Short History Of... - Cleopatra

Episode Date: October 16, 2022

The last of the Ptolemaic Pharoahs, the enduring legend of Cleopatra has captivated imaginations for centuries. Though some write her off as a manipulative femme fatale, her competence as a ruler restored her country to a world superpower. But what were the early experiences that shaped her? How did she form both political and personal alliances with two great Roman generals? And what is the true story of her dramatic death?   This is a Short History of Cleopatra. Written by Lindsay Galvin. With thanks to Joyce Tyldesley, archaeologist and author of Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt. For ad-free listening, exclusive content and early access to new episodes, join Noiser+. Now available for Apple and Android users. Click the Noiser+ banner on Apple or go to noiser.com/subscriptions to get started with a 7-day free trial. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit podcastchoices.com/adchoices

It is late afternoon on the 2nd of September 31 BC. In the Gulf of Actium, off northwestern Greece, Queen Cleopatra, pharaoh of Egypt, stands barefoot at the prow of her flagship in the driving rain. A tent of fine white linen billows on the deck behind her and dozens of oarsmen await her command below. She is flanked by sixty more Egyptian galleys, each one poised ready for her orders. Her pennants whip and crack. Beyond the magnificent upward curve of her bow, two armies prepare to engage on the open water. Driving across the straits from one side is the fleet of the Roman general Octavian, hundreds of galleys strong.

But while he wants to seize control of her lands for his own glory, on the other side is Cleopatra's lover and husband, Mark Antony. Though he's also Roman, he is fighting for her and their great hopes for a new Roman-Egyptian dynasty. The rain lashes down, her gauze shift and embroidered robes are soaked through, and her blunt-cut black wig sits heavily beneath a golden diadem, adorned with the image of the snake. But her responsibilities are weightier still. Her lands, the security of her people, the continuation of her entire dynasty could hinge on the outcome of this battle. Cleopatra grips the bronze-plated rails, watching intently.

Mark Antony's much larger warships are almost within range of Octavian's troops. The battle begins. The enemy galleys engage, sending arrows in vicious flocks towards Cleopatra's allies. Antony's troops retaliate, and the screams of men are carried over on the biting wind. Closer now, Octavian deploys his ballistas. Giant catapults designed to splinter a wooden hull into matchsticks. The fearsome boulders find their targets, sparking against bronze plating and devastating the lines of rowers along the flanks of Antony's ships. Cleopatra flinches.

She has seen how these missiles can decapitate a man. On both sides, archers continue their assault and soldiers fall. Missiles of burning wood, called firebrands, are launched. Some fizzle in the waves, but many find their targets and set light to the ship's timbers and sails. Soon, it's clear that the battle is not going in her husband's favor. The strength of his huge warships lie in their huge, reinforced rams. But she knows their weaknesses too. Illness and desertion within his ranks has left him sorely undermanned.

Cleopatra watches one of Marc Antony's armoured ships charge towards the smaller fleet. But without the necessary manpower at the oars, it's easily outmanoeuvred by Octavian's nimble galleys in the heavy surf. Unable to turn quickly, the battleship is a sitting duck, and soon Octavian's men are boarding. Suddenly, the wind rushes into her face, and her ship is blown backwards. Her general gives the order for the lines of rowers along the flanks of the royal galley to lower their oars to maintain their position. But Cleopatra raises her hand. The weather is against them.

Octavian's crews are better trained, professional, well-fed, and rested. Mark Antony needs her help more than ever. But without his fleet, her own army will be helpless against the invading forces. So she turns away from the battle and gives the order to go with the wind. The trumpet sounds to signal her retreat. The naval battle at Actium was the beginning of the end for this most notorious queen of the ancient world. Seeing Cleopatra's retreat, Marc Antony soon followed with his squadron, burning the ships he could no longer man. Those left behind were captured or destroyed. Whether through

love or ambition, he had backed the losing side by allying with Cleopatra, whose dynasty had dominated these lands for 300 years. Written off by history as a manipulative beauty, the focus on Cleopatra's charms has conveniently downplayed her competence and significance as a ruler. Because this was a queen who restored her country to a world superpower, expanding Egypt's empire to the size it had been a thousand years earlier. But what were the early experiences that shaped her? How did she form both political and personal alliances with not just one, but two great Roman generals?

Who was the real woman behind the legend? I'm John Hopkins, and this is a short history of Cleopatra. In early 69 BC, Cleopatra is born in the palace of Alexandria, the capital of Egypt. The second daughter of the ruling pharaoh Ptolemy XII, her full name is Cleopatra VII Theia Philopata. Though Cleopatra may now be associated with all things ancient Egyptian, by the time of her birth, that other ubiquitous symbol of the culture, the pyramids, are already thousands of years old.

And the Ptolemaic dynasty into which she is born are not like the native pharaohs. Joyce Tildesley is a British archaeologist and Egyptologist and is the author of Cleopatra, Last Queen of Egypt. The Ptolemaic family come to rule Egypt after the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. They're not native-born Egyptians. The first Ptolemy, Ptolemy I obviously, was a general of Alexander the Great. And after Alexander the Great died unexpectedly young, his empire was split up and the Ptolemaic family took Egypt. But they were at this point by birth Macedonian. They're not Egyptian, so they come to Egypt. They settle in Alexandria, which is the city that Alexander the Great founded, and they rule from there. Cleopatra

is born about 300 years later, so it's like saying the Queen of England is German rather than English, if you see what I mean. They've been settled a long time. They're very well steeped in being Egyptian. a long time they're very well steeped in big egyptian cleopatra's hometown is also not like other egyptian cities which are mostly inland along the nile delta and built from desert sandstone they are a dusty sprawling mix of architectural styles ancient palaces and temples added to over thousands of years. In contrast, Alexandria sits on a harbour, reflecting the azure of the Mediterranean Sea in modern white granite and limestone. It is a planned city in the Greek style,

with compact streets arranged in an organised grid. Alexandria's character is heavily influenced by its connection to other major Mediterranean ports. Alexandria has a cosmopolitan population. There's a high percentage of Greeks, there's a high percentage of Jewish people, and there are lots of sailors coming and going and lots of people visiting because it's got the Library of Alexandria and it's a spectacular modern city. It's kind of the New York of its age. People want to go there and look at it and experience it. From her birth in the magnificent chambers of the palace complex,

the Princess Cleopatra is addressed as Theia, which means goddess. She is well aware of her divine status. She grows up alongside her elder sister, Berenike IV, younger sister, Arsinoe, and two brothers, both called Ptolemy. Each child has his or her own tutors and staff, and separate chambers in the palace. Cleopatra is afforded the same education as her brothers, studying the subjects favored by the Roman elite. She learns Greek grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy, and is fascinated by pharmacology and medicine.

Poisons are of particular interest to the young princess, who observes their effects on executed prisoners and carefully documents her findings. But the shimmering white magnificence of Alexandria hides the truth of the dynasty's instability. Egypt is a key piece of the jigsaw of lands skirting the Mediterranean and has been coveted by the Romans for years. To protect his nation from invasion, Cleopatra's father, Ptolemy XII, resorts to raising taxes in order to pay a series of extortionate Roman bribes. But as the country teeters on bankruptcy, civil unrest breaks out in Alexandria. In 58 BC, the pre-teen Cleopatra accompanies her father on an epic diplomatic mission. In his absence, her mother and oldest sister, Berenike, depose him and become joint rulers of Egypt.

The ousted pharaoh believes his only hope of regaining his throne lies in fostering cordial relationships with the Romans. In Athens and Rhodes, the Egyptian king and the princess are greeted as living gods by the people of Grecian heritage, but often snubbed by the Roman elite. Cleopatra becomes a teenager during the three-year diplomatic tour. She meets generals and Roman dignitaries, including Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, and witnesses at first hand her father's attempts to secure Egyptian independence and the fate of her dynasty. When her mother dies, her father returns to Alexandria and regains sovereignty. Just to be sure, he assassinates his daughter Berenike and all her

followers. Now the eldest child, Cleopatra renews her studies at Alexandria until 51 BC, when her father, Ptolemy XII, dies. He chooses her as his heir, alongside her eleven-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIII, who becomes her husband. Though their neighbors, the Greeks, find the practice abhorrent, marriages between siblings are customary in the Ptolemaic dynasty. Though records are vague, Cleopatra's own parents are believed to have been siblings. But it's not long before this particular match breaks down. The thing is though, she is about 18 years old and he's much younger, so obviously she's going to take the lead.

She is prepared. She's well educated. Apparently she can speak Egyptian, which most Ptolemaic rulers can't speak Egyptian. And she can speak other languages as well. So she's very well prepared for it. She takes the throne with her brother, but is the dominant ruler.

And at first this seems to be okay. But gradually as he gets older, he resents this. And they develop two factions. Cleopatra's aim is to rule alone. Though sole women pharaohs are not unheard of, they have always had to be wily to maintain their position in what is still a patriarchal society. Just occasionally in the dynastic age, we had some women who ruled as female pharaohs. Hatshepsut is probably the best known of these.

She ruled for about 20 years. And it's interesting that when she had herself depicted in formal art, she actually depicted the entirely traditional pharaonic style. So she actually looks like a man in her art. But if you read the inscriptions that go with it, it's clear that she is, in fact, a woman. So there is a precedent for this, but not a great deal of precedent. You would expect it to be a bloke, but if there's no man in the right position at the right time, then a woman would be acceptable. Certainly, there'll be no problem with the people accepting Cleopatra as a ruler.

Cleopatra as a ruler. Queen Cleopatra's personal styling becomes hugely symbolic. She takes to wearing an outer cloak of black over her sumptuously embellished linen sheath dresses, making her instantly recognizable as the goddess Isis. A principal deity in both Greek and Roman religion, Isis represents femininity and motherhood, healing and mourning. The new queen, Cleopatra, maintains the loyalty of her subjects by continuing and refining her father's temple-building projects. But she also connects with her working subjects who do not have access to temples. She makes personal appearances, not only as queen, but as the embodiment of Isis,

and speaks to them in their native language. The first pharaoh to do so in three centuries. Her public relations work soon pays off. When a series of bad harvests force her to raise taxes, her solid relationship with her people and priests prevents rebellion. But her co-ruler is not pulling in the same direction. As Cleopatra's status grows in wider Egypt, Ptolemy XIII stays in the capital. With an eye on his own popularity, he diverts grain supplies from the rest of Egypt to feed his loyal Alexandrians. Soon, he names himself the prime ruler.

Although she's recognized in the wider realm as pharaoh, by 48 BC, the young queen is unwelcome in alexandria when her father's old roman ally pompey visits the capital he endorses her brother a sole legitimate ruler of egypt cleopatra's father drummed into her the importance of roman support and now she has lost it unable to return home return home, she establishes a court near Gaza and uses her fluency in local languages to help build up her own army. Though her move east makes her brother fear she'll conquer Israel, Cleopatra's sights remain set on her homeland. But if she wants to win back her throne and control of Alexandria,

she'll need the support of Rome. The Roman Republic has been growing for 500 years, and currently operates on a model of shared leadership between elite military leaders, who prove their worth through military campaigns. Julius Caesar shares power with fellow generals Pompey and Crassus in what is known as the First Triumvirate. When Cleopatra comes to the throne, Rome is growing, it's expanding, it's ambitious, and Egypt is contracting. It's under a big obligation to Rome. The problem is that Egypt is very, very fertile and Rome will always need grain. But I think Cleopatra will always be aware that she has something that the Romans want and ideally she will be able to negotiate with them. But if she's not able to negotiate with them, they're quite capable of taking it.

But the Roman Republic is temporarily distracted from its expansions in the East by civil war. The Republic is temporarily distracted from its expansions in the East by civil war. The largest battle ever fought between Romans takes place in Greece between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Caesar is the decisive victor, giving Cleopatra renewed hope. He is known for respecting the temples in conquered lands and for his interest in Alexander the Great, meaning they already have common ground. It helps that her brother, Ptolemy XIII, was allied with Pompey and clearly backed the wrong side. So they both, I think, felt that Julius Caesar was an important person. But I think Ptolemy, her brother, Ptolemy XIII, just wanted to get rid of Cleopatra. He saw her as an interference. And there were so many murders within the Ptolemaic

royal family over the 300 years. So this isn't at all unusual. It's almost kill or be killed. It's quite brutal. But I don't think there's any great political difference, and it's almost survival of the fittest. This is a fortuitous time for Cleopatra. Her brother is without a Roman ally, the Nile flood fails, and to the farmers who rely on trapping the water to irrigate crops, this is a bad omen, suggesting the gods are unhappy with Ptolemy. Alexandria is ripe for the homecoming of the living Isis, to enable a return of the God's goodwill. The exiled queen writes to Caesar of her intention to take back her throne by force and leads her army towards the Egyptian border. Ptolemy XIII mobilizes his own troops to meet her,

but is interrupted by the arrival of the defeated general Pompey by sea. Despite their former alliance, the Roman is now the last person Ptolemy wants to be seen with. Knowing that his only hope of retaining his crown is to switch sides and curry favor with Caesar, Cleopatra's brother makes a brutal and ultimately fateful decision. Caesar arrives in Alexandria intending to offer clemency to Pompey. But the teenage Egyptian king greets him with Pompey's severed, embalmed head, served on a platter. Ptolemy XIII has badly misunderstood Roman sensibilities. Caesar may have defeated Pompey, but elite Roman circles are tightly woven, and the younger general was once Caesar's son-in-law. Overcome with grief, Caesar weeps openly and takes the severed head into safekeeping until it can be given an appropriate burial.

Setting up residence in the guest quarters at the palace of Alexandria, Caesar now calls for both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to dismiss their armies and appear before him. With the Roman army's reliance on Egyptian grain, stability in the country is crucial to his interests. Caesar intends to settle the dynastic dispute of the Ptolemy siblings as soon as possible. Ptolemy, however, has other plans. He places guards at every entrance to the palace, determined to prevent his sister reaching Caesar and stating her case. But the young queen is not to be thwarted. It is late in 48 BC on the beach outside the palace of Alexandria.

Two men wade in the shallows, hauling a simple rowing boat ashore. They are dressed as servants in the colors of King Ptolemy. As the boat grinds onto dry land, the pair carefully lift out their cargo, which looks to be a roll of sumptuous bedding. Getting into the position they have rehearsed, they head up the sand and towards the palace steps. At the first entrance, palace guards step forward between enormous columns. The guards question the visitors, who stick to their story despite their nerves. They've been told to make their delivery directly to the chambers of Julius Caesar, they say. They've been told to make their delivery directly to the chambers of Julius Caesar, they say.

Holding it tight as guards prod the padded roll, they explain that it's a gift from the King Ptolemy, woven especially for the Roman general who has had difficulty sleeping. The guards exchange a look, as if there isn't enough luxury in the palace already for Julius Caesar, who has been strolling around the palace like he owns the place. But they wave the servants through, failing to notice the unusual delicacy with which the bedroll is being cradled, or how it sags, clearly heavier than even the most opulent fabric. Just like that, the servants are inside the Palace of Alexandria. They shift their cargo more comfortably onto their shoulders and follow the route they've rehearsed through the labyrinthine palace. Their bare feet pad along the cool limestone corridors, lit by blazing sconces.

The warm air is laced with saffron and myrrh. At the entrance to the guest quarters stand two Roman soldiers, imposing in their polished leather uniforms. The servants repeat their story, barely daring to breathe as one soldier gives the fabric a superficial inspection. But then, to their relief, they are admitted. The wooden door opens and the bearers step into an opulent room hung with silks. Leaning over a desk is a slender, middle-aged man with dark, curled hair that recedes at the temples. Though he is dressed in a simple white tunic instead of his armor, the servants recognize him from the description they were given by their queen. This is Julius Caesar. They hurry into position, knowing that this

is the riskiest part of this undercover operation. In a move they have practiced over and over. Together the servants unroll the bedsack at Caesar's feet, forcing him to step back. In the final turn of the fabric, their young mistress is revealed. Cleopatra, the returning queen of Egypt. Her arms are crossed at her chest, and her eyes are closed, the lids shining with lapis lazuli. She blinks up at the shocked general, before rising to her feet with perfect grace, and stands before him, back straightened and shoulders squared. Caesar grabs instinctively at his waist for a sword that is not there. The servants melt back into the shadows, away from this notorious man, someone who has killed

thousands. If he calls the guards, they could face crucifixion, or worse. But then, recognition flickers across his face. Though Caesar first met Cleopatra years ago in Rome, he had barely noticed her other than to wonder why a child, particularly a girl, was privy to political discussions. But this is no haughty pre-teen princess who stands before him now. She is a grown woman, leader of an army, a queen. The clandestine encounter of the 52-year-old Roman general and the 21-year-old queen in exile is the meeting of ambitious minds and charismatic personalities. Both are highly educated and famed orators, and Cleopatra has

courage in spades, crossing enemy lines to meet him. Caesar is clearly impressed, because by the next morning he has reinstated her to the throne. On hearing that he's been outwitted by his sister, Ptolemy is said to have had a temper tantrum, tearing his clothes and throwing his crown. But the teenage king must not be underestimated, especially after Caesar made the diplomatic choice to visit these shores with only a handful of his countrymen. It is time for silver-tongued Caesar to calm the troubled waters. It is time for silver-tongued Caesar to calm the troubled waters. Appearing outside the palace, he addresses the people of Alexandria, many of whom still support Ptolemy. He insists he is there as an intermediary to ensure the peace.

As a gesture of goodwill, he gives Cyprus to Cleopatra's younger sister, Arsinoe, and youngest brother, Ptolemy XIV, angering Rome but placating the Egyptians. Unrest is quelled, but it is clear to the royal siblings that their older sister has a unique and intimate hold over Caesar, and with it, she commands the support of Rome. Caesar is soon in Cleopatra's company both day and night, conversing in Greek and often feasting until dawn. The Roman general is known for his numerous affairs and has fathered children from England to Gaul. Despite already being on his third wife, Caesar is fascinated by the young queen. Whether they're in love or not, it's difficult to say, isn't it? Because we think of a king like Henry VIII who's famous for marrying. I mean, he did other things, but he's famous

for marrying. We don't necessarily assume that he's in love with all his wives. We assume at least some of them are political decisions. Is Cleopatra making a political decision when she has an affair with Caesar? Yes, I would say absolutely. She knows to get him on her side, the best thing she can do is to have a child by him. If she can do that, he will absolutely be tied to Egypt. And it might be that their son or their daughter could inherit both Egypt and Rome. A match to satisfy both personal and political needs may suit Cleopatra, but Caesar is from a very different background.

Rome is a militaristic, regimented society, where marriage is considered sacrosanct. Though a general might be forgiven for an affair while away on a longistic, regimented society, where marriage is considered sacrosanct. Though a general might be forgiven for an affair while away on a long campaign, more permanent attachments are not looked upon so favorably, particularly when they involve a foreign monarch. We tend to, I think, underestimate how clever Cleopatra is. She's not daft. She would have thought all this through. If that's the best way to get Caesar on her side, then that's absolutely fine.

It's not a problem in Egypt. She's a ruler of Egypt. She can have as many spouses as she likes. She could consider herself to be married to Caesar. Caesar couldn't consider himself to be married to Cleopatra because he's already married in Rome and he can only have one wife at a time. But it's different in Egypt. It's different for her.

So what she's doing is not breaking any Egyptian taboos in any way. It doesn't take Ptolemy XIII long to realize he is now a king in name only. He makes plans to kill Caesar and Cleopatra using the assassin who murdered Pompey. But Caesar's barber overhears their conspiracy, and the plot is foiled. The assassin himself is executed. Peace now balances on a knife edge. A 20,000-strong Alexandrian army, loyal to Arsinoe and Ptolemy, gathers outside the palace. Caesar, sorely outnumbered, barricades himself and Cleopatra inside the compound as they await Roman reinforcements by sea.

When the Roman fleet arrives, Ptolemy's forces are outstripped. When the Roman fleet arrives, Ptolemy's forces are outstripped. By the time the siege ends, Arsinoe has been taken captive and the fifteen-year-old king is dead, drowned in the Nile while attempting to flee. And his despised older sister is pregnant with Caesar's child. But for the sake of tradition and appearances, Cleopatra quietly marries her even younger brother Ptolemy XIV. Cleopatra's position stabilizes. As motherhood approaches, Caesar restores Cyprus to her, and the new revenue allows

her to relax taxation on her people. She also now has Roman troops to rely on if needed. However, Caesar's absence is unpopular back in Rome, with rumors that he has been ensnared by the Egyptian monarch. The Roman general heads home before his baby is born. On the 23rd of June, 47 BC, Cleopatra's closest advisors and the highest members of her priesthood assemble at the Palace of Alexandria. Giving birth for the first time is one of the most dangerous moments in a woman's life, and a queen is no different. Amidst incense-laden rites and chanted prayers, Cleopatra is bathed in herbal waters.

Protective amulets of hematite or bloodstone, featuring images of Isis and the god of the womb, Bess, are fastened at her neck, forehead, and arms. The first stages of labor take place in bed. Then Cleopatra moves to a birthing chair. She sips a tincture of the opiate they call poppy tears to help with pain and inhales cannabis to aid contractions. Cleopatra gives birth to a healthy son. Entering motherhood validates her claim as the Great Mother Isis and further secures her link to Caesar. She leaves no doubt as to her son's paternity when her baby boy, Ptolemy XV, becomes known as Caesarian, meaning Little Caesar. Images of him breastfeeding are soon decorating the walls of the temples. Meanwhile, Caesar wages war

against the Romans who supported Pompey in Africa, collecting treasure and distributing it to his allies. When he finally arrives in Rome, he has in tow an exotic cargo including elephants and camels, animals not yet encountered in Italy. Caesar commemorates his victories with four days of celebrations and parades, known as a triumph.

During the centuries of the Roman Republic, these festivals have become increasingly lavish, and Caesar's is the most extravagant yet. The soldiers march and chant to a beat from bands of oboe and zither players. Tableaux, depicting Caesar's victorious battlefields, are followed by symbolic statues and models of the cities that are now governed by Rome. Chariots are piled with the spoils of war, over nine tons of gold bullion, plus numerous regional treasures. Caesar himself is resplendent on a golden chariot in robes of purple and red leather boots.

But the triumph also involves the parading of captives, and in this case that includes the teenage Arsinoe. She is then granted sanctuary in a temple in what is now Turkey. When baby Caesarian is one year old, Cleopatra decides to reunite with Caesar in Rome and sets sail on a great ship of state. After calling in at temples to Isis on her way, she is greeted by Caesar and taken to his grand villa on the hills outside Rome, surrounded by parkland and water gardens. Cleopatra remains in Rome for a year. Her presence alone is a huge snub to Caesar's loyal Roman wife, Capernaum. But her status, her education, and her intelligence are disturbing to the Roman status quo. Cleopatra couldn't be further from the quiet, restrained, and domesticated Roman ideal of a woman.

Rumors spread about the unnatural influence she has over Caesar. A high-class Roman woman wouldn't even be allowed to live alone without the support of a male guardian. Well, Egypt's never had that. Egypt's had a lot more, I guess, what we call equality. But in theory, at least, women and men are fairly equal. Women don't have to live with a guardian. They can earn money. They can own things. And because they can earn money and they can own things, they can bring up their own children, as Cleopatra is doing.

It's not a problem. Whereas in Rome, it is a problem. If you're a widow, you have to have a male guardian. It's very different, very much a culture clash. Cleopatra is the monarch, which the Romans aren't particularly fond of. And they worry that Caesar might himself want to be king of Rome, which they're very much against. So she's a hereditary monarch, and she behaves very much like a man in a very sort of brash way, which the Romans are not comfortable with. And they start rumors that she basically is telling

Caesar what to do. It seems the Romans are right to be suspicious. Though dictators are occasionally chosen to rule single-handedly for short periods of crisis, the notion of shared power is central to the Roman Republic. But in 44 BC, Caesar declares himself perpetual dictator. He even wears a crown of laurel at a public engagement, the symbol of monarchy. Though to the people he is a celebrity, a war hero, almost godlike, for the ruling class, it is the final straw. Only weeks later, Caesar's former ally, Brutusus assembles a gang of dissident senators and stab him to death. Cleopatra learns of the murder within hours. She immediately flees with her son back to Egypt. The death of her powerful consort is a disaster for Cleopatra. She has lost her alliance with

Rome. Both her own stability and that of her country now hang in the balance. The Roman generals Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian take on Caesar's authority alongside a third senator, Crassus. The bullish Mark Antony, at 39 years old, takes hold of the largest share of colonies. But though these new triumvirs are ambitious, competitive men, they are united in their mission to avenge Caesar's death and rout every conspirator. It is time for Cleopatra to make her next savvy decision. While living in Rome, her brother-husband, Ptolemy XIV, disappears from

records, suggesting he died. Cleopatra now officially names the three-year-old Caesarian her co-ruler. But she still needs Roman support. And, as luck will have it, Mark Antony needs something from Cleopatra. Partly in revenge for its ruler's role in Julius Caesar's murder, he has a plan to conquer Parthia in modern-day Iran. And Cleopatra has the riches to fund the campaign. In 41 BC, Mark Antony requests an audience with her in the ancient city of Tarsus, in what is now modern-day Turkey. The two are not strangers, having met initially when she toured with her father. They share not only ambition and a thirst for power, but also a certain theatricality. Mark Antony has a fondness for Greek culture, often dressing up as Heracles.

Now, the 28-year-old queen makes the Roman general wait, before arriving in her own time, on her own terms, and in magnificent style. When she first goes to meet him, she dresses as the goddess Isis, and she really wows him. She sails up towards him in a beautifully decorated, ornate boat, and she invites him to dinner on the boat, and there's gold plates which she gives to him after the meal, and she just really impresses him. So, history repeats itself, as the young queen gains the support of another powerful Roman general. Mark Antony seems to be following in Caesar's footsteps, but he goes further than his mentor

ever did. He deserts his Roman wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and marries Cleopatra. Her position is more secure than ever, but she still can't rest easy with her treasonous sister Arsinoe still active. On his new wife's orders, Mark Antony has the royal princess murdered on the steps of her temple. Mark Antony spends more and more time away from his home. Many Roman politicians suspect that he is trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and other eastern kingdoms, while still maintaining his command over the many Roman legions in the east. It's difficult for the Romans because Julius Caesar and Mark Antony are really important Roman characters.

And it's hard to explain why both of them are prepared to basically throw up quite a lot to associate with this woman. If it can be explained by the fact that she is ensnaring them and using feminine wiles and a sort of exotic, loose, Eastern existence, it makes it far easier for the Romans to understand this, I think. And so this is the view of Cleopatra that gets circulated around Rome, that she is this unnatural woman who's both powerful and alluring and sexually seductive. The benefits of this partnership are far from one-sided. With Cleopatra's position secure, under no threat of Roman invasion, she can concentrate once again on improving the lives of her subjects. When she inherited it from her father, it was poorly run.

She's increased taxation, collected a lot of grain. She's made the country strong again. She's able, eventually, to finance Mark Antony's military campaigns to quite a large extent. So she's able to turn things around. So she's not just a pretty face. She's also offering quite a lot. Disapproval of the Roman elite aside, Cleopatra seems to be right where she hoped to be. Over the next few years, the couple have three children together.

Twins, Alexander Helius and Cleopatra Selene II, and then a further son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. But even with their growing family, the royals find plenty of time for fun. Just as Cleopatra fashions herself as the living embodiment of Isis, Mark Antony does the same with Dionysus, the god of fruitfulness and plenty, of wine and ecstasy. Like Isis, Dionysus is known throughout the ancient world, worshipped by Romans and Egyptians alike. Away from the rigid, stuffy society of Rome and his two fellow triumvirs. Marc Antony is keen to indulge in the hedonistic revelry of the Dionysus cult to the full. They have drinking societies very similar to the sort of Greek idea

of a symposium where you basically just lie on a couch and drink. Similar things. And Marc Antony seems to have loved that sort of behavior. They also play jokes and tricks on each other. There's a story of Cleopatra and the pearl that she tells Mark Antony that she will give him the most expensive banquet in the world. And then she takes a pearl earring out of her ear and drops it in a cup of wine and it dissolves and she or he drinks it.

And this is the most expensive drink in the world. It's not true. You can't do that with a pearl. If you could desire a pearl in wine, you can't do that with a pearl if you could decide the pearl in wine you shouldn't be drinking the wine but while domestic life seems to be going well political life takes a downturn in 34 bc mark anthony is finally ready to invade parthia with his egyptian wife's support he intends to settle his score with the allies of Caesar's killers and gain valuable territory at the same time.

But he makes the mistake of sending his main army ahead of his supply train. When the latter is attacked, he has no choice but to retreat. The campaign is a costly failure, but by successfully invading Armenia on the way back to Egypt, Marc Antony manages to spin it as a victory. In autumn 34 BC, Marc Antony and Cleopatra throw the equivalent of a Roman triumph through the streets of the capital and call it the Donations of Alexandria. The flamboyant royal couple fashion themselves as their favorite deities, Dionysus and Isis, and dress their children in the national dress of various Roman territories.

The message is clear. Their offspring are the first in a new Roman-Egyptian dynasty. This is cemented when they declare the adolescent Caesarion the true heir of Julius Caesar. By extension, they're claiming Caesar's stake in the Roman territories currently held by Mark Antony's brother-in-law and fellow triumvir, Octavian. Subtlety has never been this couple's forte, but with this audacious step, the ripples of opinion against them in Rome soon become a tsunami. Octavian persuades the Senate to declare war on Cleopatra, blaming her for Mark Antony's

behavior. Mark Antony sides with her and divorces his Roman wife Octavia, losing his place in the ruling triumvirate. War opens with the disastrous naval battle of Actium, which sends Antony's entire fleet to the bottom of the sea. Cowed by their defeat, Antony and Cleopatra flee back to Egypt. It's the beginning of the end. Cleopatra has preserved her Egyptian navy, but knows Octavian's forces are much greater and unstoppable. She sends

her four children away to be hidden with trusted allies. The majority of Antony's legions and cavalry left in Greece quickly surrender, and his attempts to assemble old allies fail. Octavian is now in no hurry and decides to invade overland, preventing Mark Antony from drumming up support in the eastern client kingdoms. When Cleopatra and Mark Antony return to the palace at Alexandria, the queen retreats to her private temple with her advisors. Mark Antony spends a month in a modest chamber in the same building, but separate from his queen. Deeply depressed, he is unable to fathom all he has lost. Octavian's Roman army invades Egypt in 30 BC and besieges the palace.

Antony attempts to repel them, but his troops are outnumbered two to one, and he is forced back. Most of his army now deserts, or surrenders. Cleopatra barricades herself in her own mausoleum in the palace complex, cowering from Octavian, the heir of Julius Caesar, her first Roman lover. The Egyptian queen, who rose so high, is now a prisoner in the place of her birth. It is the 1st of August, 30 BC. The Mediterranean sun reflects off the pale granite walls of the Palace of Alexandria as it has done for over 300 years. But today, it is a glimmering island in a sea of Roman troops.

Octavian's Army In a simple chamber deep inside the compound, the great General Mark Antony is dressed in shabby clothes, his hair unkempt. He opens the door to a messenger, one of his loyal men. The servant quietly closes the door behind him. Antony is at first impatient, but then he sees the scroll in his visitor's hand and the pallor of his face and braces himself for bad news. He snatches the papyrus and unrolls it. It takes him a moment to believe what he is reading.

The paper crumples in his hand and drops to the floor. But the words repeat in his head. Cleopatra is dead. His queen is gone. Suddenly, the dense fog of confusion that descended weeks ago lifts. Life without her, he decides in that instant, is unlivable. And he will not die by Octavian's hands, crucified to the jeer of his own people. Without pausing, Mark Antony draws his sword. Pointing the tip at his chest, he wraps his servant's hand around the hilt.

He squares his shoulders, raises his chin, and waits for the end. But the younger man's hand trembles, and before Antony can stop him, he turns the sword on himself and falls. The loyal servant's desperate act does nothing to dissuade his master from his purpose. Antony steps barefoot into the blood and eases the weapon from the servant's body, a practiced movement from many years on the battlefield. And then, before he can change his mind, he props the hilt of the sword in the cracks of the flagstones and drops forward. His foot skids on the wet floor and the blade slips down. For a moment, there is only darkness, but then the Roman general blinks into new light. He can barely think through the agony, but he knows immediately

that this is not the underworld where his soul will be judged. Her face comes into focus, and there are hands on him, raising him up. He hears the familiar, panicked voices of servants, but what they are telling him cannot be true. Cleopatra, they are saying, is alive. Cleopatra, they're saying, is alive. In the face of this new knowledge, the mortally wounded Mark Antony is carried to Cleopatra elsewhere in the compound. The Roman general dies slowly in her arms. Soon, the defense fails, and the Roman soldiers are at her door.

Cleopatra petitions Octavian to take pity on her children, but he will not guarantee their safety. Faced with the humiliation of being paraded in Octavian's triumph back in Rome, the Queen of Egypt commits suicide ten days after Marc Antony. Exactly how she ends her life will always remain unknown. The story is that she commits suicide by using a snake. But again, that is not as easy as it sounds. She could have had a snake sent in, I guess. But the story is also that her faithful serving women committed suicide as well. Very difficult to get one snake to kill three people. Very difficult to bring in three or

four snakes. Chances are the snake bite wouldn't kill you anyway. It'd just be really, really horrible. We've been told from some of the classical writers that Cleopatra experimented with poisons. So maybe she poisoned herself. They did try, apparently, to investigate how she died, but there was no evidence available. But the idea that she was killed by a snake is a really appealing one, because snakes are very strongly associated with kinkship in ancient Egypt. If you can call to mind a picture of a traditional pharaoh, they quite often have a snake, the uraraeus which is rearing on their brow and the crowns of snakes in them isis herself can be represented in the form of a snake

cleopatra is 39 at the time of her death her teenage son and theoretical co-ruler cesarean survives her by a few weeks before he is executed alongside Alongside Mark Antony, Cleopatra is buried outside Alexandria. Though her dynasty is lost, she is afforded one victory in death when her other children's lives are spared. The Egypt she leaves is richer than the one she inherited, but it is now in the hands of the Romans. Soon Octavian will become Caesar Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. He and subsequent emperors are known as the Roman pharaohs,

subjecting Egypt's government administration and social structure to Roman reform. But the priesthoods of the ancient Egyptian deities and the Greek religions keep most of their temples and privileges. History has cast Cleopatra as the ultimate femme fatale. But though her death saw Egypt falling into the grasp of the Romans, hers was a reign of resourcefulness and persistence. A story, one of survival. We don't know if she was beautiful or not. We do know if we look at the evidence that she was clear-sighted.

She achieved a lot. She was unlucky. Julius Caesar was assassinated. If Julius Caesar hadn't been assassinated, what would have happened? If Mark Antony and Cleopatra had won the Battle of Actium, what would have happened? She almost got it. She almost was able to do everything she wanted to. And she certainly gave it her best shot.

So I think we should respect her as an intelligent woman and not as some sort of ancient world bimbo, because that just seems to be so wrong. Next week on Short History Of, we'll bring you a short history of the Great Train Robbery. The length of sentencing absolutely shocked the UK public, and I think also created another problem. Those guys got 30 years and didn't have a gun on them, didn't kill anybody. And in speaking to criminals who were around at the time, it changed the thought process of criminals, because it said, if the train robbers are going to get 30

years the maximum sentence for stealing money if i'm going to steal money i'm going to take a gun with me i'm going to take a you know major weapon with me so i don't believe that it did good service in terms of the mythology and thought process of future criminals in terms of the mythology and thought process of future criminals. That's next time on Short History Of.