Radiolab - Black Box

Episode Date: October 21, 2022

In this episode, first aired in 2014, we examine three very different kinds of black boxes — spaces where we know what’s going in, we know what’s coming out, but can’t see what happens in that in-between space. From the darkest parts of metamorphosis to a sixty-year-old secret among magicians, and the nature of consciousness itself, we shine some light on three questions. But for each, we contend with an answerless space, leaving just enough room for the mystery and magic… always wondering what’s inside the Black Box. Episode credits:Reported by Tim Howard and Molly WebsterProduced by Tim Howard and Molly WebsterCitations:Radio Show: ABC's Keep Them Guessing (https://tinyurl.com/9r9zmftr) Our newsletter comes out every Wednesday. It includes short essays, recommendations, and details about other ways to interact with the show. Sign up (https://radiolab.org/newsletter)! Radiolab is supported by listeners like you. Support Radiolab by becoming a member of The Lab (https://members.radiolab.org/) today. Follow our show on Instagram, Twitter and Facebook @radiolab, and share your thoughts with us by emailing [e-mail]. Leadership support for Radiolab’s science programming is provided by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Science Sandbox, a Simons Foundation Initiative, and the John Templeton Foundation. Foundational support for Radiolab was provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

Hey, it's Latif, working at Radio Lab. There are questions everywhere. You know, it almost feels like you take a step in any direction at work and then you look at the bottom of your shoe and there's a question stuck there. What's it like to look through the eyes of a mantis shrimp? What are babies thinking? How does Thailand all work? You know, so often we know the input, we know the output,

but despite all of our most advanced science, we don't really know what happens in the in-between. The episode I'm about to play for you, if first aired back in 2014, it's about those in-between spaces. It's a trio of stories that celebrates the mystery and the magic of the black box. Enjoy! W and Y. Three, two, one. Badding first, pretty certain powered. Well, wait, I'm just gonna get my level here.

It is such a beautiful day. Beautiful, I think it's got to be like 75 degrees out or something. Sunny. This is Patrick Perdin. He's a professor in anesthesia at Harvard Medical School and works at Mass General Hospital You want to just tell me where we are? Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah The story of the day that you could say humanity emerged from the dark ages. Oh, you laugh now. Just wait.

Okay, here we go. From the fourth floor. It's on the fourth floor of this building. We headed in up three flights of stairs into this room. What a cool room. Oh my God. Is this like, how would you describe it?

I've seen many amphitheater, right? It's also got this awesome dome. It's this beautiful domed room with light streaming down from above. Like the acoustics in here, crazy. It must have been terrifying though if you actually heard somebody screaming. I mean, it's so resonant in here,

the screams would have been deafening and absolutely would have been terrifying. What is this place? Well, this was an operating room. Oh, and back in the 1800s, when this room was really in use. Being in an operation was so painful. It was often permanently damaging to a patient's emotional state. This is Julie.

I'm Julie Fenster. I write about American history. She wrote a book called Ether Day, which goes into a lot of detail about the dark, dark days of surgery in the early 1800s. Back then, during surgery, there were no pain killers, and patients were awake. Probably more awake than they'd ever been in their whole lives. Some of the patients remembered the sound of their limb dropping to the ground, or the saw going through their sinew and bones.

The smell of their own body being cut into. Usually, a surgeon would employ six burly men to hold a patient down. And instead of having an operation, some people committed suicide before they would face going into an operating room, which were usually located on the top floor of a hospital. In part, because the hospital really didn't do itself a lot of good to have the screams heard by passersby. This is such a cool room. Here we are at the top of the ether dome.

But then everything changes. October 16th, 1846. It's a Friday morning. I assume the room is full. The room is absolutely full. The students were all lined up to watch. Crouted in the bleachers because they had heard something big was going to go down. And right there in the middle of the room is...

The most esteemed surgeon in America, Dr. John Warren. About to do an operation. He brought in a patient who needed a tumor taken out of his neck and he was just about to slice into the guy. Just about to start the surgery when this mustachioid fellow bursts in a dentist. William T. G. Morton. And he basically is about to warn something that must have sounded completely nuts. I Can erase that man's pain

He didn't actually use those words. He actually had an appointment with Warren, but according to Julie He did have a bag. He had a bag filled with gas a gas called ether and Dr. Warren who had the scalpel raised, he puts it down, stands aside and says, with great sarcasm. Well, sir, your patient is ready. The second head, he ever tested this? He claimed to have tried it out on some dental patients and on his dog, on himself, and on his goldfish.

Nice. So Morton gets to work. Morton sets up his gear, fills up the inhaler, puts it up to the guy's face, and actually because the valve system had just been constructed and he hadn't tested it, he actually literally had to manually operate the valves with every inhale and exhale of the patient. So he administers the ether using this inhaler.

After about three or four minutes, the patient becomes unconscious. And just at that moment, Morton turns to Warren and says, You are a patient, sir. Dr. Warren brings the scalpel down to the patient's neck and cuts. And really, for the first time in that room, you could hear the scalpel. You could hear the breathing. The silence was far more deafening than all the screams that had ever been heard in that

operating theater. No squirming, no moving, no bulging eyes, no clenched fists. It must have felt like a miracle. This, the news of the operation went around the world as fast as anything. News of, you know, war or peace didn't travel faster than this. By the end of the year, doctors in Europe were using surgical anesthetics. And basically the blink of an eye, the most painful, horrible experience possibly imaginable, became routine, even forgettable.

But also deeply peculiar, as was made clear to us when we talked a while back with one of our regulars. Carl Zimmer. Well, my wife and I were watching this movie one night. It was called called birth starting to called kidman you did you like it? I hated it. No It's one of my favorites. Well, okay, but then I'm sitting there and I'm hating the movie you're hating this movie Well, I'm just wondering like why am I reacting so negatively to this movie? I'm just in such a bad mood I'm feeling lousy and I think it's the movie and I stand up and I say I'm feeling lousy and I think it's the movie and I stand up and I say Wait a minute my abdomen is an incredible pain. Oh, so it's not the movie. It's not the movie

It's me appendix about to burst we go to the hospital and Maybe four in the morning five in the morning. They're prepping me for surgery They you know put an IV in me and then they're like, okay, now we're going to be putting in the anesthetic. So just relax and this will be taking effect. But he says it didn't seem to be working. So I start thinking about what they're going to be doing to me in half an hour. They're going to take these knives and they're going to cut me open. They're going to rip my intestines apart. They're going to pull off this and flame the appendix. They're going to sew up the intestines the intestines they're gonna zip everything back up and all this is gonna happen supposedly without me being aware of it and I'm not having any part of it. I'm just saying I just like lying there saying I don't think this is working I'm not feeling anything you're

gonna have to do something more I just want you to know that I'm not. And then I was in another room and there was no one else there. Where did they all go? Like they'd all left and then and then it occurred to me like no, oh, oh, oh The whole surgery has already happened. Wow, that is weird. It's happened to me. It's it's as if they splice time Wow, that is weird. It's happened to me. It's as if they spliced time, take the time you were in, and the time you are in subsequently,

and the middle is totally missing. No experience whatsoever. It's not like sleep. No. There was no like, oh, I'm getting sleepy. I was arguing with my doctors that they didn't know how to do their job, and the next thing I'm in a hospital room with my appendix out,

and it's 10 hours later. It sort of implies that it's like a switch. It is. And that's what happens. When you raise the level of anesthesia in someone, and they've done studies on this, it isn't a gentle gradation down. You just, you raise it up, you raise it up,

and then you are into this other state. Do people who do this for living know exactly why this happened? You'd think that something that's been around since 1846 would be hammered out. Solid. But it's still almost a philosophical kind of mystery. I am so happy. I am so happy.

I am so happy. There's a term for this in physics. It's called a black box. It refers to a system where you can see what goes in. You can see that something different comes out. And you wonder like, what happened there in the middle? But you can't see it. Yeah. It's a mystery. It's black and it's closed up, therefore the box. I mean, it may not literally be a box, but today we have three different attempts to open three very different black boxes Starting with the box is in front of us now that gap that Carl talked about where you go. Oh, you're gone

And then suddenly you're back. What happens in that gap? That's what's crazy It's been almost 170 years since William Morton did his thing in front of those med students and we've moved way beyond ether So here we got propylfoil we got se seval fluorine, dexmenitomine ketobene, we've got all these new drugs, but we still don't know exactly how they work, which for Patrick is a very practical problem. It's very difficult actually to figure out when people you know aren't conscious because they can always be internally conscious to some degree, right? And in the 1950s and 60s he says this became a real issue because doctors started giving

patients. I'm neuromuscular blocking agents. They would paralyze their muscles during surgery, so they wouldn't flop around, which is a good thing. But then you'd have these situations. Once in a blue moon, where a patient would wake up in the middle of surgery. Literally trapped, unable to move. Eyes closed, totally still.

You know, fully awake, but no one would be able to perceive it because they couldn't move. And that's the nightmare that, you know, may even be worse than having six strong men hold you down. Oh, yeah, we don't have to dwell on that. Well, I actually did find a bunch of these stores. I don't want to hear them. No, they're great. I mean, they're amazing.

No. All right. I'd like to hear about that. No, I'm just saying. I'll just play one of those. No, I know. All right. All right, you are going to regret it.

Well, anyway, the larger point is that if you can't understand how and why anesthesia works, then you're not going to be able to explain why every so often it just doesn't work. Oh really? How often is every so often? I've heard different numbers anywhere between one in 10,000 to much more often, like one in 1,000. Wow.

But luckily, let's take a look at these brain signals. In the last few decades, scientists have begun to shine a little pin light into this black box. And Patrick and his team in particular have found something pretty cool. This experiment that we did in the, I guess, late 2000s, a couple years ago, they wanted to know what happens in the brain right when that switch flips. So they got a bunch of volunteers. Healthy volunteers. They hooked them up to an IV and started to very, very slowly give them propyl. Slowly the emitters to the drug,

which is a big anesthetic. And as they did, they told the subjects to click a button. Every time they heard a sound or a word. Chair, library. They recognized submarine, you know, something like that. In addition, we had the subjects name too. Tim, Patrick So the subjects would just sit there and listen and clear

Chair, library, on and on. Patrick and every 15 minutes they gave them a little bit more Probefall Submarine, Tim, Bip, bip, bip, bip, bip. Until eventually, they just stopped responding altogether. They were just out cold. Now, they're at this whole time. Patrick and his team were measuring the brain waves of the subjects. That's the key.

And he says, what they saw right at the moment that that switch flipped. Right at the moment of loss of consciousness. There was just one really, really clear motif that appeared. They saw this wave of electricity sweeping across the brain. This really low frequency oscillation about one cycle per second or less. And in addition to that, there was this higher frequency piece, an alpha wave, that appeared

at the front of the head at that loss of consciousness moment. So when people went under their brains, just started to ring like a bell, basically, and why would those, what are those waves doing exactly? It seems like those waves might be imposing a kind of deadly order on the brain. This is the thing that's very counterintuitive. You think that consciousness is order and synchrony, but it turns out that it's kind of the opposite. The consciousness is actually chaotic and noisy.

It's all of those different parts of the brain, you know, facial recognition, touch, sound, language, engaged in this crazily complicated, multi-layered conversation. You know, it's one person talking, the other one talking back. This is Carl Zimmer again, and he says one of the hallmarks of the conscious brain is that you see a kind of conversational logic, a back and forth between the different parts. Yeah, my turn, your turn, my turn, your turn. The things you're seeing create signals in the back of your head, they go to the front of your head, back again,

forward and back, forward and back, forward and back, forward and back. And you can use this eavesdropping to calculate how connected the brain is, what they call connectivity. And when you're awake, you have a lot of connectivity. When you're dreaming, you also have a lot of connectivity. And then if someone gives you anesthesia, like in a matter of a second, your connectivity just collapses. What happened to you? It just cut your connectivity out of cut. It did. And is what happened to you. It just cut your connectivity gut cut.

It did. And here is the weird part. Scientists will play a sound to somebody who's under with anesthesia. And they can see that actually the part of the brain that processes sound, the auditory cortex, is active. It takes in the sound. So your brain is hearing sounds.

That's spooky. Yeah. So what could be happening is that when you're under anesthesia, all the different parts of your brain, to some degree, they could be awake. It's not that your brain is just stopping. No, all those parts of the brain are still talking. They're just not talking to each other. Very well anymore anymore and that somehow knocks you out so lots of chit chat amongst the different parts of my brain make me conscious and not so much chit chat equals unconsciousness Yeah, that's the idea and how do the slow waves of relate to to that well Patrick thinks of it sort of in baseball terms right so actually I was at a Red Sox game the other day it was the last one that they had with the Yankees at FNW Park this year. And at some point the waves started. So some part of the stadium decided to go into the wave and here you go the waves coming

around and you're watching it and it keeps coming around and coming around. And you know after a while it gets really tiresome because you're sitting there and you're watching it, it keeps coming around and coming around. And you know, after a while, it gets really tiresome because you're sitting there and you're like, okay, I've got to wait for the wave to come. Okay, here it is, okay, stand up, raise your arms, sit back down. And just a moment later, I'm like, oh my God, I got to stand up again and you're waiting, oh dude, it's back again. And the thing is that when the wave is going on in the stadium, you can't really carry on a normal conversation. You can't have a normal interaction. You may not even be able to have a normal thought because the thing is just coming by every couple of

seconds to interrupt you. That is sort of the rationale for how these oscillations disrupt brain activity. I dig the analogy, but I'm not quite following. It helps to zoom in on their brain and look at a smaller number of neurons, which is what he did. Now check this out. We conducted this study where we measured brain activity in individual neurons.

They got some patients planted these tiny little electrodes deep into their brains, so they could hear the individual neurons. So let's imagine that we zoom in to like tens to hundreds of neurons firing and he says when they give that patient a propyl in anesthetic. What we notice is that right at the point of loss of consciousness, sure enough, they see those big, slow waves sweeping through and just like in Fenway, when the wave hits you, you have to stop your conversation. But what that wave is really doing is it's only allowing each little cluster of neurons

to talk once in a while. They can only fire at a particular moment in this slow oscillation. Like you know, other wave goes up and down and up and down or round and round and round if you're in Fenway. It's only at this moment, say, that one group gets to talk. The problem is, is buddy, he can only talk at this moment. And the neurons next door, they can only talk at this moment. Next group, same deal. Everybody gets a turn to talk, but they can't talk to each other because they're on slightly different schedules. When they're talking, the others can't listen. So there's still a lot of talking going on, but consciousness seems to be the brain talking and listening to itself. So when that slow wave rolls around, the neurons can't all fire

at the same time and talk to one another, and in that state it would be impossible to be conscious it is it it might be early to say but it does it feel kind of like you crack the code well i think we are in the process of cracking the code for uh... anesthesia uh... you don't ever want to get you know too far in the limpa but honestly i mean i feel if we can educate people about these rhythms you know i'd be willing to say it sure i i think we have i mean i i think this is gonna be huge i'm i'm not gonna lie to you i think this is just gonna be absolutely huge yeah i'll take the bait on

that sure practical really that's so that's a little bold. What would it mean to Patrick? How keeping turnovers came out of Steve's turnovers where he ate the pie? Is it in very practical terms? He can now peek into that black box of the brain. Okay, here I am, I'm wearing my scrubs. For example, Patrick and his colleague, Emory Brown. I'm Mananestisi Alzes here at Mass General.

They let me watch a couple surgeries, and I met a woman named Doris. Good morning. Morning. What kind of a surgery are you having today? I only have the repair enough of her nails. It's a surgery that, you know, 170 years ago would have been unthinkable. But here she is.

It's in control. Not too worried. So they're about to give her the first anesthetic. First anesthetic, poofful. Oh, that's right, yep. And as were about to give her the first anesthetic. First anesthetic, hopeful. That's right, yep. And as she starts to go under... Sea brec dors and a dung stop dors. So I'm going to just switch over the spectrogrammed display and see what it shows.

Sea brec dors. And one of these monitors. Oh, look at that. Did you see that change? Yeah. This is color display. You can actually see it happen. You can see the slow ways, right? No, no, no.

Now she's got some slow oscillations. If you imagine the screen is like this field of blues and yellows and greens, suddenly these bands of red just extend right along the bottom. And considering that for the last 160 years, anytime somebody like Doris has been put on a table and cut open, the doctors basically couldn't be sure what was going on in their head. Are they awake? Are they okay? And so with that in mind, being there in the operating room and seeing that band of red appear on the screen and hearing Emory

Brown declare without hesitation. This patient is unconscious. It's kind of cool. And you say that with a what percent confidence? Oh, 99.9. 9.9. 9.9. 9.9. 9.9. 9.9. 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 Okay, I'll do that. Okay, let me do one time. Three, two, one. This is Tim Howard, and today on Radio Lab, we've been talking about black boxes. And the next story started with a radio

piece that I heard at the Third Coast International Audio Festival. There were a lot of incredible stories, but there was this one called Keep Them Guessing that I just loved and I couldn't get it out of my head. So I sat Chad and Robert down in our little black box of a studio. Okay, I see a deep look Tim Howard. I'm not sure I like your tone, okay? And I connected them with the guy who made the piece. Hello. I hear the sound of what sounds like another room. Does he sound like me now? Oh! His name is Jesse Cox. Wow, you sound so close, can you're

full far away. He's actually in Australia. Where everybody is, because they're upside down from the rest of us, they are very, very likely to fall into the sky. You have as Australians work down to a tea, Robert. I'm grouping on with my hands at the table as we speak. Oh, good. You're okay just to start. I mean, maybe just introduce us to your grandparents. Who are they? Well, my grandparents were mine readers.

On the radio. Really? Yeah. You don't have to explain that. What are their names first? Leslie Pieddington and Sydney Pieddington. Pieddington Piedinton Piedinton. And they had a video show?

Yeah. The show was called The Piedentons or The Amazing Piedentons and was on the BBC Radio in the 1950s. Now Jesse told us for most of his life, he didn't know this. I guess the reason was that my grandfather and my grandma divorced well before I was born. And then his grandpa, he died when I was four or five. Then his grandma remarried, so nobody talked about it. Crazily enough, I knew that my grandparents had been famous and my grandma was an actress,

that it really wasn't until they were a teenager and a radio producer actually discovered by accident that my grandma was alive. And went, what? They still are pitting to an alive. The reporter calls up his grandma and's like, hey, can I interview you? And my grandma was hesitant. She's like, oh, I'm not sure.

I'll be very good. I can try and remember. And they came and interviewed her. And when it went to air, when it got broadcast, we all drove up to his grandma's house and listened to it around the radio that they would have back in the 1950s and heard the story. And that's when Jesse discovered that his grandparents, Leslie and Sydney Pettington,

one time had an audience of 20 million people. Yeah, yeah. Basically, the population of Australia was listening to my grandparents back in the 1950s. No way. I was like, yeah, why don't I know this? This is in my family and why? Why don't I know it? But he says it was really when he sat down

and listened to the original broadcasts, what's left of them. Two hours of all BBC recordings that survived today because my grandparents pirated them from the BBC acting 1950. He says, it wasn't until he heard those tapes that I went, wow. You can now tell us this story. Yeah, tell us what you heard. That made you go went wow. You could now tell us this story.

Yeah, that's what you heard. That made you go wow. Well You hear this very dramatic theme song and this old BBC voice comes under the tape and says Good evening ladies and gentlemen, we present the Piddington. And the music goes up, all very very dramatic, and then the narrator sets the scene for you. Feeding to all those at home and here in the number one

picket studio right in the middle of the West End of London. It was done in front of a live audience, and then you hear my grandfather's voice. Well, as Stephen Grenfell has just told you, life's been quite exciting for us. He was a stutterer. We had a lot more letters. Though all these things that meant it should never have worked on radio, anyhow, anyhow, tonight, my grandfather is in the studio on the stage, and my grandma.

I'm sorry to say, Leslie isn't here. She was often somewhere dramatic. Is a nut in the studio. Somewhere exotic. One time she was in a diving bell. A diving bell. She was underwater. At the bottom of a test tank.

One time she was in the Tower of London. Are you there Leslie in the tower? Yes, I'm here. Yeah. And remember, Pittington is here in the Piggitolis studio. And Leslie is in the Tower of London. So your grandpa is on stage and your grandma you're saying is in a tower by phone? No, she's in front of a microphone.

Now this is back in the time when microphones were the size of small milliliters. They're here from them very shortly. There'd be a microphone set up in the Tower of London. It connected live. Yeah. My grandfather then comes on the air and sets up a series of telepathy tests that they go into in-act. And now I down to work. I will attempt to transmit to Leslie a line of print selected from a number of books on the table here in the studio. So there was a famous one called the book test, and this is where a member of the audience would come up to the stage and there'd be a pile of books.

And then randomly pick up a book, randomly open to a page, and point to a line. Would you read out the line to the listening audience? The line selected is Beabandoned, as the electricians said, that they would have no current. Now, completely random bit of text selected out of a stack of books. After the text had been chosen and only then... I shall now call in the Tower of London. They would connect to his grandma Leslie.

In just a moment, at the sound of the gong, I want your complete silence, your sympathy and your cooperation. Now concentrate on the line while I attempt to transmit it to Leslie. attempt to transmit it to Leslie. And a gong would sound, and he'd kind of very dramatically follow his brow. And the next thing you heard was... Men. My grandmother.

Men. Light. This sort of frail, gentle voice. And she started to unpick. Yep. What was being transmitted to her? Something to do. An electrician. Something about light and electricians.

Remember that line again was? The abandon, as the electricians said, that they would have no current. Will you concentrate on the word that's like being left, people being left? It's amazing to listen to over 60 years later, listening to those tapes I'm still on the edge of my seat. Bandand, that not light, concentrate on the word light light. And right at the end. I think the whole line is abandoned. As the electricians said, they would not be current.

The abandoned, as the electricians said, that they would have no current. Almost every time it would be 100% correct. It's really remarkable, Broadcar. would be 100% correct. Surely a remarkable broadcast. It just was this feeling inside you that you get going, hang on. What? When Jesse heard those broadcasts as Avi's question was, how did they do that?

Well, this is the question that I wanted to know for so long. And there have been many, many theories. I mean, they used to get letters in from listeners all the time. There's this box of press clippings we found at the bottom of my grandma's closet and we started going through these press clippings. And there were wild theories, like little Morse code transmitters in their teeth. Oh, yeah. I mean, one of the theories I quite liked was someone who wrote in saying there was a green

man that ran between their shoulders and he knew this on authority because he also had a green man. And so that was precisely how they did it. But you are totally convinced that this was a carefully worked out trick of some kind. Yes. That is the one part of almost certainty I can say. And there has to be some secret code, some tapping of the sum, something. Well, you're not the first person to say that.

The people were constantly trying to guess what the code was. That's Jim Steinmeier. I'm an author and consultant to magicians. He says that at the time, some magicians in London thought that his stammer was part of the code. Oh, I can't see. I can just think it. Jesse for his part end up going through a ton of these theories as he interviewed magicians in historians, read through magic books. Initially, one of the theories that

made sense to him is that the code was in the silence. That basically my grandparents and my grandma was so in sync that between each time a sound or a word was uttered, then inside their head start going through the alphabet. And they'd be so in tune, so in sync that whatever letter that matched up, that that would be a code. Wait, wait a minute, so, so, Chad? A, B, C, hi. D, D, no, so, C. I'm wondering. A, B, C, D, E, F, D. No, it's not. No, it's not. I'm wondering. A, B, C, D, E, F, G.

The next letter is going to be J. I don't know. I never hold that. Yeah, of course. As soon as you start playing any of these theories out on real time, you realize how ridiculous they are. And if you listen to the second broadcast of the two that's revived, you hear something that makes the whole idea of a code seem kind of

impossible. Yeah, that was a test they did on the aeroplane broadcast. In that broadcast, is grandma? She was in an aeroplane. Flying at a great height at a great speed towards some or other, but we're not sure where. Flying around Bristol, and she was in this plane at the same moment that he was on stage. Exactly, and on that time there were numbered envelopes on everyone's seat and my grandfather said okay everyone write something and put it in the envelope seal it up. Just rate a poem after top of your head. 150 people do this and then sit turns to one of the judges and says okay pick two numbers from one to 150 and then someone goes into the audience and goes and picks those two envelopes brings them

back to the stage gives them to the judges and then the judge picks the audience and goes and picks those two envelopes, brings them back to the stage, gives them to the judges, and then the judge picks one of the envelopes, pulls out the poem and then holds it in front of my grandfather. So here you have a poem chosen seemingly at random, and Leslie, the grandma, is several thousand feet in the air when they finally connect her. Best look, come in, will you? Hello.

The assured way of relay. Leslie is still completely isolated. She can't even hear a word that they're saying. She never had a pair of all, come in, Wille. Hello. The assure way of relay. Leslie is still completely isolated. She can't even hear a word that they're saying. She never had a pair of headphones. So she could never actually hear what was going on in the studio. She literally just spoke to a microphone once the technician said, Leslie, we're ready for you.

We're ready for you. So thousands of people, those Sydney, they're throwing his brow. And the poem he's trying to send her is from Keats. One line that goes hail to the Blythe Spirit, Bird that will never word. A bird? One bird.

Oh, it's two lines. A bird, Bird spirit. Oh, I've got it. I can guess it. Hail to the blive spirit. Bird, I'll never word. Miss Young, would you read out what has written down on the piece of paper that you hold? Hail to the blive spirit.

Bird, I down never would. Thank you. The crazy part is that in that trick, your grandpa doesn't even talk to her. There's complete silence between Sid and Leslie, and if there's silence, there can be no coding. So, you know, it was kind of this wonderful process that I talked to people, and even as they came up with theories, you'd listen to the tape and then realize that even the theories themselves just seem so implausible.

Well, maybe it's the narrator. Do you think it's the narrator that whatever it is the narrator says each night, which is before the game is even on, somehow encoded into the LAP man's introduction is the answer? No, because the audience hasn't yet gone and done its random act when he started this show. There was one thing that I discovered from reading the magic books, and this is this whole idea about passing on a piece of information through a third party. Now my grandfather never speaks to my grandma, but he says to the technician in the studio, can you please call Gilbert Sullivan in the strata cruiser and ask my wife to stand by? Then the technician calls Gilbert and says,

Gilbert, can you please ask Leslie to stand by? And the technician calls Gilbert and says, Gilbert, can you please ask Leslie to stand by? And then Gilbert Sullivan says to my grandma, Leslie, please stand by. Now, that's is the only thing I can see where there's some kind of communication. But then how would you stand by? Communicate something like a random sentence from a book or whatever. Exactly. And that sentence, you wear the theory falls down because then what happens next is that my grandma basically successfully recites a half written crossword which someone has put into an envelope and pass up to my grandpa. So like you go, how stand by means you know six down, I have no idea. So really I'm back to square one again. I can't work it out. I've got, you know,

the closest like- You mean to this day you don't know? To this day, I do not know. To this day. Wait a second, wait a second, wait a second. No, we can't, no, there's gotta be somebody who knows. Can't believe we can go into this interview. We have no, we have no, so it's a technician, it's gotta be the technician. You gotta get to the technician

because the technician is looking at her and he's doing something- I'm pilot, I'm pilot. All they have to do is move their lips. There's something is happening with that man's eyebrows. That's the code. It's the eyebrows. I feel like I'm just listening to this, like what's been going on in my head for about 10, 12 years. So then he has Jesse, like, what happened when he talked to his grandma?

Total dead end. She means total dead end. You mean like... Growing up, once we discovered this story, around the dinner table when we visited her, it would always be. But why can't you tell us? Why can't you tell us? We're family, surely you can tell us.

And she would fobb us off and just say, you are the judge. That is the line they finished. Oh, that is the line they finished with every single broadcast. They think the same. Well, only thanks very much everyone, and you're the judge. I think we're just here. Well, all right. And I'm deaf. Now, Dr. Sir, I think we're, we're just here, well, all right. And I'm deaf, we're now vexed to the defendant and figure, didn't it?

She won't even give me this satisfaction of saying, yes, it was a trick. She won't even say that. Clearly you aren't the favorite grandchild. There was probably another, another, you have a cousin or a sibling who she really adored. And one day without you knowing it, she whispered to her. No, secret to her. No, what about to her son, your father. Did she tell your dad?

She told my dad something. What? What did she tell him? I have no idea. He will not even admit being told something. If she slipped up, this is Jesse's dad. And I'm not even sure that she did slip up. Um, but I have finished asking to see.

And I have ruined my dad. I don't know, I don't understand why you can't say yes. Leslie did tell me something. I'm not going to tell you, but yes, she did actually tell me something. If my mum and trusted me with something all those years ago, then I will keep that trust. Why? Because I believe in keeping trust.

My dad won't tell my mom, they've been together for over 30 years. You just have to continue on nothing. There's no book that's published, there's no one that came out and said, I was the fellow who worked behind the scenes with the Pitting Tens, let me tell you how it was done. That's Jim Steinmeyer again. They left people guessing and walked away. Well, the thing that got me is when I was talking to magicians and they said we can repeat everything that they did.

Really? So they can actually do, I mean, like, you know, one of them is in a plane and other ones on the... Apparently. But they still themselves don't know 100% for sure how my grandparents did it. If we could figure this out, would you want, it sounds like you would want to know the answer. I'm not so sure anymore.

Really? We all say we want to know, and we all go completely crazy and mad. But I feel like this story wouldn't have lasted for 60 years. It wouldn't still captivate people today. If they're told people, if they hadn't kept their line, you are the judge. I kind of feel like that's almost the greater magic than whatever magic they were doing. I was just feeling like, this is a black box

that we can shine a light into it and go, okay, check that one off the list. Now we can go to the other one. Well, this is the cool thing. Now, if we can't figure it out, then you will be very happy with our program. If we can figure it out, we will call you and say, do not listen to this show, because it will deeply disappoint you.

Well, I mean, the thing I think for me that made me come to peace with not finding out, and not knowing the answer, was that a lot of the interviews I did with my grandma were from a few years ago, And she actually isn't very well. She has dementia and she's been sick the past couple of years. And so she physically can't tell it anymore. And yeah, for me, there is something about, you know, I visit my grandma now and you go, she was amazing. She not only did she make this incredible program

with my grandfather, they had 20 million people listen to them, which is just incredible when you think of the 1950s. They've managed to... Well, what happened? Hey, no, no, no, Jess, come back. No. We just went, it was straight on the hour.

It was exactly, it's exactly nine seconds ago as the hour. Oh, mother! Get yourself on it, I'm just going to call him. Yeah. Hello! Hello! Yeah, hi. And you're booking right now, just a minute ago.

Yeah, it's weird. We need that, that, that, that, that. Yeah, I think we're probably need to use the phone, because that booth now needs to be used, sorry. So we called Jesse back, and while we didn't drag him back into the studio actually we couldn't he did send us this tape. Now you've held on to his secret for so many, so, so many years. Why have any wanted to reveal it to any of you?

I think the reason I haven't ever wanted to reveal the secret is because it's a wonderful mystery and I like to think that after I've died people will still say how did they do it? Was it or wasn't it? It just tickles me to think of that. A lot of secrets, magic secrets. They get passed down from generations and they get really performed over and over again, I guess, that very much becomes a part of that family. Now, as a performer myself, if I wanted to bring back the piddittons, would you feel like you could hand down this magic trip to your grandson to carry it on?

Of course, if I had a grandson who wanted to carry it on, I'd have enormous difficulty telling him how to. I don't think it'd be possible, because there's an awful lot that I wouldn't be able to tell him. What do you mean you wouldn't be able to tell that grandson? It's hard to explain why I wouldn't be able to. It's just that I wouldn't be able to. It's just that I wouldn't be able to. It's all I can say about that. Our sincere thanks to Jesse Cox for so graciously allowing us to air that story. And also thank you

to ABC National Radio's 360 documentaries who produced the story with him. It's called Keep Them Guessing, and we've linked to the original story on our website, radiolab.org. And we'd also like to take a moment here, not only to thank Jesse for his amazing story, but to honor his memory. Jesse passed away very unexpectedly in 2017,

caught all of us off guard, and he is incredibly, incredibly missed. So, you know, I don't think it's actually time for us to end this because I didn't tell you this. We were so interested in trying to figure out how they did that trick that, that, soren and I, because we just wanted to find out, like did somebody know How they did it so we called this guy Who ruined everything this is pen Gillette who you probably know from pen and teller famous for doing magic tricks And then telling you how they are done now. I don't really know what I was expecting when we called him I guess I was thinking he would know what they did, but he wouldn't choose to tell us. I didn't know.

But when we called them, and we played them the story, as soon as he heard it, he said, Oh, it's a book test, right? It's a book test, it's a novel of switch. What? And there are, you know, three or four ways to do that. What did he say? He said, basically, I can tell you how they did it. Yeah.

Or how they might have done it. But you are not going to like it. There, there you go. The only secret in magic. There's only one. And that is that the secret must be ugly. You cannot have a beautiful secret. A beautiful secret is the kind of thing that's short

and sweet like, oh, he folded the hat twice. Or there's mirrors under that table. When you hear it, it's like, oh, of course course that's what they would do and you love finding it out Then you will whisper it to the person next to you So in magic what you want is an idea that is not beautiful So what he told us is a magic trick that stays secret is one that's so boring to tell you don't want to tell it And you don't even want to hear it. If I have to say he's lying about this and there's gaffer's tape over behind there and they're not actually telling you the exact truth here and it gets so you don't get an

aha. One of the strongest feelings you can get in life, one of the most rewarding feelings is the feeling of an aha. I finally understand. If you don't have a wonderful aha, people won't figure it out. So I can tell you easily how they did that trick, but you will not get an aha. Basically he said that you answered this one

is gonna kill your joy. Yeah, it's ugly So did he did he tell you what they did? Yeah What do you say? I'll tell you just a second you went into excruciating detail about how he thinks they did it now a book test We actually do one in our show But the more important thing he was so right once we heard the explanation and the details and all, we were both like, hmm, yeah. All right, well.

F***ing. F***ing. F***ing. This is like a kiss with a poison dart in his- I love how much I bummed your shit. As you can hear, he knew exactly what he was doing with us. And in a way, he's asking us a deeper and more philosophical question. I've done this to you.

Will you turn around and do it to your audience? Well, all I've done to you, because you get to edit. All I have done is put you in precisely the position I live my life in. You now have to make the exact same decisions that I make. And I will tell you, and this is just true, that I would have played this particular thing differently with almost any other show. My move on the chess board with another show

would be to say, I do have several ideas as to how this could be done, but I think I'm, I'm gonna be like the grandmother and go to my grave with this. You know, and I would have just given you that sound bite, which I just have. Except that we have pivoted the entire piece called so. It's like all eyes, all eyes have been directed to the next sentence. So that's a little difficult. But I want to see how you solve a problem that I solve every day. But we have like a higher, you're entertaining,

but we're entertaining with the caveat that we're supposed to be like telling the truth as best we understand it. So we have a slightly different set of gods and our mental illness than you do. Which is no secret. You don't really, you don't really, because I am not suggesting that you lie. You're just going to have to tell your audience what you think they need to hear and that's where he left it. So in the days after the interview, we just got into this debate about what we should do. We obviously have an obligation to you, you listening,

to tell you what we know. Yes, the whole deal. Yeah, we can't pretend that we don't know something that we now do know, even if it would make a much more beautiful story. So this leaves us in a conundrum. Are we entertainers? Or are we actually?

Journalists. Journalists. So here's where we ultimately came down. We have decided not to tell you how the Pittington did it. I mean, we're going to tell you, but we're not going to tell you here in this podcast, because we have now been soiled by this truth. We learned off the record. And you, if you want to be soiled, sure.

Come and soil yourself. You can go to this URL, radialab.org slash the ugly truth. Don't click this. Radialab.org slash the ugly truth. Don't no apostrophe. Click this. And we just leave it to you. You can go there or you cannot. All I have said to you is that it's a trick. Yeah, and you knew that. The fact that it wasn't a trick you wanted it to be You know, he did turn sweet at one moment. We were talking about the grandma. Right. Grandma tells the grandson in the conversation at the end, she's not sure she could explain to him. Yes, how it was. Well, that's beautiful. That is the most beautiful

thing that happens in the whole thing because I think she's telling the truth. She may not know how the trick was done. And yet she was a party to it. She's the one who says, you know, oftentimes when you're doing tricks, somebody knows everything and the other person is, you know, in the dark. Yeah. You mean like one of the partners intentionally not knows what's happening? Yeah.

There are tricks in the pen and tell the show that I don't really know how they're done. It might have happened here. He may have decided that he would be the knowing one, she would be the innocent, and maybe therefore, and this is just a hunch, but just possibly everything she's saying to a grandchild, instead of being a kind of dodge

or a little bit of a lie. Maybe it was the whole truth. Hey, I'm Chad Abumrod. I'm Robert Crowwich. This is Radio Lab and today we are doing our black box hour. Yeah, and a black box is a thing, it's a box that something goes in, you can see what that is. Something comes out which is different and you can see that. But you do not know what's going on in the middle. It's a mystery.

I love it. Shall we go inside? Of course. And our next and final black box comes from our producer, Smolly Webster, and it begins... ...into the butterfly rain forest. Oh! So that you can see the butterflies that are flying in fact. So a few days ago, I was in Gainesville, Florida at the Florida Museum of Natural History

where they have a rainforest. It's what about three stories tall? It's like a top that's all wrapped in a net and then it was covered in butterflies. Oh my gosh, there's so many thousands. So this is a hilly cogniz butterfly. That's Andre's sarcophad. I started looking at butterflies when I was 60 years old and I have never grew up. He was my guide. And here under this leaf you can see an owl butterfly. One wing is like the size of my palm. So there were red ones.

Black and yellow ones. Blue ones. Deepra striped ones. Is that a monor? Yes. Which I don't step on this butterfly. It's like a Dr. Susie and Land of Butterflies. But I was there to look at the moment right before.

They become butterflies, which remains one of the most mysterious black boxes in nature. What I'm talking about is something called the chrysalis. The chrysalis. Just to back up, at a certain point in all caterpillar's lives, after they've eaten a lot of leaves, they hit a certain weight. That is coded in their gene as their final weight. Some hormones start pumping, some genetics turn on,

and it starts growing a little shell. That's the chrysalis. And inside that chrysalis, as we know, a cathopiala becomes a butterfly on moth. Sunday is heard, or nomen too. And this is a mystery. What do you think happens inside the chrysalis? I think that...

I actually have never thought about it to be honest. I don't know. I don't understand how it works. Not many people have. Are you like surprised that you actually don't know? Yeah, I'm surprised. I thought like I knew and I don't. Those are folks I met at the museum. They hold up. Now that I've thought about it for a second, isn't it simply that the caterpillar is inside the shell?

It sort of snuggles up, and then it grows a wing off of his right side and then off of its left side, and it just pops wings out. No. That is actually what I thought, but that's not right at all. So, Maguars simply is located on three floors. Because here's the thing. So now we're going into the bowels of the building. When you take one of those little black boxes and you slice it open. Shall we do it? Yes. Which Andre was nice enough to do for me.

Sorry. Even though he loves these guys, he took a tiny little chrysalis. Oh, it's about an inch long. Which a caterpillar had just gotten into one day ago. And he slowly began to cut. So we're taking our freezer like scissors through the outer layer of the chrysalis until... You can see people...

Oh! Oh! Oh! What? Oh my gosh. What? No, it's like there was no caterpillar there. What do you mean?

There's no head, there were no legs, there was no antenna, no spiky spine. It's like a pale white yellow. It's very liquidy. What was there then? Basically just goots, it's like a runny goopy goo. Looks like snot. All you have to do is give it like a little squeeze and then just went, oh, oh.

Oh. It just bush exploded it, he exploded it. I think he looked shocked too. Wait, I don't understand where did the caterpillar go. It seems like once the caterpillar gets into its shell, it's sort of just melt. It's head legs. Antana, abdomen. They all just dissolve. Muscles themselves just sort of like dissolve away

into individual muscle cells. And some of the cells rupture. And so they're inside the amino acids, the proteins, those all go floating out in a space. Wait, you're saying that caterpillar just becomes like a soup of cells? Yeah. And yet somehow,

this soup will magically be transformed into a butterfly of mouth Well, how does that happen that question that question is the big fat metaphysical quasi-religious semi-mystical Sofical question that people have been asking forever. Yeah, so one of the big arguments that was taking place. This is Matthew Cobb, he's a biologist in a historian, and he says, back in the 1600s, when naturalists saw that goo, they just thought, oh, well, clearly what's happening is that the caterpillar goes into the chrysalis and then it actually dies

totally dies and out of its burial cloth is going to come the new life this beautiful and completely new creature death as it were and then a kind of resurrection that's Philip Clayton, he's a philosopher from the Claremont School of Theology. And he says, from the beginning, people thought about and wrote about metamorphosis. As a kind of spiritual ascent,

he says somewhere in the New Testament, behold, the old has passed away, the new has surely come. Basically, people saw the caterpillar as a symbol of our lowly earthbound lazy bodies, right? And then the butterfly was sort of casting away all of that, and it represented our soul up in heaven, sort of in its most perfect form. Never mind that butterflies actually like to eat. Feces, and urine, and other unneptitizing substances. According to Andre, I'm tasty. Ha ha, never mind that.

The metaphor is like inspiring at some level, right? Because you think, oh, I've got all, I'm going to just become more, a more perfect version of myself, right? Yeah, yeah. But then the converse side of that is you cut open a chrysalis and it looks like a whole bunch of goo and you think, there's a hell of a lot of change.

So the thing is, is that this transformation, either of the butterfly or of my soul, seems so dramatic, so miraculous that it made some people think like, geez, if you're gonna go to heaven and the process transform that much, is it even you up there? It still has to be you that makes it to heaven.

You can't change too much, otherwise, like, someone else will be up there enjoying your afterlife. So certain memories and elements of your identity have to continue, just not all the elements. Yeah, I'm so intrigued by that because I also think like, what, like what, when you undergo such a transformation, what do they think carries through? That's a really interesting question.

Cleaning out the poop and throwing away the moldy leaves, you have a lot of time to think. Which brings us to Martha Weiss. I am an associate professor of biology at Georgetown University. She got to thinking about this question in more concrete terms. Okay, so she didn't experiment. What we did was we took a big green caterpillar and we did

something that was not entirely nice. She put them in a box, filled it with a nasty odor. And is the odor like an odor of a plant? It's actually a plant-based odor but it smells kind of like nail polish remover. In any case, she gasped them with this nasty smell, and then once they could smell the odor, then we gave them a zap. Is that just like a zap? Just a zap? A zap? I think 10 seconds of zap.

10 seconds. And they do this over and over. Oater. Zap. Oater. It's eventually. Most of these caterpillars learn to hate the smell. Every time they get a whiff, they head in the opposite direction.

Okay, so then we let them pupate. Meaning the caterpillar changes into its shell and... Oregon's dissolve, muscles melt, you get this... Cataclysmic, catastrophic, chaotic. Change. And then, chaotic. Change. And then one month later, the moth emerges. And now we're ready for the drum roll. They give the moths a whiff. OK.

And the moths hate the smell. I mean, normally moths don't care about the smell at all. It's like 50-50, but these moths hated it. Somehow I'm confused. What does that mean? That means the memory made it through the goo. Oh! And it came out the other side. Oh!

What's your feeling like coming out of this? My feeling is wow! I think it's amazing that a caterpillar can have an experience, go into its chrysalis, five weeks pass, emerge as a seemingly different organism and that it still can recall experiences that happen to it when it was a caterpillar. And how does that happen? The answer to this question is we do not know. But, but out there floating in that sea of goo is actually a tiny little speck of brain.

Some of the brain is dissolved away, but there's this like microscopic fragment that has made it through. And Martha suspects that nestled into that fragment is this memory. Oh, it's like a little boop, it's like a little beacon. And it turns out there are others too. There's a speck of gut, some nerves, some muscle. It's not as gooey as it seems.

God, it's like, it's like, I can't help wondering, what does the butterfly know about its caterpillar life? Like, it knows this one tiny thing, but how much else? Does it know it crawled? That it has no answer to that question. But Martha says that these types of questions come up all the time. In fact, one of her colleagues... I was talking to Doug the other day, and he said that he had gotten an email from a guy who was...

I'm not exactly sure what flavor of Christian but had, but he had gone into the whole resurrection thing. And he felt like this was, you know, when he ascended that he wondered if he would then be able to remember his life on Earth. Well, here's the answer. What answer? The answer to the question about what carries through. The continuity question. Oh, right, yes. A memory carries through.

Which is freaking cool, I gotta say. It is freaking cool, but there's a little more freaking cool All right, and that is that there's actually a continuity, but it goes in the reverse direction What does that even mean well? Matthew Cobb told me this story about this guy this 70th century man who I never had never heard of John his name is written swamadam, but is pretty more pronounced of. Jean, his name is written Swamadam, but is probably more pronounced Shwamadam. Swamadam. Shwamadam.

Okay. That's Jan's Swamadam, a Dutch microscopist from the 1600s. He was definitely the first to do some very clear dissections of the Christmas. And the caterpillar, and one day, in Paris, in front of this crowd, of assembled, were these bewigged and be stocking. He gets a fat white caterpillar. He gets a scalpel or a tiny little thin bit of glass, and he dies sex it.

He just opens it up at the back, along its back, a long line. And what he sees inside, or what he can show them, is that in fact, there are some of the structures of the future butterfly, its wings, its antennae, and even its legs that are actually already formed, even before pupation takes place. So you peel back the skin of a caterpillar

and beneath it you see a new creature hidden. Absolutely. There's no decay. Oh, that's so bizarre. It's like, it's like if you were to skin me and there's my 70 year old self is inside of me or something. Wait, and the wings also survive the go?

Yeah, so it's like the caterpillar will actually start to grow little tiny adult parts that are super thin and transparent and it just keeps them tightly rolled up and hidden up against the edges of the chrysalis but they don't actually ever go through the goo or become the goo. What he then shown was you know what this isn't about death this isn't about decay this is actually about transformation.

I don't know, it's kind of eerie. It's not just what of me carries forward into the future. It's like what of my future self is in me right now. I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing. I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing. I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing. I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing. I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing. I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing. I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing.

I'm going to do a little bit of the same thing. ... ... ... Thanks to our producers this hour Tim Howard, Mollalu Webster, Jesse Cox, and thanks to you guys for listening. Yeah. Real quick before I let you go, just want to let lab members know to expect another exclusive in your feed next Wednesday. This time it's bonus reporting from our recent episode No Touch Abortion. This content is so new and so exclusive that I have not heard it yet,

but it's Molly Webster, say you know, it's gonna be good. If you are not yet a member of the lab but want to be, go to radiolab.org slash join and sign up so you don't miss out. Radio Lab was created by Jad Abemrod and is edited by Soren Wheeler. Lulu Miller and Latif Nasir are our co-host. Susie Lecktenberg is our executive producer.

Dylan Keave is our director of sound design. Our staff includes Simon Adler, Jeremy Bloom, Becca Brusler, Rachel Q.Sick, Akari Foster Keys, W. Harry Fortuna, David Gabel, Maria Pasco-Tierres, Sindu Nara San Bandan, Matt Kielte, Annie McEwen, Alex Nissen, Sauer-Kari, Anahra Squet Pass, Sarah Sanback, Ariane Wack, Pat Walters, and Mali Webster, with help from Andrivenialis. Our fact-chuckers are Diane Kelly, Emily Krieger, and Natalie Middleton. Hi, this is Jeremiah Barba, and I'm calling from San Francisco, California.

Leadership support for Radio Lab Science Programming is provided by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Science Sandbox, Simon Foundation Initiative, and John Templeton Foundation. Foundational support for Radio Lab was provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.