil,

the nucleus is so small and so dense, the positively charged neutral. nucleus that the proton most of the time is has a small probability a really really small probability of actually hitting the nucleus and a high probability of interacting with the negative electron field around the nucleus so many times it would be slightly deviated this way and that way but there was dramatic impacts and then he started noticing that it did every so often radically get deflected and sometimes almost directly back at the projector and so what that meant is that occasionally some very very very small positive charge

a repellent charge positive the same charge as the shot proton the hydrogen nucleus would deflect the positive proton projectile and it deflected it almost back directly at it and they thought that these you know the atom was made of essentially very symmetrical positive and negative charges. You had a positive charge at the core and a negative charge surrounding it, which was the electron, and they thought that if we could measure these, it would make perfect sense that their charges are equal. The electron does and is known to have an exactly equal and opposite charge as the proton. But it was not known whether their masses were equal. And it was thought it made perfect sense,

especially in a, in an aesthetic, a religious way. You have equal and opposite forces in a very philosophic way. It makes sense that you would have equal and opposite charges have equal masses together. But it was found out, and it really confused them at first, when they discovered that the electron was way, way, way less. massive than the proton. The proton was way heavier and the electron was inexplicably, inexplicably small, minute, and had almost no mass relative to the proton, the heavy proton, and then neutron later on. And I've heard Eric Weinstein describe this as the issue

where you have your on one hand you have three fingers that deceptively look like they're almost symmetric around the middle finger here you know your index and your ring finger and then you're left with the dilemma of how to reconcile the very your ring and index looking so similar and symmetric but you're left with the issue of how to reconcile this small pinky with this very unique thumb, neither of which really gels with the other three fingers, until, which is a huge dilemma, you know, you might be trying to fit a square peg in a round hole there, until you recognize that the symmetry comes from an entirely a mirrored hand, a mirrored appendage on the other side of your body. And you have perfect symmetry. No longer are these three kind of forced around some close, but not quite perfect symmetry.

But now you have elegant symmetry, a perfect mirror image. Everyone has its opposite. And that's the way they came up with. It's not the way. That's a great analogy to visualize later experiments, further experiments led to the discovery of not electrons and protons being matter and antimatter, perfect mirror-oppas opposites because they weren't.

But you had electrons and positrons. being the anti-electron with the exact charge of a proton, but the exact mass of an electron. And then you had antiprotons and anti-neutrons. These are the antiparticles. Made up of anti-and- neutrinos and anti-nutrinos later. So you have anti-quarks making up anti-particles. which is amazed at, but the fact that we have anti-matter is extraordinarily exotic and foreign to try to imagine.

The thing that gives us energy and allows for the evolution of life, the reason we're really here, if you could, really pick one, is the sun, stars and the matter that the processes, of nuclear fusion, the fascinating interplay between the largest, the irreconcilable fundamental forces of gravity, acting on the largest scales, compressing matter onto itself, and forcing a violent reaction coming out of the other three fundamental forces,

forces that are yet to be reconciled with gravity in nuclear fusion, creating these violent explosions of the atoms being forced on to overcome their binding energies and force together, releasing all that latent energy sitting within the nuclear realm domain. You have hydrogen, a single proton. fusing with another proton here and one proton is converted into a neutron and then you have a neutrino and a positron emitted turning from the one proton turning into a neutron now you have deuterium one proton one neutron you have a then you have a then you have a have a proton and deuterium atom fusing together.

Emitting a gamma ray photon, gamma ray being the highest energy photon. The highest range of photon energies, no. And causing a resultant product, a helium, a helium three nucleus, which is helium always has two protons, but sometimes it can be helium four. It depends on how many neutrons it has. has like here so you have a helium three with two protons and one neutron then those further combined with another helium three atom and you have now the fusion of

helium three nuclei forming a stable helium four atom and releasing protons two hydrogen nuclei so you have this chain reaction happening in the core of all stars and this is just one of the series or cycles of nuclear fusion reactions happening

but you have larger and larger and larger nuclei fusing together in the cores of stars until the gravitational pressure becomes no longer sufficient

to fuse anything heavier than typically about I think it's typically carbon sometimes iron all the way up to iron being having about how many 50 or so creation of new atoms from two atoms two smaller atoms being fused together is called stellar nucleosynthesis current theories the first nuclei were formed the first few minutes after the Big Bang through nuclear reactions in the process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis where essentially the entire universe was like the energy and pressure at the interiors the cores of stars and after about 20 minutes it had finally expanded

after inflation after energy had had time to dissipate it cooled to a point where these higher energy collisions among nucleons ended and now you had the soup of ionized particles of positive nucleons protons sometimes neutrons together mostly hydrogen some double proton pairs of helium and very very faint traces of lithium the electrons but uh nucleosynthesis and their explosions later produced a variety of elements and then that makes up all the atoms that we are made up of mostly carbon much hydrogen oxygen heavier atoms like iron and nickel stars fuse so anything heavier than hydrogen and helium is called metals by astrophysicists so it's not the typical

use of the word that most people use, but that's how we got metals in the universe, was after the Big Bang. The hydrogen and some helium that was birthed and emerged out of the Big Bang. We believe then later collapsed into stars, clouds, nebulous clouds, and stars and perhaps some primordial black holes,

like we talked about in our other video and including iron and nickel so iron has 26 protons nickel has 28 so you have iron copper and nickel and then all the other elements here we can see all these other elements or is that cobalt and nickel

I guess from copper you know all the way through the highest elements some of which are human synthesis there's no natural stable isotopes of way up here table here gives us a great idea so exploding massive stars it produces all the other elements up to

copper and nickel um cobalt i think but also produces copper zinc gallium germanium um is that arsenic selenium bromine, krypton, and rubinium.

Is that rubinium? 37. So supernovae, exploding stars, or novi, produce more chemical elements, dying low-mass stars, then produce the heaviest or heavier elements, and the heaviest elements are produced from merging neutron stars. the first hydrogen and helium that's amazing to think about what Stephen Weinberg and others particle physicists and cosmologists think the universe was this quark gluon soup

and gluons our quarks tend to want to be in triplets and they snapped into place forming their bind together forming that massive that natural tendency again, pretty inexplicable to snap into triplets forming the first protons and neutrons and of course tons of antimatter existed too so you had anti-protons

and anti-neutrons as well and then the other inexplicable characteristic of our universe allowing our very existence is the slight very very slight over abundance of matter over antimatter. If we didn't have anti-matter in a slightly less number in abundance,

if it didn't naturally happen and occur in the early universe in a slightly smaller amount than we would no longer exist, most matter and antimatter pairs annihilated in the universe and it was just the remnant the remaining marginal fractional surplus of regular ordinary matter over antimatter that allowed and led to the remaining helium and hydrogen that evolved into the stars that evolved into us

So you have neutrinos, gamma rays, and then just tons of other high energy photons and positrons being released from this system of reactions alone. Fission. Unstable atomic nuclei can spontaneously disassemble giving off particles and energy measured as radioactivity. And similarly, is a neutrino observatory. The high energy processes produce neutrinos, so they're fast particles that rarely interact with matter. So in order for us to detect them, scientists had to create what the year is called the ice cube, which is a neutrino observatory in Antarctica. 86 holes drilled in the ice contain over 5,000 ice. optical sensors in the dark clear ice, the sensors record faint flashes of light.

And that represents the neutrinos with ice molecules. So they're drilled all the way down so they have to pass through tens of feet thick of ice. Because they're so inert and so unlikely to interact. with the ice. They pass through dozens of feet before they do eventually. We have here the radiation, electromagnetic radiation, the different way to detect all the different energies of radiation from the cosmos. The longest radio waves, the slightly shorter, slightly more energetic microwaves than even more energetic. infrared slightly more is visible light than beyond blue and violet in the visible

spectrum is ultraviolet and then x-rays energetic x-rays the orange pink regions in this Chandra Observatory image of two colliding galaxies called the antennae a page 317 galaxy here and wide field view of the The antennae, taken from Earth, reveals the bright, distorted cores in the long, faint streams. Streamers formed by the disrupted spiral arms of the interacting galaxy. Entenny galaxies is about, it's an ongoing interaction that started about 700 million years ago. Here the book goes on into gravity, motion, orbits.

Space and time and relativity. Interaction. In bending space time. Visually interesting phenomenon that we can observe from the heavens is bent, distorted, gravitationally lensed. Light from galaxies that are intercepted or distorted by intervening galaxies. galaxies in between us and in them. It's so incredible that Einstein's theory predicted this long before we were able to observe it. We never had any telescopes powerful enough to detect gravitationally lensed objects, let alone black holes. Yet Einstein's theory of general theory

of relativity predicted that light if you had the right configuration of galaxies would be distorted just like light above a swirling pool of water gets wrapped around the center of the vortex and the idea of the Big Bang expanding in inflation and then through some unknown property, whether it's dark energy or some simple momentum of expansion, the universe has continued to expand. Evidence of radiometric dating from Earth

and supernovae light curves from the most distant, you know, 6 billion light years away. there still exists the possibility that we are misinterpreting it and the universe could have been a little bit younger or even a little bit older than we think it could have been younger and it could have been expanding much quicker and then is now actually decelerating more quickly than we thought or it could have been much older

and the universe has a much more gradual expansion. Both scenarios, both possible cosmic histories of course have to match today's current observations. Articles at the beginning of the universe, this is really one of, if not the most, other than black holes, crucial areas of study to the extent that we can

get any data beyond the cosmic microwave background, to the extent that any energy or signatures of gravity waves or any other artifacts of the interaction of matter on massive scales

of the light years and millions and billions of billions of light years any of that information could have been transmitted across the age of the universe and the size of the universe too this is the most crucial

period for understanding exactly what is the what happens at energies that go from 3,000 degrees to

trillions 1.8, 1.8 billion trillion, 18 billion trillion, a thousand trillion trillion, 1,800, all the way to the inflation era, where part of the universe expanded from billions of times smaller than a proton to something between the size of a marble and a football field at 1800 trillion trillion degrees 10 to the 27th sliver of time a hundred billionth of a yachtosecond from one microsecond a thousandth of a second through a billionth through a picosecond a thousand billionth of thempto and at a second a septo second a yachto second which is a I'd say a billion octoseconds.

The verse was 1800 trillionth of a degree or degrees Fahrenheit. There was a super force, unified force of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic force at 10 to the 36th, 6th seconds during the quark era. Right before it, we had a split. of the strong and the electro-weak forces, and then at 10 to the negative 40-thirds seconds, a 10-tillionth of a octosecond. We had the grand unified force,

and then, of course, some force theorized, hypothesized to exist, that even combines the strong and electro-weak forces with that grand unified force, with gravity, creating some variation of a unified super force. It's really just amazing beyond all the little facts you could say, that the overall concept, that energy congealed into matter. And matter itself is just frozen energy.

I think that might be the simply. way of conveying the absolute, just fantastic, fantastical nature of the Big Bang and how crazy, how ridiculously exotic our everyday experience really, really is at its core. We're made up of atoms, electrons, protons, protons, that are made up of quarks, that are 99% energy. And what does that mean for our experience? That's what I want to know. Worked out theoretical, mathematical, with solid mathematical underpinnings.

These theories, one in particular, like inflation, hypothesized because what we now know, the widely spaced regions of the universe could never have been, so, become so similar-looking in density. No matter where we look in our 300-distance, 60 degree sphere minus the plane of the Milky Way that we can't see beyond

the universe looks uniform it looks dense equally dense everywhere it doesn't show any preferred direction it's isotropic and we think that inflation caused a

very asymmetric universe to expand and become smoother and smoother and smoother. After the Big Bang, which is forever on the scale of particle physics, that we had the first electrons, Hadron era, quarks and anti-quarks combined to form particles called hadrons. These included barions, anti-bariones and mesons. of a second, then 99 millionths of a second later.

We have the lepton era. Electrons, neutrinos, and their antiparticles were very numerous, and the electrons annihilated with the positrons. Again, you had a surplus of the normal matter. Then the nucleosynthesis era, right at about one second. after the Big Bang. Neutrons gradually converted into protons. But when there was about one neutron for every seven protons,

most remaining neutrons combined with protons to make helium nuclei, each with two protons and two neutrons. opaque era and the eventual balance of elements and the congealing the capturing of electrons by the nucleons to form the first stable atoms. The light that we now detect has the cosmic microwave background. Here's the large Hadron Collider. Scientists here in this particle accelerator, they're trying to simulate the incredibly hot, energetic, dense conditions of the Big

Bang using a device called the Elisor. in a tunnel that is 17 miles long around Switzerland. Mashed together at high speeds and there's products. Everything that's been along the margins here. All studied. Here is one of the detectors called the compact muon solenoid. These are made up of advanced electronics and massive, massive magnets. electromagnets,

electromagnets. The aftermath of the Big Bang and the universe diagram of the Drake equation that breaks down the an intelligent hypothesis, a good way of maybe quantifying the probability, the likelihood of other, well, of alien civilizations.

Seven factor, seven variable multiplication. occasion. You estimate the rate of star birth, which here would be they think their example here says about 50 new stars per year in the Milky Way. Then you estimate those new stars, how many of planets, perhaps 50%, again. Then how many of those planets are habitable? and that's an ongoing area of study of exoplanets in which we look for signs of habitability

or how fast are they orbiting are they locked tidily to their sun is there a rotation that allows fairly frequent daily orbits around the planet's axis so that one side isn't too hot inhospitably hot or the other side in hospitably cold for the evolution of life how many planets do have life

which we think is fairly common intelligent life what would be the likelihood of a planet evolving life to have allowed for the evolution of intelligent life then what's the likelihood that that intelligence reaches a point that they're able to communicate. And of course, we know once you develop sophisticated technology, that means you're developing sophisticated weapons. How long are those civilizations going to last? This particular example here is saying that there is, in the entire Milky Way of billions of stars,

100 to 500 to maybe even a trillion stars there's only 900 civilizations currently alive we have the fate of the universe alien life thanks a million for watching guys