Short History Of... - Sir Isaac Newton

Episode Date: November 18, 2024

Sir Isaac Newton became one of history’s most important scientists - all thanks, as legend has it, to an apple falling from a tree. But beyond the famous anecdote is the story of a polymath who revolutionised our grasp of how the universe works, and led a life plagued by rivalries, grudges, and accusations of plagiarism. Loved by some, derided by others, why was Newton so controversial? What were his most enduring discoveries? And why did he step away from science?  This is a Short History Of Sir Isaac Newton. A Noiser production, written by Fiona Ford. With thanks to Dr Patricia Fara, a historian, Fellow of Cambridge University, and author of Life After Gravity: Isaac Newton’s London Career. Get every episode of Short History Of a week early with Noiser+. You’ll also get ad-free listening, bonus material, and early access to shows across the Noiser network. Click the Noiser+ banner to get started. Or, if you’re on Spotify or Android, go to noiser.com/subscriptions. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit podcastchoices.com/adchoices

It's a blustery autumn morning in 1659 in Lincolnshire on the east coast of England. Inside a small weathered farmhouse, a 17-year-old youth sits at a wooden table engrossed in a well-worn book. The clock chimes the hour. With a sigh, he closes the book and gets to his feet. It's time to go to work. He pulls on his boots and coat, tucks the book into his pocket, and slips out of the front door. The cold air stings his face as he steps into the yard, the sun just rising on the horizon ahead. His dog by his side, he heads through the gate and up the path that runs through the land he is meant to be so proud of. But it's little more than a patchwork of barren fields, the crops struggling, the boundary walls in need of repair.

The boundary wall's in need of repair. Six years earlier, after his stepfather's death, his mother pulled him out of school to run the farm. He's being relied upon to make this land a source of stability for his family. But it's clear he's no farmer. All he wants is to read, to study, to invent. He crosses a field towards the huge, spreading oak tree, where the sheep are grazing aimlessly. He is meant to check them over, but somehow they always get under his feet

or dart away when he tries to get near them. Despondent, the teen heads up through the furrowed barley fields, their dry stalks bending and bowing in the wind. With each step up the hill, his breath grows more shallow. At the top, he pauses. Below him, the entire farm stretches out. A landscape of decay beneath a grey, cloudy sky. a landscape of decay beneath a grey, cloudy sky. He sits on the damp earth as the wind howls around him,

pulling the book from his jacket pocket. But before he's finished a page, he is interrupted by the sound of hooves. In the distance, a man on horseback is approaching. The boy jumps up, recognising his uncle's unmistakable silhouette. The older man dismounts, grinning, and then shares the best news the youth could hope to hear. His uncle has convinced his mother that someone else can manage the farm. Tomorrow, he can return to school after all. To begin with, the boy can't believe what he's hearing.

But after a moment, he flings his arms around his uncle, then runs down the hill shouting for joy, his dog racing in circles around him. For the first time in years, the weight of failure has lifted. And though it's a crucial fork in the road for this young man, it's also a moment that will lead to the unlocking of some of the universe's greatest mysteries. Because this boy is Isaac Newton, and by returning to his education, he is now on his way to becoming one of the most important names in the history of science. Isaac Newton stands as one of the most influential physicists and mathematicians of all time. Much of it, according to the legend, thanks to an apple falling from a tree. But beyond the famous anecdote is the story of a polymath whose work revolutionized our grasp of how the universe works.

As a scholar of physics and astronomy, his discoveries reshaped our understanding of gravity, motion, and light. And his development of calculus changed the face of mathematics. But his secretive religious beliefs and obsession with decoding God's plans through science set him apart from his peers. Rivalries, grudges, and accusations of plagiarism earned him a complex, often fearsome reputation. Loved by some, derided by others, Isaac Newton led a life of groundbreaking achievements and personal conflict.

But what were his most enduring discoveries? And why were they so controversial? Why did he step away from science? And what was behind his fascination with the arcane art of alchemy? I'm John Hopkins. From the Noiser Network, this is a short history of Sir Isaac Newton. It's 1642 in the tiny Lincolnshire hamlet of Woolsthorpe, about 160 miles north of London. A landowning couple, the Newtons, are expecting

a baby. But shortly before the child is due, Mr. Isaac Newton dies. His wife is left with the family land, but little wealth. Her baby arrives prematurely on Christmas Day, but is so frail that he isn't expected to survive. Hannah, still grieving, names him after his father, but also sees his birth on such a religiously significant day as a divine sign. It's an early indicator of the strong faith that will go on to shape much of little Isaac's life. When he is three, Isaac's mother marries the local rector. Though she leaves her son to be cared for by his grandmother, the abandonment deeply affects him.

Dr Patricia Farrer is a historian, fellow of Cambridge University, and author of Life After Gravity, Isaac Newton's London career. When he was younger, he was very resentful of his stepfather. He didn't like him at all and so resented him enormously for taking his mother away. I mean, you don't have to be a psychologist to work with that. Isaac attends the local grammar school, where his academic brilliance and mechanical skills stand out. Often, while his classmates play outside, he stays indoors, absorbed in books or busy with inventions. He seems to have been very, very skilled with his hands, as well as being very clever.

When he was at school, he made things like a little windmill with a mouse running around inside it that turned the wings of the windmill. And he made little carts and wagons. He made lots of sundials. He was very mechanically gifted. Though Isaac is already showing signs of a vibrant, unrestricted intellect, the world around him is shaped by strict Puritan values. As the English Civil Wars end, the new government, best characterized by Oliver Cromwell,

instigates harsh religious laws. Many inns and theaters are shut down. Sports are discouraged. Sundays are days of strict rest. Even the festivities of Christmas are banned. Then, in 1653, Isaac's stepfather dies. His mother insists he leave school to run the family farm, which means that his cherished academic world vanishes in an instant. And then he left school and he went back home. And there is a famous story about how he was sent out with somebody to watch over the sheep and then he started writing mathematical formula and the sheep all ran away by 17 it's clear that farming isn't for him

thanks to the intervention of his uncle he returns returns to school. It proves the right decision. In 1661, he earns a place at Cambridge University, with an eye to pursuing a career in the priesthood. Like all students of the time, he studies the classical curriculum, Latin, Greek, theology and philosophy, which are considered the essential foundations of knowledge. There were only three professions that a man could go into. There was medicine, there was a church, and there was law. So those were the three professions for which you needed a university qualification. Though he dedicates himself fully to his studies,

it's at university that Newton develops a strong friendship that will last for many years, with another student by the name of John Wickens. The two become close and will share living accommodation for around 20 years, while Wickens works as Newton's assistant. But there are some things that Newton will only admit to his diaries. But there are some things that Newton will only admit to his diaries. When he was at university, he started keeping notebooks and listing all the sins. Some of them were very petty things like stealing an apple.

But others were where he was accusing himself of sexual desires, he was accusing himself of being deeply wicked. So he was very puritanical, which he'd been brought up under the Puritans. At this time in England, Oxford and Cambridge are the country's only two universities. Compared to institutions in Europe, they have a poor reputation, with outdated medieval curricula based on ancient texts. Much of the teaching centers on the work of Aristotle. According to the Greek philosopher, the stars, planets, and everything above the moon are pure, eternal, and unchanging, moving in flawless circles. These qualities, predictability, stability, and order are considered closer to the perfection of God.

Predictability, stability, and order are considered closer to the perfection of God. In contrast, Earth is imperfect and chaotic, in constant flux, prone to change and decay. Newton, though, has been brought up on these concepts, so he looks elsewhere for ideas to hold his attention. Though he delves into studying other, newer theories, his disregard for the curriculum means he is initially considered a weak student. That is, until he makes the acquaintance of one particularly sympathetic mentor. He found a professor, Professor Barrow, to teach him as well. And he started studying a lot of mathematics and astronomy, whatever he was interested in. Newton knows the planets orbit the sun, but one question still puzzles him. What keeps them moving? He considers the work of Rene Descartes, who argues that while God

set the universe in motion, it now runs on its own. And then there's the Italian astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei, who earlier in the century wrote of the changeable, disorganized movement of the planets. Newton, deeply religious, finds a path through these ideas. To him, God is not just a distant observer, but actively involved in everything, both in heaven and on earth. He believes that the laws of motion and gravity aren't simply mechanical, they reflect divine order. A constant reminder of God's presence. But he doesn't want to rely on faith alone. He seeks proof, clear mathematical evidence that can reveal how God's universe operates

through precise laws. Then, in a twist of fate, in 1665, the plague sweeps across England, forcing Cambridge University to close. Newton retreats to his family home in Woolsthorpe, where his study becomes even more isolated. He immerses himself in mathematics, light, optics, and the laws of motion and gravity. It is here, sitting under an apple tree, that he experiences a moment of inspiration that will change the course of science forever. People who don't know much about Newton, they all know about the apple story.

Nobody knew anything about the apple tree story until he was about 80, a few years before he died. And he told the story to four separate people. We have no idea if it's true. He originated it, but perhaps he invented it in hindsight. So what he said was that he was sitting under the apple tree and he saw an apple fall towards the ground. He thought to himself, why is that apple going down? Why isn't it going up or sideways? So perhaps there's a force throughout all the universe that brings things together. So, for instance, the Sun and the Earth are attracted to each other,

the Moon and the Earth are attracted to each other, and that's the same force, the same power of gravity that obliges the apple to fall down towards the surface of the earth. Whether or not the apple story is based in fact or fiction is largely irrelevant. By now, Galileo has already demonstrated that all objects, regardless of mass, fall at the same rate. all objects, regardless of mass, fall at the same rate. But Newton wants to take the idea further. He's interested in exploring how size and mass influence an object's motion.

Experimenting with pendulums and falling objects, he tries to make sense of whatever force is pulling them to the ground. He finds that by shortening the time intervals between measurements, he can obtain more precise results. Instead of measuring how far an object falls in one second, he sets about measuring it in fractions of a second. Eventually, he gets the interval down to almost zero. This leads him to develop calculus, a revolutionary new branch of mathematics that allows him

to determine the exact speed of a falling object at any given moment, or even predict the precise position of a planet in its orbit. The breakthrough opens up entirely new ways to understand motion and gravity. He circulates his findings to a handful of friends, but after that, he doesn't give calculus much more thought for now. He wasn't very interested at all in explaining his ideas or making them any simpler. So for quite a long time, it only had a very limited impact on people who were already skilled university mathematicians.

So nobody knew about it for a long while. impact on people who were already skilled university mathematicians. Nobody knew about it for a long while. Then gradually other people started interpreting it. Shifting his attention to optics, Newton begins his own experiments during the winter of 1666. Lacking the resources that were readily available to Cambridge, he sets up tests at home, some of which are more dangerous than others. Eager to understand the connection between vision and light, Newton conducts a bold experiment that involves pressing a long, blunt needle, called a bodkin, against the back of his eye. against the back of his eye. By keeping his eyes closed, he limits the involvement of light. So, when he sees flashes and spots of color, he deduces they are caused by manipulating the retina, that vision is affected by pressure as well as by light. Fascinated by color, he pivots into exploring prisms more carefully. Shining a light through one,

he observes how it splits into a spectrum, leading him to an innovative discovery. Sunlight isn't a single colour, as previously thought, but a mix of all the colours of the rainbow. By September 1667, the plague has subsided enough for Cambridge to reopen. Alongside his old friend, John Wickens, Newton returns to the university full of new ideas about light. He is elected a fellow and becomes a professor of mathematics. It's a prestigious role and means that as well as learning and studying, he also has teaching responsibilities

Though it's reported that his lectures aren't well attended But now he faces a dilemma As a fellow of the university, he must not only take a vow of celibacy But also subscribe to the 39 Articles, the official religious doctrines of the Church of England. Central to these doctrines is belief in the Trinity, in which God exists as the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, each distinct yet equally divine. The problem is that privately Newton rejects this idea. His faith dictates that God the Father is supreme and Jesus, while important, is not equal to him. There is no doubting that he is a devout Christian,

but according to the current doctrine, he is also a heretic. If his belief is discovered, his career could be ruined. Yet subscribing to the articles is mandatory for all fellows. Newton must find a way around. Somehow, nobody knows exactly how, somehow he got a dispensation from the king so that he didn't have to subscribe to the 39 articles because normally it was a requirement

that every Cambridge fellow had to do that. However he managed it, he is now able to pursue his development of a key piece of equipment that connects his twin interests of light and the planets, the telescope. Decades earlier, Galileo worked on a device which could magnify observed objects by up to 20 times. But its glass lenses bend different colors of light at slightly different angles, a phenomenon known as chromatic aberration

that makes the edges of objects appear blurry. Building on his PRISM experiments, Newton now creates a telescope that uses mirrors instead of lenses. This new design eliminates the issue that dogged earlier versions, and is able to deliver crisp sharp images with significantly better magnification. With his new and improved apparatus, the craters of the Moon, Jupiter's bands, and Saturn's rings come into sharp focus, far clearer than ever before. This pioneering design astonishes Newton's mentor, Professor Barrow.

As a result, Newton swiftly gains recognition not only at Cambridge, but also at the newly formed Royal Society. The Royal Society was founded in 1660 by Charles II when he came back to the throne. And it was a group of friends who had been based at Oxford and came down to London, people like Christopher Wren, who's more famous now as an architect, Robert Boyle and Robert Hook, who developed the air pump. And it was more like a gentleman's club.

It's November 1671, and 29-year-old Isaac Newton is on the doorstep of the Royal Society in London. The heavy oak doors creak closed behind him, shutting out the clatter of horse-drawn carriages on the busy street beyond. He follows a porter through the building, where the scent of pipe smoke lingers in the air. Newton's footsteps sound against the wooden floor as he makes his way down the candlelit hallway and up a flight of stairs to a demonstration room.

A large set of double doors are opened as he approaches. Inside, dozens of scholars and gentlemen fall silent as he enters and crosses the floor. At the far end of the wood-paneled room is a long oak table, behind which stands his friend and mentor, Professor Barrow. Having been charged with setting this demonstration up, Barrow nods a greeting and spreads his hands, indicating the equipment in front of him. Newton's telescope. Newton stops in front of the table, the candlelight catching every curve and surface of the apparatus. His hands hover above his design for a moment.

Then, with practiced ease, he makes small adjustments as gentlemen gather around to watch. Newton, absorbed in the intricacies of his work, barely notices them. But when the door opens and the guest of Charles II enters, accompanied by attendants. Newton steps back from his telescope, offering a bow as the king approaches. The monarch's expression is a mix of curiosity and expectation, as Newton shows him the features of his design and answers a few questions. The King leans down to peer through the telescope's eyepiece, his face unreadable. Then, standing back, he smiles. A wave of excited chatter ripples through the room,

and Newton exhales, sharing a glance of muted triumph with Barrow. and Newton exhales, sharing a glance of muted triumph with Barrow. With a nod, the king seals his approval, before turning and striding back out of the room. The news of his invention spreads quickly, and though it takes the Royal Society a few months, soon Newton is elected as a member. It was what first made him famous when he came to the notice of the Royal Society.

And it was, it was an extraordinary invention. It was only six inches long, but it magnified 150 times. So it was better than the other longer telescopes. The reason it was better was that he used mirrors instead of lenses. So that's autism optics. And it was shown at the Royal Society. He invented it in Cambridge, and then he went around sort of boasting about how he'd invented this new telescope.

Not long afterwards, Newton sends a paper on light to the Royal Society. But instead of approval, it sparks controversy. Fellow scientist Robert Hooke criticizes Newton's work. But it's not that he thinks he's wrong. It's worse than that. What Hooke takes issue with is the fact that, according to him, Newton's ideas are suspiciously similar to his own theories. You could say he's hurt quite deeply because he was sensitive to what other people said, that he went around stealing other people's ideas.

He was always very sensitive about Hooke's reaction because when Newton used a prism and showed the rainbow of light, Hooke had already done something very similar by having two thin planes of glass which generate a circular rainbow. And that's now called

Newton's rings, but it's actually Hooke who discovered it. The dispute between the two men escalates, and they exchange a series of angry letters. Hooke continues to insist his work laid the foundation for many of Newton's discoveries. and though Newton continues to deny it, he nevertheless delays publication of his paper. Feeling betrayed and undervalued, by the mid-1670s Newton is weary of the ongoing feud. He withdraws from the scientific community and vows never to write another paper again. It's now that Newton returns to another field of study he has always cherished, alchemy. For him, it's not merely about turning base metals into gold. It's a science that holds the secrets to understanding the natural world.

Alchemists believe they can change one element into another, Alchemists believe they can change one element into another. All in the hope of uncovering the Philosopher's Stone, a legendary substance rumoured to grant eternal life. Alchemy was really important. A lot of alchemical experiments are actually the basis of modern chemistry. It's not all rubbish at all. He worked on alchemy a lot when he was at Cambridge. In fact, he's left more manuscripts on alchemy than on anything else.

But his alchemy also sort of underpinned his whole theory of the universe. He had this idea that the universe is sort of like a living being. But practicing alchemy is fraught with danger. The study is deemed heretical, as it attempts to manipulate nature and challenge God's authority. Alchemists face severe penalties, possibly even execution, for their pursuit of hidden knowledge. And there are also physical dangers. Toxic materials like mercury, unpredictable explosions, and the constant threat of poisoning are ever present.

Yet, despite the risks, Newton is consumed by the promise of uncovering the spiritual forces that govern both the heavens and the earth. All the research that Isaac Newton did, he saw as being in order to get closer to God. He was deeply, deeply religious, and that was the whole point for him of deciphering the world, of interpreting, of analysing the world. The whole point was to decipher God's blueprint, God's plan for the world. He remains in seclusion until August 1684, when a visit from astronomer Edward Halley reignites his interest in more mainstream scientific work.

Halley arrives at Newton's Cambridge home with a theory he can't prove. He believes a force pulls planets towards the sun and explains that both Sir Christopher Wren and Newton's rival Robert Hooke share this belief. Like him, they have also failed to prove it. At the mention of Hooke, Newton's interest is sparked. Confident in his own abilities, Newton promises to provide the necessary calculations to support Halley's theory. Newton's big breakthrough was when he found that comets were also moving ellipses like planets.

So what a lot of people believed, including the astronomer royal John Flamsteed, is that when a comet approaches the sun, the comet and the sun are both magnetic. So as the comet gets nearer to the sun, it's repelled, and then it moves back again, which is why you always see the same comet twice. And what Newton proved was that it's not repelled, that the comet goes round and it goes right round behind the Sun and then comes back again, so it's on its return path that you're seeing it for the second time. After extensive research, Newton is ready to present his findings. In April 1686, he submits a 500-page manuscript to the Royal Society.

Titled The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or simply The Principia, it introduces ideas which are nothing short of revolutionary. It marks not only Newton's return to the forefront of scientific scholarship, but also a major chapter in the development of the field of physics. scientific scholarship, but also a major chapter in the development of the field of physics. There's three laws of motion. The first one is that if something's moving, it'll go on moving in the same way unless there's a force against it. If you've got a billiard ball, for example, rolling along a table, what the Aristotelians thought was eventually it would come to a halt because that was in its nature.

What the first law of motion says, no, there has to be a force. If there isn't a force of friction, or if there isn't something pushing a billiard ball, the ball will go on moving exactly the same. The second one is a mathematical law, and it says force equals mass times acceleration. It's more or less common sense. If you've got a weight, something very heavy, the greater the force you use to push it, the more quickly it will speed up. The third law is that action equals reaction. What that means is if you think about the earth going around the sun, we think of it as the Sun attracting the Earth by the power of gravity.

But actually that's a mutual reaction. Just the Sun is attracting the Earth, but the Earth is also attracting the Sun. So if the Earth wasn't there, the Sun would behave slightly differently. So it's always a mutual interaction. So it's always a mutual interaction. As the Principia gains attention, Newton's position within the scientific community rises once more. Though many at the Royal Society are impressed with his ideas and celebrate his work, not everyone shares in the admiration.

Newton's rival, Hooke, voices strong objections, again complaining about the similarities between Newton's and his own research. As tensions rise, some of Newton's contemporaries begin to question whether he has fully explained the nature of gravity. Could he himself be unsure? Just as the feud with Hooke is reaching its peak, another rivalry emerges, this time with a German mathematician. Gottfried Leibniz publishes a paper on calculus. And though he claims he developed it independently, Newton is convinced he's been plagiarized. What seems to have happened with calculus is that he and Leibniz were both

working on the basic problem at the same time, but they approached it from slightly different angles. The dispute drags on, dividing scholars in the mathematical field. Alienated again, Newton begins to distance himself from the work that once defined him. Eager to find a new purpose, he turns towards politics, hoping, perhaps ironically, to leave behind the bitterness he encountered in the world of science. Newton aligns himself with the Whig Party. Advocating limits to the absolute rule of the monarch, the Whigs also push for a stronger parliament,

religious freedom, and the rights of ordinary citizens. In 1688, they lead the Glorious Revolution, a bloodless coup which replaces the Catholic King James II with Protestant rulers William III and Mary II. This shifts power from the monarchy to Parliament, marking a major victory for the party. Now in his mid-forties, Newton becomes a Member of Parliament in January 1689, representing the constituency of Cambridge University. So it's very odd that Cambridge University and Oxford University,

until 1950, they each had two MPs of their own. It wasn't based on the geography of Cambridge Yorkshire graduates. He didn't actually contribute very much. He was twice MP. All he seems to have done is ask for a window to be opened on one occasion. His political career remains relatively quiet. His first term in Parliament ends in 1690 and he doesn't seek re-election. It doesn't help that around this time he experiences a number of personal setbacks.

His mother, with whom he became very close in adulthood, dies. On top of that, his confidant, assistant, and roommate, John Wickens, leaves Cambridge. Despite their deep personal bond, the two appear to lose touch almost entirely, exchanging no more than a few letters over the rest of their lives. Newton is plunged into deep despair. In 1693, Newton experiences a nervous breakdown. He begins acting erratically, sending strange letters to friends like the philosopher John Locke and renowned polymath and diarist Samuel Pepys, accusing them of conspiring against him. Already a solitary figure, Newton isolates himself even more, cutting ties with his few remaining acquaintances.

Once again, he seeks solace in alchemy. Returning to it with renewed fervor, his quest for meaning, perhaps spurred by personal loss, leads him into obscure and esoteric areas of study, such as that of religious prophecy. So one of the things he did was, if you think about, you can use the law of gravity to predict when eclipses and other events like that, other astronomical events, begin to happen in the future. If you've got documents from the past which say, oh, there was an eclipse today, then you can use the actual eclipse

to date the document. So what he did was go back into ancient civilizations and he worked out all the timetables of when all these events had happened. And so he rewrote prehistory in that way. The other thing he was very interested in was the Bible, and in particular, the Book of Daniel and religious prophecies. So he's interested in 666, the number of the beast, and he was interested in the dimensions

of King Solomon's temple. There's a diagram he made showing all the measurements. And he thought that that was a measure of the universe, the proportions of the temple. If you could find those out, you could find out God's plan, God's blueprint for designing the entire universe. Newton's mental health eventually improves, and he tries to rebuild his relationships with friends and colleagues. Though some are repaired, the experience leaves him shaken, and he starts to believe his best

scientific work is behind him. In 1696, Newton finds employment instead at the Royal Mint in London, which oversees the production and management of the nation's currency. His transition into public service is largely thanks to his connections with Charles Montagu, a leading Whig politician and founder of the Bank of England. Montagu, who later becomes the Earl of Halifax, uses his influence to secure Newton's role at the Mint. Their shared ties from Cambridge play a key role in shaping this new chapter of Newton's life. He was younger than Newton, and he was very powerful in the government. And there's quite a lot of evidence to suggest that he was having an affair with Newton's step-niece. Newton climbs the ranks quickly, and soon he's made master of the mint.

His reputation as an unyielding taskmaster grows as he oversees the mint with an iron rule, setting monetary policy and leading the re-coinage of British currency. and leading the re-coinage of British currency. Thriving in the job, he now rarely publishes and barely attends Royal Society meetings. Though known for being private and reserved, Newton's new responsibilities force him to interact more with others. And his meticulous nature becomes more important in the face of England's growing counterfeit crisis. Coins used to be made either of silver or gold, and the amount of valuable metal in them really was the value of the coin.

So if you had a pound coin, it was worth a pound's worth of metal, which meant that its price kept fluctuating with the stock market. So when Newton took over, there was a real crisis because there were these coins, silver coins, that were meant to be a pound. But what had happened was people had shaved bits off the edge. So it looked as though it was still a pound. You could still use it as a pound, but they've got lots of little bits of silver

and they could melt those down and make a lot of profit. So the currency was literally getting smaller and smaller. So what Newton did when he first took over was he called in all the currency and he melted it down and then he issued new coins that had a milled edge around them. These new edges make it impossible for anyone to shave material from the coin without detection. It's a simple solution to fix a long-standing problem. But it's not the end of Newton's war on forges. It's August 1700. First thing in the morning at the Royal Mint.

Inside the ancient buildings of the Tower of London, Isaac Newton sweeps onto the workshop floor, greeted, as usual, by the groaning of screw presses. Pausing to discuss plans for the day with the foreman, he watches as workers operate the large machines. Each requiring several men, the presses comprise a large horizontal arm connected at its midpoint to a thick screw, which protrudes from a box-like press. One man, or spinner, holds each arm, and between them they turn the screw upwards. Then, when the young moneyer sitting at the level of the press has fed in a new sheet of blanks, the screw is released and sent spinning down to strike the faces of the coins. The press's remarked improvement on the old hammering methods of production.

Newton scrapes up a handful of freshly minted coins from a tray and pours them from hand to hand, assessing their weight and running a finger across one of their milled edges. He replaces the money, shaking his cuffs to ensure he doesn't accidentally leave any unaccounted for, then heads to his office. His authority pervades every part of this operation, and as he passes, his workers take care to look particularly industrious, knowing the consequences for shirking. In his office, Newton shuts the door, cutting off the noise from the presses. Papers are scattered across his desk as he searches for a crucial document.

When he finds it, he settles into his chair. It's a rigorously compiled list of suspected forges, and it's Newton's job to bring these criminals to justice. Now he dips a nib in his ink and signs with a steady hand, knowing the integrity of England's economy rests on his efforts. A knock at the door interrupts his concentration. An assistant enters with an urgent message. A large batch of counterfeit coins has been discovered circulating in London. Newton's eyes narrow as he reads the report.

Immediately, he summons his officials for an emergency meeting. Before the assistant has scurried away, he's already getting started with a new plan. People he needs on the team to investigate and help identify the culprits. As the room begins to fill up with anxious-looking men, he gets to his feet, firing off orders. No longer just a scientist, he is now judge, jury, and executioner in the fight against those who would defraud the king and his subjects. It seems Isaac Newton really has found a calling away from science after all. In 1701, Newton returns to Parliament for a second term, representing Cambridge University,

though his attention is still very much on the operation of the Mint. But 1703 sees the death of his longtime rival, Robert Hooke, and within a year, Newton has published Optics, the groundbreaking work on light and refraction that he originally presented to the Royal Society three decades earlier. This time, he doesn't have to worry about Hooke's criticism. Optics is hailed as a triumph and garners huge praise from his contemporaries. Shortly after its publication,

Newton is elected President of the Royal Society. He took it very seriously and he did a lot to improve the premises and he tightened up all the accounts. A lot of people

hadn't been paying their fees so he made sure that they did that. So he ran it quite dictatorially, like he did the next. Though he's gathered a reputation for being a solitary, not to mention difficult individual, this new role of the society comes with a responsibility to foster and develop relationships. Being president of the Royal Society is quite a social role. And when you look at the inventory of his possessions after he died, it's quite obvious he did a lot of entertaining. There's hundreds of plates and cups and saucers and knives and forks. So although there's a lot of stories about him being completely withdrawn,

it's very difficult in retrospect to tell how true those are. Though he publishes little, Newton's influence grows as he maintains control over English science through meticulous oversight. With Hooke no longer a barrier to his success, his reputation reaches new heights. In April 1705, the failed farmer becomes sir isaac newton when he is knighted by queen anne primarily in recognition for his work at the mint and his political roles despite his success the calculus dispute with leibniz continues to cast a shadow. In 1712, after the German raises concerns about plagiarism once again, Newton pulls strings as president of the Royal Society and oversees an official investigation. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the probe concludes that

it was Leibniz who plagiarized Newton's earlier work on calculus. Critics, however, are quick to insinuate that the inquiry is biased. People have their own interests to look after, and it's easier to go along with what the president says, and otherwise you might lose your position in your society. Leibniz refuses to accept the findings, and the feud remains unresolved. But Newton will no longer be deterred from his scientific work. He oversees the second and third editions of the Principia and remains president of the Royal Society until his death in, suffering from kidney stones, Newton reportedly tells his doctor he is still

a virgin. Whether true or not, the claim is perhaps another piece in the puzzle of this often mysterious character, who has now fascinated historians for centuries. Indeed, through assessment of his correspondence and writings by and about him, modern biographers have speculated Newton may have been neurodivergent. People often ask if he was autistic.

And I think you really have to remember that we're only relying on anecdotes. Diagnosis of autism or any other condition does require a medical practitioner. I mean, you can't just sort of say that someone was autistic 400 years ago on the basis of hearsay and bits of evidence. Others question whether Newton really was guilty of plagiarism. The allegations certainly plagued him for a large part of his career. But most of today's scholars dismiss these accusations, while acknowledging

that his handling of rivals like Hooke and Leibniz was questionable. Much of his great legacy comes from his work on gravity, but he also faced criticism for not fully explaining it. It's been argued that his concepts were only really solidified when expanded upon by Einstein over 200 years later with his theory of general relativity. Yet Newton was a contradiction. Yet, Newton was a contradiction. Often presented as a lonely figure, records suggest he maintained close relationships with his family and may have had a number of friends, particularly later in life. Though maybe some of their motivations weren't quite what they seemed. Nobody really knows exactly what he was like.

He certainly worked incredibly hard, but he did have some close friendships. He was extremely good to his family. He supported a lot of them financially. And there was some big reunion in a pub down in London when he was an elderly man. Of course, they all turned up because they were all hoping

to get their inheritance. As soon as he died, there were various ones of distant relatives who sort of wrote in and said, Oh, Uncle Isaac promised me this and promised me that. As soon as he died, there were various distant relatives who wrote in and said, Oh, Uncle Isaac promised me this and promised me that. Sir Isaac Newton's work is still relevant today.

His laws of motion, theory of gravity and work in optics are pillars of modern science. His development of calculus is applied in everything from stock markets to climate change predictions. To biographers and historians, he leaves behind an impression of a man at once controversial, trailblazing, publicly outspoken, and privately mysterious. But his legacy is also that of someone who dedicated much of his life to understanding the secrets of the universe and making an unfathomable contribution to the development of science. Next time on Short History, we'll bring you a short history of Chichen Itza. The thing that's so special about Chichen is why did they survive when other sites collapsed? I mean, that site lasted for 600

years. 600 years. That's a long time for a city to survive. That's next time. If you can't wait a week until the next episode, you can listen to it right away by subscribing to Noiser Plus. Head to www.noiser.com forward slash subscriptions for more information.