Radiolab - The Helen Keller Exorcism

Episode Date: March 11, 2022

Fantasy writer Elsa Sjunneson has been haunted by Helen Keller for nearly her entire life. Like Helen, Elsa is Deafblind, and growing up she was constantly compared to her. But for a million different reasons she hated that, because she felt different from her in a million different ways. Then, a year ago, an online conspiracy theory claiming Helen was a fraud exploded on TikTok, and suddenly Elsa found herself drawing her sword and jumping to Helen’s defense, setting off a chain of events that would bring her closer to the disability icon than she ever dreamt. For over a year, Elsa, Lulu and the Radiolab team dug through primary sources, talked to experts, even visited Helen’s birthplace Ivy Green, and discovered the real story of Helen Keller is far more complicated, mysterious and confounding than the simple myth of a young Deafblind girl rescued by her teacher Annie Sullivan. It’s a story of ghosts, surprises, a few tears, a bit of romance, some hard conversations, and a possibly psychic dog.This episode was reported by Elsa Sjunneson and Lulu Miller. It was produced by Sindhu Gnanasambandan and Rachel Cusick, with help from Sarah Qari, Tanya Chawla, and Carolyn McClusker. Jeremy Bloom contributed music and sound design. Additional Mixing by Arianne Wack. Special thanks to Georgina Kleege, Julia Bascom, Desiree Kocis, Peter C. Kunze, Andrew Leland, Sara Luterman, Alexander Richey, Will Healy, Nate Jones, Nate Peereboom, and Pamela Sabaugh (who was our voice of Helen Keller).ASL TRANSCRIPTION Support Radiolab by becoming a member of The Lab today.     Radiolab is on YouTube! Catch up with new episodes and hear classics from our archive. Plus, find other cool things we did in the past — like miniseries, music videos, short films and animations, behind-the-scenes features, Radiolab live shows, and more. Take a look, explore and subscribe!DOWNLOAD BRAILLE READY FILE HERE (https://zpr.io/s23JtuYxyrNA)Citations in this episodeBooks:Elsa Sjunneson, Being SeenKim Nielsen, The Radical Lives of Helen KellerGeorgina Kleege, Blind Rage: Letters to Helen KellerKatie Booth, The Invention of Miracles: language, power, and Alexander Graham Bell’s quest to end deafnessHaben Girma, Haben: The Deafblind Woman Who Conquered Harvard LawArticles:Susan Crutchfield, “Play[ing] her part correctly: Helen Keller as Vaudevillian Freak,” Disability Studies Quarterly.Desiree Kocis, “Did Helen Keller Fly A Plane?” (she did), Plane & Pilot Magazine.Peter C. Kunze, “What We Talk about When We Talk about Helen Keller,” Children’s Literature Association QuarterlyThe archives of the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB)

Wait, you're listening. Here I am here I am Blue Miller she's a killer Do you not hear me Lulu I hear you typing. Luluuluulu. Oh, oh, oh, oh, I'm just tapping up. Oh, I'm just tapping up. It's like, you're deep breathing and typing. Oh, my God, I'm so... No, it's okay, it's okay. Was that like mouse breathing?

No, it was fine. It wasn't, it wasn't, it wasn't, it wasn't mouthy as so much as I could hear you very close by. Okay, well now that I've figured out how to operate my headphones, shall I just jump in? Yes. I'm Lillie Miller. I'm Chad Abumeron.

This is Radio Lab. And the journey I want to take you on today, first of all, quick warning, it does involve a fair amount of explicit language. There's some swear, so maybe not the right one for kids. And it all really kicks off. Elsa can you hear me? With a woman named Elsa Honeyson.

Hello. How are you doing? I'm doing well, but it's like, this is an insane couple of weeks. Elsa is a busy woman. She is a fencer, a swing dancer, a teacher, an activist. But her day job is, do you identify as a sci-fi writer? I mean, identify as a speculative fiction writer. Speculative fiction writer.

Okay, so what does that mean for a day? I get up in the morning and I feed my cat, and I make tea, and I sit down at my desk, and then I will kind of periscope down for the afternoon to work in my own fantasy world. She's written stuff from Marvel, published books. I'm currently working on novella that is about a blind assassin that involves service dragons. Oh hell yes. Okay, so take me back, we kind of... And anyway, about a year ago, any memories about like where you were,

what you were doing. Elsa got in touch with me to tell me about something that had just happened to her. So I was in my kitchen, in my house that I was living in in Seattle, and I was making shrimp. And because I have ADHD, I was looking at Twitter while also cooking, you know, not exactly advisable and I saw this tweet.

A tweet that led her, I just wanted to say Helen Keller's not fucking real to a video. I don't care who you are, which is not fucking real. And then to a whole world of videos. It just doesn't make sense. Wrap your mind around it, because it's pretty fucking simple to understand. Helen Keller is not real! Helen Keller was not real!

People on TikTok saying Helen Keller was a fraud. I don't think Helen Keller was real. I know you was fake. She was a hoax. The joke is at the back. Wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, at the back. Wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait, wait. What does that mean? What does that mean? So you mean, well, she was a real lady.

She was definitely a real lady. But the TikTokers were questioning that story we all know about her, you know, the story that she was both deaf and blind, totally cut off from the world until this lady, the quote unquote, miracle worker, Anne Sullivan showed up, and then using a technique called finger spelling, taught her language, culminating in this dramatic moment by a water pump where Helen Keller finally understood the word water, and then went on to write a dozen books, tons of articles, and travel the world.

And the people in these TikTok videos were like, there's no way that you can be taught how to talk words when you are deaf and blind. Not having it. I know there's like a story like her caretaker, like she grabbed Helen Keller's hand and like poured water over it. And then Helen Keller was like, water. She'll feel the water with her hand and she'll think it's something, but how could you? You know what I mean? It could have been milk, you know?

Like it could have just been any liquid. It could have been kool-aid for all I know. Like chubo-ro books? Twelve books. No, she fucking did it. That's not even a realistic number for somebody that has all of their senses. You just can't fucking do that. Like with the fuck?

It's almost like Ansel and mine to everybody. That monster, Ansel and she's a fucking fron too. So back in her kitchen in Seattle, Elsa is watching all these videos just so angry. Honestly, yeah, it was right. So she fires off this tweet. If you think that deafblind people can't write books, you can bite me because I have one coming out in October.

So yeah, Elsa. I was born partially deaf and partially blind. herself is deafblind. Okay. She has Bluetooth enabled hearing aids and glasses and reusing a magnifier. How she's able to tweet and talk with us today. Okay, got it.

And so her tweet promptly goes viral. Uh-huh. So then Elsa's kind of watching like thousands of likes and reshairs. She's suddenly realizing she is thrust herself into the limelight as Helen Keller's bodyguard and defender, which is, oh, God, oh no just... The last thing she wants to be. Hey, want nothing to do with this person?

She... ...felt not good about Hulgar? Yes. Wait, so, wait, why would you not have good... Well, I spent most of my life feeling constricted by Helen Keller's ghost. Elsa says that the ghost of Helen Keller has messed with her life in such tangible real ways that it's affected how her life has played out. And she's come to see that it's not just her life,

but all of our lives, our brains that are haunted by Helen Keller in a pretty surprising and insidious way. So allow me to just take you back to where the haunting all began for Elsa. Yeah. Okay, so we're going to the mid-90s Seattle, Nirvana's on the air, Elsa will Elsa is on the she's on the floor in her third grade classroom sitting next to

her classmates. I had giant coke bottle glasses like the 1990s were not kind to low-vision children. And her teacher pulls out a picture book about Helen Keller. I distinctly remember seeing the illustration that sort of everybody sees, which is where she's standing there with her hand underneath the faucet, the pump, signing the word water into Annie Sullivan's hand. And like, I just sort of remember being like, well, I know I can't see and I can't really hear that well, but like this isn't me. She said she knew of course that she had some trouble seeing. I ran into things a lot and some trouble hearing, which became

particularly apparent during verbal spelling tests. The words that I was hearing my classmates say weren't the words that I was supposed to be writing now. Oh, so like they'd say fly and you'd spell thigh or something. The words that I was hearing my classmates say weren't the words that I was supposed to be writing now. Oh, so like they'd say fly and you'd spell thigh or something. Yeah, but whenever someone would compare her to Helen Keller, which she said happened a lot. It was always, but I'm not like that. And I think that's because I was always told, like, but you're not really blind, but you're not really down. Like, also says her family had always told her that there was nothing really different about her. You know, your glasses are just a little thicker

than other kids. The hearing aids were just, you know, to help me a little bit. And so I consistently would try things that were probably not a good idea. Things like downhill skiing, horseback riding. Oh, you're moving. Or, Oh, I'm looking at the screen you've got a awesome sword. Yeah this is an early 20th century German dress sword. That's so cool. I have been fencing since I was nine. How does how does that work? Wouldn't it be scary if you can't really see the swords and things? Fencing is actually not about seeing a sword

You're dealing with the fact that you actually can feel tension in somebody else's blade. I see Okay, yeah, so anyway else as a kid was doing all this really rad stuff including you know that every day adventures that any kid has in childhood like you know, the everyday adventures that any kid has in childhood like climbing trees. There was this one tree in Ravenna Park in Seattle that's enormous. Because of how big this tree was, a lot of light didn't filter through, so it was kind of a dark, tidy place. And I remember being able to sort of use one spot to kind of lift myself up. She knew this tree really well and knew every branch. There was sort of a sloping tree bit.

And she would just go higher. And I remember it was a lot of sliding and higher. More like whole body contact with the tree. And hopefully I could get all the way up to the top of the tree. How did you feel there? I felt safe there. So it felt like an escape. So one day I was up in the tree and

And then the sky opened There was a huge rainstorm that tree had changed the the environment of the tree had changed What if I slept and now I can't figure out how to grab onto a different spot? And it was kind of like, well, how do I get down safely? And suddenly she got lost. But the texture of the tree had changed, and everything about how I interact with my space is about texture. She did feel like she knew the world, but then you add rain,

and then she suddenly lost in this tree she knows so well. And literally couldn't get out of the tree. rain and then she suddenly lost in this tree she knows so well. I literally couldn't get out of the tree. There were things that I definitely didn't know the limits of until they sort of smacked me in the face. She said her childhood was scattered with moments like these. Moments no one else could really relate to. Mom moments where she wished there was someone who got it. And she said this sense of frustration and loneliness with those

frustrations really came to a head when her family moved to New York City. When she was in the ninth grade. In Seattle my family drove me to school. But in New York, I was getting up every morning at 6.45 and getting on the subway. I would just stare at the ground, because otherwise I would trip and fall. And so one morning, it's taking forever for her to get to school. Like with stairs, I would stop at each step and shuffle my feet out and then I would take a step down. And she arrives late to her classroom. My English teacher stopped me at the door and she was like, Elsa, I'd like to talk to you for a second about your classmate's essay. He wrote his essay about you and how he admires you and I would like him to read it out loud in front of the class this morning. Wow. And I was like, um, what?

She says, okay, goes and takes her seat. And he stands up in front of our class and reads this essay. And the first line of the essay is, I admire Elsa because she's like Helen Keller. Hmm. And I just wanted to like, sink several thousand feet below the surface of the earth. Why? I mean, I think I think it would have been embarrassed. Like, why are you making a big deal of me doing things that everybody else does?

making a big deal of me doing things that everybody else does. Like, everybody else goes on the subway. Everybody else goes up and down the stairs at school. And why do you admire me for doing them? Did you again have the like, and I'm nothing like her? Like, was there also that part of it? He's wrong. I think it was even more like, oh, maybe I am a little bit like her.

Like I think it might have been the first time I started to realize that there could be something. And for Elsa that thought was... Because when she thought about what became of Helen Keller as an adult, she lives without her teacher and her teacher's husband. Was I just supposed to live with my parents and my grandparents? Like, what was I supposed to do? The images Elsa had of Helen Keller's adult life painted a kind of nightmare for her. There was Helen Keller wearing pearls and smiling, holding a flower.

There she was holding a book. There she was holding an Sullivan's hand, sitting on An Sullivan's lap as a grown-up. Slowly growing grayer and grayer. It seems through the photos. Her smile, getting wider and wider. She just becomes more and more of this very like stayed artifact. Would you want to be compared to somebody

who's entire monolithic mythology is about how she had to be taught how to conform? But at the same time, Elsa said that Helen Keller was basically the only role model she could find for how to be deafblind. And so she figured to finally free herself from this ghost, from the possibility of ending up with a life like hers, she would run in exactly the opposite direction, doing things that did not conform. You know, I, in high school, my PE was stage combat and Lindy Hop, which uses a lot of aerials.

Things she figured Helen Keller would never do. I march. I learned how to be on the front line during the Iraq war protests, even though I like swords. Oh my god, you cannot get away from the nerder in your story. Yeah. I don't believe governments should be blowing each other up. She got deep into activism, anti-war stuff, giving speeches in her high school classes

about how the government was failing folks with AIDS, secretly handing out condoms on the campus of a Catholic university. Like, I'm sorry, you have a bunch of horny undergrads, you cannot actually control them. Speaking of which? I have a Mad Eye Moody routine that I wrote for a Harry Potter burlesque show. No, really?

In her 20s, she started performing burlesque. Oh. Wait, what was the routine? It's to the Florence and the Machine song, girl with one eye. Hold on, I don't know if I know this song, so I'm just going to play really quick to get a quick sense, so I can get in the machine song girl with one eye. Hold on, I don't know if I know this song so I'm just gonna play really quick to get a quick sense so I can get in the zone. Okay.

Did you? Oh. Okay, cool. Alright, so I'm there. Okay, so like me. I come out on stage in a grave silver wig and um, my actual master's robes. They're black and then they have a purple sparkly doctoral stripes, which I bedazzle the hell out of. And I take off the master's robes and I'm wearing an evening gown underneath. I pour my glass, myself a glass of champagne,

I'll take off the rest of my clothes and the end of the act is not actually taking off my bra or my underwear the end of the act is when I take out my prosthetic eye dropping the plastic shell into a glass of champagne and then drinking a glass of champagne oh She'll into a glass of champagne and then drink a little bit of champagne. Oh. My God, the people just lost it. All right, I am gonna just leave you there with that for a moment.

And when we come back. My image. Yeah, just take. And when we come back. My image. Yeah, just take that in when we come back. Just at this moment, where Elsa believes she has finally stamped out the ghost of Helen Keller from her life, the real Helen Keller comes a knock. OK, so, boom, back from break. I am Chad Lulu and uh, yeah, I guess he take take us forward Lulu. All right, so picking back up with Elsa. She's now living in New Jersey. She's married. She's been married for seven years. She's teaching college writing classes by day. Humanity is 101 and 102. Dancing swing and tango by night, you know, living her anti-hellen color dream life. When one morning in the fall of 2019, Helen Keller reappears in her life

in the strangest way. And my routine was that every morning I would walk into the student center with my guide dog and pick up a coffee or tea at the school cafe. And there was one of those little bookshelves with free books on it that you can grab underneath the bar while you're ordering your coffee. And I remember very clearly my guide dog was like nosing at the shelf. I was waiting for my trilote and I'm like, what are you doing? Can you please stop trying to eat books? And then according to her, he knows this one book of the shelf.

It's a great deal cover. It's very 1970s. And when she brings it up closer to her eyes she realizes it's the miracle worker which is come on yeah of course the famous play based on Helen Keller's life not written by her But based on her life I know man, but that's what she's So yeah, so the dog knows this book off herself and Elsa looks at it. The back cover reads, The Wild Animal. Death blind and mute,

12-year-old Helen Keller was like a wild animal, scared out of her wits, but still murderously strong, she clawed and struggled against all who tried to help her. I was like, what is this? This is horrifying. Ah, this description is so extreme. It was like looking at a train craft.

I couldn't put it down. And so she didn't. She takes it with her because she basically wants to go hate read it. Okay. So when she's done with her classes, she goes to a bar. So it was me and a copy of the miracle worker and a guide dog sleeping on my feet.

She's got a drink by her side and she's like hunched over this book and a guide dog sleeping on my feet. She's got a drink by her side, and she's like hunched over this book with her thick glasses and the magnifier up to her eyes. And I just started like eating the script. Look at her eyes! She can't see!

Well, that's great! She is brilliant! And so she reads through these over-the-top scenes of first Helen's parents discovering their little baby has gotten sick and gone deaf and blind. And then little Helen growing up into just this wild animal. Sorry, I remember this from the movie. Totally.

She charges at her friend with scissors. And she overturns her little sister's crib. And when Anne Sullivan arrives, she's totally resistant. And kicking things over and breaking plates and throwing food and trying to run away from Annie and trying to unlock the door. Elsa said the stage directions for how the actors were supposed to play Helen had her

literally acting like a dog. This goes on for pages and pages and pages until finally the climactic scene at the water pump. I want to... it hasn't been! Oh my goodness! And then guess what? Mother! Mother! More screaming! She knows! I was like taking pictures of the script

and sending it to my crit partner being like, what the f is this? I never did this. No death-blind person I know has ever done this. And as she's sitting there, she's thinking, this just doesn't seem right to me. And suddenly it hits her that she's never actually read anything that Helen Keller herself has written. I kind of was like, well, if I'm pissed about this book, I probably need to really go back and reframe

how I feel about her. So what did you do? Like, how did you reach that? So fast forward a few months. That was such a weird fall. Elsa's marriage had been going through a rough patch that fall. So by early winters, like, well, okay, I'm moving to Seattle and like two months later, there was a pandemic and I was in a 250-square-foot cottage with the dog and my mother.

And looking around at how her adult life was suddenly unfolding, she was like, this is exactly what I was afraid of. And so not exactly sure the path forward one day. I ended up just sort of, I remember I picked up Helen Keller's autobiography. Finally, like, ready to learn more about who she was, according to her. The beginning of my life was simple and much like every other little life. These are Helen's words which are going to be read by voice actors for the rest of the piece. At five, I learned to fold and put away the clean clothes. these are Helen's words which are gonna be read by voice actors for the rest of the piece. And a couple of things struck Elsa almost immediately. I understood a good deal of what was going on about me. First of all, the idea of Helen Keller being totally cut off from the world before Ann showed up, not true. She had her own signs before any Sullivan showed up. Really? Yeah. So she had a sign for mom and she had a sign for dad.

The sign for her dad was just to put like imaginary glasses under her face and the sign for her favorite aunt was bonnet strings. Like she would type imaginary bonnet strings if she wanted her aunt. And she had a sign for ice cream. I want ice cream, so I shiver. Shiver her shoulders, like, oh, that's so good. Yeah. I also was starting to see that Helen was reaching out, trying to connect all along.

And as for the wild animal thing, the Helen Keller of her own words was someone who wandered the world apologizing to dogs when she tripped over their tails and as for the event with the scissors she was just cutting her friend's hair. She wasn't a monster, she was like how they're being a child. And as Elsa keeps reading she starts noticing these odd similarities. The first short story that she writes is actually science fiction. It is?

Yeah, it's about fairies, like fantasy. And Elsa, very early in reading this autobiography, stumbles across this very eerie scene, the moment when she was climbing a tree. I'm going to read you a part of, okay? Okay. She is describing this one particular tree, a cherry tree not far from her house. All right.

The tree was so easy to climb that with my teacher's assistance, I was able to scramble through these new branches. It was so cool up in the tree that Miss Sullivan proposed that we have our lunch in there. I promised to keep still while she went to the house to fetch it. Suddenly, a change passed over the tree. All the sun's warmth left the air. I knew this guy was black because all the heat which meant light to me had died out of the atmosphere.

A strange odor came up from the earth. I knew it. He was the odor that always precedes a thunderstorm, and a nameless fear clutched at my heart. I felt absolutely alone. Cut off from my friends and the firm earth. The immense, the unknown The unknown unfolded me. I remained still and expectant. A chilling terror crept over me. I longed for my teacher's return, but above all things I wanted to get down from the tree. There was a moment of sinister silence. And then a multitude nisturing of the leaves, a shiver ran through the tree, and the wind sent forth a blast that would have knocked me off had I not clung to the branch with

might and main. The tree swayed and strained, the small twigs snapped and fell about me in showers, a wild impulse to jump seized me, but terror held fast. I crouched down in the fork of the tree, the branches lashed about me. I felt the intermittent jarring that came now and then, as if something heavy had fallen in the shock traveled up, till it reached the limb I sat on. It worked my suspense up to the highest point, and just as I was thinking the tree and I should fall together, my teacher seized my hand and helped me down. Oh, it's like a pre-echo.

It was basically a mirror image to my own experience of climbing trees. And this is really her through the rabbit hole moment, where she just starts wanting to find out everything she can about Helen Keller's life. So she gets these scholarly biographies, she reads letters and essays that Helen Keller published and pretty quickly starts to realize the real Helen Keller led a very different life than Elsa could have ever imagined. So we're now in the early 1900s,

Helen gets into Radcliffe College, which is like the women's college at Harvard, and as she's there, she kind of gets in with these young academic progressives. She talks about these evenings where they're popping popcorn and drinking cider and talking about ideas and philosophers. Our worst foes are ignorance, poverty, and the unconscious cruelty of our commercial society. And so else is reading all this and she's like, wait a second.

This is where my dislike of her does start to break down. She gets so into socialism that she starts corresponding with socialist party leaders writing all these socialist texts, she hangs a big red flag in her office. As a self-identified socialist, it may be pretty happy. And she starts writing about disability in all these super radical ways saying that society is what causes disability and therefore society must change. And even though her dad was a former slave owner, she is a huge public supporter of the NAACP,

donate money. And what was I just gonna tell you? What was I just gonna tell you, brain, brain? Oh yeah, at a certain point, the FBI starts keeping this big case file on her. Like we looked through her case file. I mean, they were tracking letters. She was writing to jail.

Disadance. Oh my God. And then she helps to form the ACLU. And right around this time, Andrew Carnegie, famous industrialist, offers to pay her this fat pension. And she writes him back. My joys and sorrows are bound up into solubly

with the joys and sorrows of my fellow men. Totally turning down the offer. I really, really admired the fact that at a time when that was not popular, she said what she believed anyway. And then she makes this weird movie that's called Deliverance, that she stars in, and the day it comes out,

the actors go on strike, and the day it comes out, the actors go on strike, and so she boycats her own premiere. I am the determined foe of the capitalist system. And she even gets a taste for the bright lights of the stage. In her early 40s, she begins performing on Vodville. The song playing behind us is a song that was written just for her act, which partially involved her and Anne Sullivan telling the story about how she learned language, the kind of mythic, sanitized version you know, but then toward the end of the act, Helen Keller would step forward

and take questions from the audience. I'll just read you a transcript of a couple of them, okay? Okay. What is your age? Between 16 and 60. What do you think is the most important question before the country today? How to get a drink?

Can you see any way out of our troubles? Have you thought of divorce? So she's like, kind of funny, and then, okay, and then it kind of dips into political things. So question, do you believe that spiritualism is the cure for the world's troubles? Keller, no. I think the world's troubles are caused chiefly by wrong economic

conditions, and the only cure for them is in social reorganization. And there was one more pretty significant detail about Helen's life that Elsa came across in a book by historian Kim Nielsen. Keller fell in love. This is Nielsen, who found unpublished journal entries and essays that helped her piece together this handsome figure that strode into Helen's life when she was in her 30s. I was surprised that he cared so much about me. And he was a young man who knew how to figure a spell, so they could communicate directly, right? There were not a lot of what dating eligible men who knew how to finger spell.

So he is one of the few people who doesn't have to go through and solve it. That just fills me with so much belief that she has that. The sweetness of being loved enchanted me, and I yielded to an imperious longing. And just think about that. Like, think about how hot it would be after a lifetime of being excluded from people talking to speak in this way that excluded everybody else. For a long time, he held my hand in silence.

Then he began talking to me tenderly. Imagine sitting at a conference table at some formal event and then just like, ah! Saying whatever you want in your silent language that uses touch. I was so sad that I hadn't read this earlier. I felt this ache because I could see myself in the pages of this book and I was seeing I saw more as I read more of it, but just I felt a profound loss that I hadn't been able to access this before. Why would knowing all that about her when you were a little girl have helped or what would that have given me? It would have given me an actual role. So I know we need to stop for today, but let's just imagine this is a stop in a radio lab episode.

What's coming up after the break? What's coming after the break is how Helen Teller is not all all bright and shiny. Once I started doing research, I discovered that there was a dark side to Helen Keller that I was going to have to deal with too. Lulu? Yeah. Helen Keller is the topic of today's radio lab. So picking back up. Yeah, let's do it. We left off when Elsa a deafblind woman was just starting to really fall in love with Helen Keller have all this kind of admiration and connection with her.

But then she stumbles across something that Helen Keller wrote in 1915. So at this point, Ellen is in her mid-30s. And the backdrop is that there is this very famous medical case going on. The bowling or baby case, which happened in Chicago, basically, an infant was born with severe physical disabilities. And the doctor allowed the baby to die and basically convinced the parents that that was the best choice because that child couldn't possibly live a good life. And it became a huge national controversy.

People were calling the hospital like this, people were involved. So Helen Keller enters the fray and she is now a super famous person, and everyone's kind of wondering what she's going to say. So Helen Keller weighs in like a month after the baby died. We have a letter that she wrote for the new republic, and I'm going to read you part of her letter. Okay. It seems to me that the simplest wisest thing to do would be to submit cases

like that of the malformed idiot baby to a jury of expert physicians. This public letter goes on to suggest in this very flowery air-udite language, and then until defective on the other hand, is almost sure to be a potential criminal. That when a baby is born with disabilities, a jury of doctors should be called in, and if the baby doesn't measure up to their standards. The evidence before a jury of physicians considering the case of an idiot would be exact and scientific. They should vote to let that baby die. Well.

Their findings would be free from the prejudice and the inaccuracy of untrained observation. They would act only in cases of true idiocy where there could be no hope of mental development. Were you just thirsty there or was happening with your voice? Oh no, I was angry. Like, did you really have to read the letter? Like, why, why? Elsa was just at a complete loss wondering, how is the same Helen Keller who was just years before saying society has to do better for disabled people,

now publicly and in private writing around the same time making a case for eugenics? Our puny sentimentalism has caused us to forget that a human life is sacred only when it may be of some use to itself and to the world. I was horrified. I actually had one of those moments where your blonde kind of friends cold. And it was shortly after reading that that the whole TikTok conspiracy theory bubbled up into her world. And so she found herself newly resistant to defend Helen Keller. I see. But also wanting to call out the TikTokers for saying

things that were not true. And so she came to us authentically lost, wanting to use reporting to figure out both how to feel about Helen Keller in her own heart, but also to just legitimately understand how Helen Keller came to want to remove disability from the world. So I just, I want to understand why. So I'm going to go find some people and see if I can get any of them to talk to me on the record. So Elsa and I set out on a month's long journey. Hello. Hi, I'm Georgina Kleeg.

My name's Habin Germa. I'm J.Bleeg. My name's Robin Germa. I'm J.B. Vody. Katie Booth. Kim Nielsen. Lydia X. Brown. Come with us in our adventure. We talked to people who have spent years with Helen Keller's words. Helen Keller would never hear of mine.

Even at the coyote, it would like cool story. Good for her. People who swim through her archives. I'm a historian at the University of Toledo. Sue Pylkelson, executive director of the Helen Keller birthplace. People who wander the rooms in Helen Keller's childhood home.

Look, I did in Tuscan Bialabama. How long have you been working there? 50 years. 50-50? Yes. Just say it. She advocating eugenics. That's fucked up.

We talked to people who hate her. We don't focus on that. Who really love her. We try to focus on the positive. And those in between were just trying to understand why... Matthew. Ellen Keller

are deeply the most famous disabled person in the history of the world advocated for eugenics. Am I allowed to just scream into the void right now? Yes. Yes. Aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa speaker and author. So I am known as the first deaf blind person to graduate from Harvard Law School. Also had known Haban online for a while, but this was the first

time they'd ever talked directly. To know what's being said, to know what else is saying, I have a type-est who's typing what else says, I'm reading it in braille, and then responding by voice. Great. All right. And Robin told us that after the Bollinger case, later in Helen's life,

he did change her mind and come out against eugenics. Did she though? I still haven't found hard proof of that other than comments that I've seen where people have said the thing things to mine and I want to see more. Understandable. So we dug and dug and dug and dug and dug and dug and eventually we did find two different documents that both come about 20 years later, so when Helen colors in her late 50s. And the first one was that she wrote a letter to the former editor of The New York Times saying America needed to change its eugenicist immigration policies so that disabled people

could escape the Nazis and find safe harbor in the US. And then that same year, 1938, there was another huge case involving a baby. And this time it was a little girl named Helene Colin, who in order to live, the doctors were going to have to remove her eyes. And her parents weren't sure what to do. And this time when Helen Keller weighed in, she said, Blindness is not the greatest evil. It is only a physical handicap, which Helene's mind can overcome. Wow. Okay. So your sense from those two documents is that she did change her mind.

Well, that was like, that was kind of my sense, but then Elsa. So it definitely sounds like it's fangs per mind, but we also see her with more empathy toward blind kids than we do towards physically disabled kids or deaf kids or toward people with intellectual or developmental disabilities. Yeah, like it's only worth it. It's only worth it if they're smart. She said that this is one of the ways that Helen Keller haunts all of us today, because those beliefs that certain lives are worth less than others are still with us, in our laws, our policies.

And that could have been a moment where an influential, beloved celebrity challenged the thinking enough to set society off on a different course. I don't blame Helen Keller. It's complicated. I see you being very protective of Helen and I know that I'm our community. There are people who don't like her. Have you ever been asked if you're being too soft on her? No, I don't think so. Do you think I'm too soft on that Helen? I don't know, I mean, I think Eugenics is a pretty hard line for me.

So Helen supported Eugenics, then realized it was wrong and advocated against it. Are you saying you've never made a mistake in your life? You've never supported the wrong thing and then realized, wait a minute, that's terrible, I'm not supporting that anymore. No, I'm not. I'm saying I wish she hadn't, which I think is a little different. Havin said she shares Elsa's disappointment. She supported eugenics, which is horrible and terrible. But one thing I do have to point out is this was back in around 1915, a different world.

But she could not consider the time during which Helen wrote some of these things. As Haven pointed out, this was the height of the eugenics movement. Universities were teaching pro-Eugenics courses, more and more states were passing sterilization laws. This was just the backdrop to Helen's life. And it was also in the foreground. She was in deeply ableist circles. If you're in certain circles and you hear things over and over again, you start to believe it. And the person with maybe the biggest influence on her in this regard was her very, very close friend. Alexander Graham Bell. Yeah, who most non-disabled people know of is the man who invented the telephone.

But deaf people know him as the man who tried to erase us. Well, denounce this idea of inter-depth marriage because he believed it would create a dev-viety of the human race. That's J-Prived Verdi. Historian of medicine, technology and disability. And he's advocating for fewer deaf children to be born. Writer Katie Boose. And he is not listening to the pushback

where people are saying, what, like, so what if we have deaf babies? What's wrong with deaf babies? The two of them explained just how intimate a part of Helen's life, Bell was. I looked at a grand bell. How do tremendous them blow in on Helen Keller. They first met when she was just six years old, when he helped her get in touch with Anne Sullivan,

and then they stayed really close. He became almost like a grandpa to her. He was a mentor to her. She dedicated the story of my life to him. But all the while, he's coaching her on these ideas, sometimes literally finger-spelling them into her palm, that people born deaf are inferior in some way, unless they could learn to speak using their mouths.

For Bell, speech was ultimate marker for a assimilation. Bell really surprised sign language acousticion for a lot of deaf people. And Helen didn't really challenge him on that. She tried for years to succeed by his standard of speaking with her oral voice. She did. She wanted to learn to speak. Other people did not want her to. And there's also evidence of her ignoring request

from deaf organizations to collaborate. The deaf community in 20th century did feel abandoned by Helen Keller. Wow. I did not know that. Yeah, I didn't either. And the more we kept learning about her life, the more we saw the ways that her beliefs about disability

would circle back under her. I had happy hours with him. We walked in the autumn splendor of the woods. So, do you remember Helen's boyfriend, Peter? Mm-hmm. Things got so serious that they got engaged. He was full of plans for my happiness. And they went and took out their marriage license.

For a brief space I danced in and out of the gates of heaven, wrapped up in a web of bright imaginings. And then, when Helen's family heard the news, everything exploded. They questioned Peter's intentions, and they chased him off at one point with a gun. Really? Yeah.

And Helen, after resisting a little bit, never really pushed back. The brief love will remain in my life. A little island of joy surrounded by dark waters. It's sad. Yeah. And writer Katie Booth made sense of why she didn't fight harder to be with him by pointing us to something Helen wrote a few years later. She writes about it in midstream, her book. I can't imagine a man wanting to marry me. A piece of writing that Elsa had never seen before. I would think it would seem like marrying a statue.

It would be a severe handicap for any man to straddle upon him the dead weight of my infirmities. I know I have nothing to give a man that would make up for such an unnatural burden. a man that would make up for such an unnatural burden. Hearing that this punches me in the chest, it is like a direct hit to the chest. I don't know any other way of putting it because she clearly had been told that no one would want her. And this was actually the first moment that Elsa said and I get that because she was like,

because I, in some deep, hard place in me, feel that too. Being a burden is the thing that I struggle with the most. It started for me as just being scared that I was going to be too much for people, but as I learned more about the world, and I think as Helen Keller knew, learned more about the world, I learned more about the ways that I was viewed as a burden. And maybe it's not said about you directly, but people talk about disabled people being burdens on society all the time.

Social security as a burden, Medicare is a burden. And those things stack up in your mind. Elsa said this moment in our reporting journey was a huge turning point for her because she finally realized just how badly Helen Keller thought about herself. And once she could see that, it became clearer to Elsa how that view of herself drove one of the biggest decisions in her life. to why we were all left with a mythic, sanitized version of the Helen Keller story. And to explain for our final stop on this journey, we are gonna head back to Helen's Vodville stage show that she did.

She's become kind of a legend on the stage. Her shows are selling out. She was making so much money that her family would rib her about it. And by many accounts, she was making so much money that her family would rib her about it, and by many accounts, she was loving it. The Monday afternoon audience at the palace, one of the most critical and cynical in the land, was hers.

She loved the huge audiences, the travel, the other performers who included. Jugglers and frog eaters and stand-up comedians and singers. The very difference between ourselves and the other actors gave novelty and interest to our work. And then quite abruptly, she quits. Even though Vodville begs her to stay, she takes a job with the AFB. The American Foundation for the Blind and they ask Keller to work for them. Kim Nielsen says that it's an organization that's done incredible work raising money for people who are blind. But Helen Keller's role in many ways was to be a spokesperson for them

and to tell her story of overcoming disability. of overcoming disability. Hey, um, no, um, no. Again, and again. Hey, this is her actual oral voice. Um, no, um, no. And that version of her made dollar bills roll in. She became a really effective political lobbyist and fundraiser. But what wasn't a great fundraising technique was her talking about her socialist beliefs.

She was the darling of the American masses as long as she played her part correctly and didn't bring too many of her politics into her public engagements. And in that way, Susan Crutchfield, a disability researcher, said that Helen Keller had to muzzle herself. And she always had to have that persona that would appeal to the folks who would donate money

to the cause. The grateful smile I wear on all occasions is becoming fixed on my face and won't come off when I go to bed. And in time, oh, here's the pump. You got to have a son of that. She even allowed for others to take over her childhood home in Alabama. Now, this is the pump where Helen learned her first word water and turned it into a sort of museum of the miracle story. This pump speaks many languages.

Where they lead tour groups to the water pump and perform the miracle worker every summer and pump out this sanitized version of her story. You know, our story here is about her young life and the things that she accomplished. So, you know, that's about all we can say. What came Nielsen and Sue Crutchfield helped us realize was that in this weird way Helen Keller herself created the Helen Keller myth. The day that she walked away from Vodville was the day that she began hiding away all the colorful, complicated sides of herself, the radical political views and the romance and the wise

cracks, and left us with a lie. We have the miniature statues of Helen Keller. We have a great magnet that has one of her sayings on it. That's a good seller for us. And of course we have a DVD, the Miracle Worker, the original black and white version. Why would she tell that? Why would she do that when she had such a fun or more interesting life? Well, we can't ever really know for sure. But Sue Crutchfield found a pretty good clue. This is from a letter that she wrote to her mother in the 20s, where Helen said the truth is mother. She was not happy in that sort of work.

She meaning Anne was not happy in Vodville. And then Helen goes on to say, I didn't mind so much. I'd rather enjoyed the excitement. But Anne Sullivan's health at that point in 1924 is just declining. Teacher suddenly said, I can't do it. And they had to arrive at some kind of compromise.

And the compromise they came to was Helen Keller walking away. That doesn't feel like a compromise. That feels like a, that feels, wow. You feel like Helen Keller at this point should just have her career. I mean, you know? Yeah. I think when I first heard about this decision,

I was thinking about how close Helen and Ann had become in their later years. I mean, Helen writes all these beautiful things about the value and power of friendship. And so when I was talking to Elsa about it, for me, there was this little note of sometimes we do things for the people we love. Like she loved Anne. When you have a disability, casting off the people who are the most supportive of you and who help take care of you is a really dangerous thing to do.

It was even more dangerous in the time period that Helen Keller lived in. And I think that's what happened with Helen is that she couldn't bear to lose this person. So she did feel obliged even though it wasn't right for her. And I think that that was the choice that Helen had to make over and over again in her life. She didn't get married and that was something that I think reading between the lines she wanted and that was taken away from her. And Vaatville, it sounds like was another thing that she didn't get to do because of the same people.

So where I'm Ladi dying on friendship, you see a kind of gnarly and unappealing obligation. I think that Helen Keller released had to sacrifice a lot of her happiness for the people that she said she loved. Which was something else I knew a little bit about too. I had been thinking about leaving my marriage for a long time. And I couldn't do it. I kept thinking about what about the insurance. I had all these about what about because I felt like I was too vulnerable to leave the

safety net. So she kept not doing it until one morning after a string of bad months. I've been really, really frustrated with feeling like I was a burden all the time on my partner. Elsa decides to just ignore the voice, telling her she wouldn't be able to make it on her own. It is four o'clock in the morning, and my alarm goes off.

And my guide dog, Astra, is bragging his tail at me. He's like, we're ready to go. And I pick up my suitcase and I walk down the stairs. And I've ordered my Uber. And I can feel my heart pounding in my chest because I'm leaving. feel my heart pounding in my chest because I'm leaving. She gets to the airport and I check my bag and I walk with my dog through security. I hate TSA with the fiery passion of someone who has no sight in one eye and can't hear very well. And I remember that they had to pat me and the dog down. And I'm fumbling my ID like I can't find things. They're talking at me. I can't hear them.

And I can feel all of the fears in my body about whether or not people will be able to support me or whether I'll be able to support myself and... She keeps walking through the blurry airport onto the plane, trying to push down that voice. The one that Helen Keller had too. It does sneak in. It does show up in certain places. It's really hard. She bumped into it as she began to build her new life in Seattle. It could come up when she was job hunting

or when she was inviting a new love interest over to her apartment for a home-cooked meal. She said that voice can... Blurke in the kitchen with me and tell me like, I'm not good at cooking and so forth. And every time that voice comes up, she's to choose to ignore it. I'm still working through it.

It's a daily practice. It takes time to undo it. Alright, so where do things stand with Helen Keller? Now that you can see her clearly, like, did this work? Do you feel like you've reconciled or that you're able to move past her or do you feel like you're just tethered or I don't know. I really wish that I could get a reward and make her go away. But I don't think I can. I think that that's one of the curses of being a deaf blind woman is that I do have this ghost hanging over my shoulder. And she is a complicated ghost. She is not going to let go of her unfinished business.

I don't think that there's ever going to be a cleaner, easy way to exercise Helen Pellars Ghost. Um, hey, what are you before? I mean, it's been a year since we first sat down together. I mean, what are you working on now, just in your own writing? I've been working on a project for a while. It's early stages right now, but it is a horror story based on the miracle worker. No way. Why horror? When people thrust their

perception of how you should be onto you, that is horror. So is this kind of just like, if you can't beat them, haunt them? Like, are you just haunting her back? Maybe. Is anyone gonna get murdered? Oh, probably. Ha! Oh, bitch! Get out the way! Yeah! Yeah! Ah!

You don't know somebody until they're gone. Ah! Ah! Ah! Hey! If you're coming to me with the source material that's saying that somebody is murderously strong and you no! Hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey, hey This episode was reported by Elsa Honesan and me. It was produced by Sndu Nyanisambandan and Rachel Kusik with help from Sarkaritanya Chala

and Carolyn McCusker with sound and music from Jeremy Bloom and mixing help from Arianne Wack, a very special thanks to the talented Pamela Sabah, who was the voice of Helen Keller. Thanks also to Julia Bascom, Deseret Coaches, Peter Coons, Alexander Richie, Andrew Leland, Sarah Luterman, Nate Jones, Nate Peerboom, Will Healy, the pianist who resurrected Helen Keller's long-lost Vodville showtune from Sheet Music, thanks also to the accessibility team, Ebony Guy-Ton, April Jackson, Annie DeKman, Shannon Finnegan, and Braille transcriber Sharon von C. Speaking of Braille, alongside the transcripts that we post for every episode, we have a Braille transcript for this episode. It's right up on

the episode page, so let folks know about it, if they might be interested, we have a Braille transcript for this episode. It's right up on the episode page, so let folks know about it. If they might be interested, we're always trying to become more accessible. So if you have thoughts on how to improve, please let us know. A few books to shout out for this one. First and foremost, Kim Neal sends the Radical Lives of Helen Keller. It's a fascinating read, and we relied on it heavily to make this episode. Next up, Georgina Clegg's blind rage, letters to Helen Keller. Elsa Honison has a new memoir out called Beings Seen, Beautiful, Troubling Full of Snark. And finally, Katy Booth's The Invention of Miracles, Language, Power, and Alexander Graham Bell's quest to end deafness.

We had a much longer conversation with Katie Booth about her personal connection to this topic. It became quite an emotional and stirring conversation. Flip my brain around about a lot of stuff. And we are putting that up on the lab. Our members only feed. So if you are a member, you can find that there. And if you are curious about becoming a member, go check out radialab.com slash the lab. Wow, those are a lot of credits. If you made it all the way through, thanks for hanging out.

We'll be back next week. Radio Lab was created by Jada Bumrod and is edited by Soren Wheeler. Lulumiller and Lot of Nasser are our co-hosts. Susie Lektemberg is our executive producer. Dylan Keath is our director of sound design. Our staff includes Simon Adler, Jeremy Bloom, Becca Bressler, Rachel Qsick, W. Harry Fortuna, David Gable, Maria Paz Gutierrez, Sinduniana Sambendum, Matt Kielte, Annie McEwan, Alex Niesen, Sara Cari, Arianne Wack, Pat Walters,

and Molly Webster. With help from Carolyn Macaskar and Sarah Sandbach, our fact-checkers are Dangan Kelly, Family Krieger, and Adam Schibill. This is Enrique Romero from the Buttertown of Louisville, Texas. Radio Lab is supported in part by the offered Peace Loan Foundation, enhancing public understanding of science and technology in the modern world. More information about Sloan at www.Sloan.org.

Science reporting on Radio Lab is supported in part by Science Sandbox, a Simon's Foundation initiative dedicated to engaging everyone with the process of science.