Classic Audiobook Collection - A Short History of the US by Edward Channing ~ Full Audiobook [history]

Episode Date: December 21, 2022

A Short History of the US by Edward Channing audiobook. Genre: history Written for students and general readers, Edward Channing's A Short History of the United States distills the long sweep of American development into a clear, tightly organized narrative. Beginning with early voyages, exploration, and the first European footholds, Channing traces the hard work of colonization, the growth of regional societies, and the steady pressures that pushed separate colonies toward cooperation and conflict. He follows the road to independence and the Revolutionary War, then turns to the uneasy years of nation-building: the debates over the Constitution, the rise of political parties, and the challenges of governing a young republic. As the country expands westward, Channing keeps a sharp focus on the moral and political crisis of slavery, showing how disputes over territory and power deepened sectional tensions. The Civil War and the struggle to reunite the nation lead into Reconstruction, followed by the rapid national development of the late 19th century. Designed as a practical, teachable history, the book emphasizes causes and consequences, explains key institutions and ideas, and often includes foundational documents alongside the story. For ad-free listening try our premium subscription Chapters (Approximate) (00:00:00) Chapter 01 (00:13:38) Chapter 02 (00:27:43) Chapter 03 (00:41:46) Chapter 04 (00:54:49) Chapter 05 (01:02:27) Chapter 06 (01:21:17) Chapter 07 (01:32:34) Chapter 08 (02:00:54) Chapter 09 (02:26:32) Chapter 10 (02:45:41) Chapter 11 (03:12:03) Chapter 12 (03:33:11) Chapter 13 (03:49:57) Chapter 14 (04:16:38) Chapter 15 (04:35:43) Chapter 16 (04:55:05) Chapter 17 (05:11:14) Chapter 18 (05:31:52) Chapter 19 (05:51:14) Chapter 20 (06:07:07) Chapter 21 (06:20:49) Chapter 22 (06:38:33) Chapter 23 (07:06:24) Chapter 24 (07:30:27) Chapter 25 (07:45:57) Chapter 26 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Preface and Chapter 1 Preface The aim of this little book is to tell in a simple and concise form the story of the founding and development of the United States. The study of the history of one's own country is a serious matter and should be entered upon by the textbook writer, the teacher, and by the pupil in a serious spirit,

even to a greater extent than the study of a matter. language or of arithmetic. No effort has been made, therefore, to make out of this textbook a storybook. It is a textbook, pure and simple, and should be used as a textbook to be studied diligently by the pupil and expounded carefully by the teacher. Most of the pupils who use this book will never have another opportunity to study the history and institutions of their own country. It is highly desirable that they should use their time in studying the real history of the United States, and not in learning by heart of a mass of antidotes, often of very slight importance, and more often based on very insecure foundations. The author of this textbook, therefore, has boldly

ventured to omit most of the traditional matter, which is usually supposed to give life to a textbook and inspire a love of history, which too often means only a love for being amused. For instance, the descriptions of the formation of the Constitution and the struggle over the extension of slavery here occupy the space usually given to the adventures of Captain John Smith and to accounts of the institutions of the Red Men. The small number of pages available for the period before 1760 has necessitated the omission of pictures of colonial life, which cannot be briefly and at the same time accurately described. in similar matters can easily be studied by the pupils in their topical work in such books as Higginson's Young Folks History, Eggleston's United States and its people, and McMaster's school history. References to these books and to a limited number of other works have been given in the margins of this textbook. These citations also mention a few of the more accessible

sources, which should be used solely for purposes of illustration. It is the custom in many schools to spread the study of American history over two years and to devote the first year to a detailed study of the period before 1760. This is a very bad arrangement. In the first place, it gives an undue emphasis to the colonial period. In the second place, as many pupils never return to school, they never have an opportunity to study the later period at all. In the third place, It prevents those pupils who complete this study from gaining an intelligent view of the development of the American people. And finally, most of the time, the second year is spent in the study of the Revolutionary War and of the War for the Union. A better way would be to go over the whole book the first year with some parallel reading

and the second year to review the book and study with greater care important episodes. as the making of the Constitution, the struggle for freedom in the territories, and the war of the Union. Attention may also be given that second year to a study of industrial history since 1790 and to the elements of civil government. It is the author's earnest hope that teachers will regard the early chapters as introductory. Miss Annie Bliss Chapman, for many years a successful teacher of history in grammar schools, has kindly provided a limited number of suggestive questions and has also made many excellent suggestions to teachers. These are all appended to the several divisions of the work.

The author has added a few questions and a few suggestions of his own. He has also altered some of Ms. Chapman's questions. Whatever there is commendable in this apparatus should be credited to Ms. Chapman. Acknowledgements are also due to Ms. Bula Marie Dix for many admirable suggestions as to language and form. The author will cordially welcome criticisms and suggestions from anyone, especially from teachers, and will be very glad to receive notice of any errors.

Cambridge, March 29, 1900. Chapter 1. The European Discovery of America Leif Erickson discovers America in the year 1,000. In our early childhood, many of us learned to repeat the lines. Columbus sailed the ocean blue in 1492. We thought he was the first European to visit America. But nearly 500 years before his time, Leif Erickson had discovered the new world. He was a Northman and the son of Eric the Red.

Eric had already founded a colony in Greenland, and Leif sailed from Norway to make him a visit. This was the year 1000. Day after day, Leif and his men were tossed about on the sea until they reached an unknown land where they found many grape finds. They called it Vinland, or Weineland. They then sailed northward and reached Greenland in safety. Precisely where Vindland was is not known,

but it certainly was part of North America. Leif Erickson, the Northman, was their for the real discoverer of America. 2. Early European travelers. The people of Europe knew more of the lands of Asia than they knew of inland. For hundreds of years, missionaries, traders, and travelers visited the Far East. They brought back to Europe silks and spices and ornaments of gold and silver. They told marvelous tales of rich lands and great princes.

One of these travelers was a Venetian named Marco Polo. He told of Cathay or China and of Sipango or Japan. This last country was an island. Its king was so rich that even the floors of his palaces were pure gold. Suddenly, the Turks conquered the lands between Europe and the Golden East. They put an end to this trading and traveling. New ways to India, China, and Japan. must be found.

Three. Early Portuguese sailors. One way to the east seemed to be around the southern end of Africa, if it should turn out that there was a southern end to that dark continent. In 1487, Portuguese seamen sailed around the

southern tip of Africa and, returning home, called that point the Cape of Storms. But the king of Portugal thought that now there was good hope of reaching India by sea, so he changed the name to Cape of Good Hope. Ten years later, a brave Portuguese sailor, Vasco de Gama, actually reached India by the Cape of Good Hope

and returned safely to Portugal, 1497. Four, Columbus. Meantime, Christopher Columbus, an Italian, had returned from an even more startling voyage, From what he had read, and from what other men had told him, he had come to believe that the earth was round. If this were really true, Sipango and Cathay were west of Europe, as well as east of Europe. Columbus also believed that the earth was very much smaller than it really is, and that Sipongo was only 3,000 miles west of Spain. For a time, people laughed at the idea of sailing westward to Sipango and Kepango.

cafe, but at length Columbus secured enough money to fit out a little fleet. 5. The voyage. 1492. Columbus left Spain in August 1492, and refitting at the canaries, sailed westward

into the Sea of Darkness. At 10 o'clock in the evening of October 20th, 1492, looking out into the night, he saw a light in the distance. The fleet was soon stopped. When day broke, there, sure enough, was land. A boat was lowered, and Columbus, going ashore,

took possession of the new land for Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Aragon and Castile. The natives came to see the discoverers. They were reddish in color and interested in Columbus, for were they not inhabitants of the Far East? So he called them Indians. 6. The Indians and the Indies These Indians were not at all like those wonderful people of Cathay and Sipango, whom Marco

Polo had described. Instead of wearing clothes of silk and of gold embroidered satin, these people wore no clothes of any kind. But it was plain enough that the island they had found was not Sapango. It was probably some island off the coast of Sapango. So, on Columbus sailed and discovered Cuba. He was certain that Cuba was a part of the mainland of Asia, for the Indians kept saying Cubaniquan. Columbus thought that this was their way of pronouncing Kublican, the name of a mighty eastern ruler,

so he sent two messengers with a letter to that powerful monarch. Returning to Spain, Columbus was welcomed as a great admiral. He made three other voyages to America, but he never came within sight of the mainland of the United States. 7. John Cabot, 1497. While Columbus explored the West Indies, another Italian sailed across the Sea of Darkness farther north. His name was John Cabot, and he sailed with a license from Henry the 7th of England, the first of the Tudor Kings.

Setting boldly forth from Bristol, England, he crossed the North Atlantic and reached the coast of America north of Nova Scotia. Like Columbus, he thought that he had found the country of the Great Khan. Upon his discovery, English kings based their claim to the right to colonize North America. Eight, the naming of America. Many other explorers also visited the newfound lands. Among these was an Italian named Americas Vespucci. Precisely where he went is not clear, but it is clear that he wrote accounts of his voyages, which were printed and read by

many persons. In these accounts, he said that what we call South America was not a part of Asia. So he named it the New World. Columbus all the time was declaring that the lands he found were a part of Asia.

It was natural, therefore, that people in thinking of the New World should think of America's Vespucci. Before long, someone even suggested that the new world should be named America in his honor. This was done, and when it became certain that the other lands were not parts of Asia, the name America was given to them also until the whole continent came to be called America. 9. Balboa and Magellan 1513, 1520.

Balboa was a Spaniard who came to San Domingo to seek his fortune. He became a pauper and fled away from those to whom he owed money. After long wanderings, he found himself on a high mountain in the center of the Isthmus of Panama. To the southward sparkled the waters of a new sea. He called it the South Sea. Waiting into it waist deep, he waved his sword in the air and took possession of it for his royal master, the king of Spain. This was in 1513. Seven years later, in 1520, Magellan, a Portuguese seaman in the service of the Spanish king,

sailed through the Straits of Magellan and entered the same great ocean, which he called the Pacific. Thence northward and westwards, he sailed day after day, week after week and month after month, until he reached the Philippine Islands. The natives killed Magellan, but one of his vessels found her way back to Spain around the Cape of Good Hope. End of chapter 1 Chapter 2 of A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing This is a Libravox recording

All Libravox recordings are in the public domain For more information or to volunteer please visit Libravox.org This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 2 Spanish and French pioneers in the United States.

10. Stories of golden lands. Wherever the Spaniards went, the Indians always told them stories of golden lands somewhere else. The Bahama Indians, for instance, told their cruel Spanish masters of a wonderful land toward the north. Not only was there gold in that land, there was also a fountain whose waters restored youth and vigor to the drinker. Among the fierce Spanish soldiers was Pondes de Leon. He determined to see for himself if these stories were true. 11. Discovery of Florida, 1513.

In the same year that Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, Pons de Leon sailed northward and westward from the Bahamas. On Easter Sunday, 1513, he anchored off the shores of a new land. The Spanish name for Easter was La Pascua de Flores. So, De Leon called the new land Florida. For the Spaniards were a very religious people and usually named their lands and the settlements from saints or religious events. De Leon then sailed around the southern end of Florida and back to the West Indies. In 1521, he visited Florida again and was wounded by an Indian arrow and returned home to die. 12. Spanish Voyages and Conquests

Spanish sailors and conquerors now appeared in quick succession on the northern and western shores of the Gulf of Mexico. One of them discovered the mouth of the Mississippi. Others of them stole Indians and carried them to the islands to work as slaves. The most famous of them all was Cortez. In 1519, he conquered Mexico after a thrilling campaign and found their great store of gold and silver. This discovery led to more expeditions and to the exploration of the southern half of the United States. 13. Coronado in the southwest, 1540 to 1542. In 1540, Coronado set out from the Spanish towns on the Gulf of California to seek for more gold and silver.

For 73 days, he journeyed northward until he came to the Pueblos of the Southwest. These pueblos were huge buildings of stone and sun-dried clay. Some of them were large enough to shelter 300 Indian families. Pueblos are still to be seen in Arizona and New Mexico, and the Indians living in them, even to this day, tells stories of Coronado's coming and of his cruelty. There was hardly any gold and silver in these cities, so a great grief fell upon Coronado and his comrades.

14. The Great Plains Soon, however, a new hope came to the Spaniards, for an Indian told them that far away in the north there really was a golden land. Onward rode Coronado and a body of picked men. They crossed vast plains where there were no mountains to guide them. For more than a thousand miles they rode on until they reached eastern Kansas. Everywhere they found great herds of buffaloes or wild. wild cows, as they called them. They also met the Indians of the Plains. Unlike the Indians of the Pueblos, these Indians lived in tents made of buffalo hides, stretched upon poles. Everywhere

there were plains, buffaloes, and Indians. Nowhere was their gold or silver. Broken-hearted, Coronado and his men rode southward to their old homes in Mexico. 15. De Soto in the southeast. 1539 to 1543. In 1539, a Spanish army landed at Tampa Bay on the western coast of Florida. The leader of this army was De Soto, one of the conquerors of Peru. He was very fond of the sport of killing Indians and was also greedy for gold and silver. From Tampa, he marched northward to South Carolina and then marched southwestward to Mobile Bay.

There he had a dreadful time, for the Indians burned his camp in stores and killed many of his men. From Mobile, he wandered northwestward until he came to a great river. It was the Mississippi, and it was so wide that a man standing on one bank could not see a man standing on the opposite bank. Some of De Soto's men penetrated westward nearly to the line of Coronado's march, but the two bands did not meet. De Soto died and was buried in the Mississippi. Those of his men who still lived built a few boats and managed to reach the Spanish settlements in Mexico. 16. Other Spanish expeditions Many other Spanish explorers visited the shores of the United States before 1550.

Some sailed along the Pacific coast. Others sailed along the Atlantic coast. The Spaniards also made several attempts to found. settlements both on the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico and on Chesapeake Bay. But all these early attempts ended in failure. In 1550, there were no Spaniards on the continent within the present limits of the United States, except possibly a few traders and missionaries into southwest. 17. Early French Voyages 1524 to 1536. The first French expedition to America was left. by an Italian named Verizano, but he sailed in the service of Francis I, King of France.

He made his voyage in 1524 and sailed along the coast from the Cape Fear River to Nova Scotia. He entered New York Harbor and spent two weeks in Newport Harbor. He reported that the country was as pleasant as it is possible to conceive. The next French expedition was led by a Frenchman named Cartier. In 1534, he visited the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1535, he sailed up the St. Lawrence River to Montreal. But before he could get out of the river again, the ice formed about his ships. He and his crew had to pass the winter there.

They suffered terribly, and 24 of them perished of cold and sickness. In the spring of 1536, the survivors returned to France. 18. The French and Carolina 1562 The French next explored the shores of the Carolinas. Rebolt was the name of their commander. Sailing southward from Carolina, he discovered a beautiful river and called it the River of May. But we know it by its Spanish name of St. John's.

He left a few men on the Carolina coast and returned to France. A year or more those men remained. Then, wearying of their life in the wilderness, they built a crazy boat with sails of shirts and sheets and steered for France. Soon their water gave out, and then their food. Finally, almost dead. They were rescued by an English ship. 19. The French in Florida.

1564 to 65. While these Frenchmen were slowly drifting across the Atlantic, a great French expedition was saved. sailing to Carolina. Finding Revoltsmen gone, the new colony was planted on the banks of the River of May. Soon the settlers ate up all the food they had brought with them. Then they brought food from the Indians, giving them toys and old clothes in exchange. Some of the colonists rebelled. They seized a vessel and sailed away to plunder the Spaniards in the West Indies. They told the Spaniards of the colony on the River of May, and the Spaniards resolved to destroy. destroy it.

20. The Spaniards in Florida, 1565. For this purpose, the Spaniards sent out an expedition under Menendez. He sailed to the River of May and found Rebold there with a French fleet. So he turned southward and going ashore founded St. Augustine. Rebold followed, but a terrible storm drove his whole fleet ashore south of St. Augustine. Menendez then marched down. over land to the French colony. He surprised the colonists and killed nearly all of them. Then, going back to St. Augustine, he found Reboldt and his shipwrecked sailors and killed

nearly all of them. In this way, ended the French attempts to found a colony in Carolina and Florida, but St. Augustine remained and is today the oldest town on the mainland of the United States. End of Chapter 2. chapter three pioneers of england twenty one sir john hawkins for many years after cabot's voyage englishmen were too busy at home to pay much attention to distant expeditions But, in Queen Elizabeth's time, English semen began to sail to America. The first of them to win a place in history was John Hawkins. He carried cargoes of Negro slaves from Africa to the West Indies and sold them to the Spanish planters.

On his third voyage, he was basely attacked by the Spaniards and lost four of his five ships. Returning home, he became one of the leading men of Elizabeth's Little Navy and fought most gallantly for his country. 22. Sir Francis Drake. A greater and more famous man was Hawkins' cousin, Francis Drake. He had been with Hawkins on his third voyage and had come to hate Spaniards most vigorously.

In 1577, he made a famous voyage around the world. Steering through the Straits of Magellan, he plundered the Spanish towns on the western coasts of South America. At one place, his sailors went on shore and found a man sound asleep. Near him were four bars of silver. We took the silver and left the man, wrote the old historian of the voyage. Drake also captured vessels loaded with gold and silver and pearls. Sailing northward, he repaired his ship, the Pelican, on the coast of California,

and returned home by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 23. Sir Walter Raleigh. Still another famous Englishman of Elizabeth's time was Walter Raleigh. He never saw the coasts of the United States, but his name is rightly connected with our history because he tried again and again to found colonies on our shores. In 1584, he sent Amadas and Barlow to explore the Atlantic seashore of North America. Their reports were so favorable that he sent a strong colony to settle on Roanoke Island in Virginia.

as he named that region. But the settlers soon became unhappy because they found no gold. Then, too, their food began to fail, and Drake, happening along, took them back to England. 24. The Lost Colony 1587. Raleigh made still one more attempt to found a colony in Virginia, but the fate of this colony was most dreadful.

for the settlers entirely disappeared, men, women, and children. Among the lost was little Virginia Dayer, the first English child born in America. No one really knows what became of these people, but the Indians told the later settlers of Jamestown that they had been killed by the savages. 25. Destruction of the Spanish Armada, 1588. This activity of the English in America was very very very, very. distressing to the king of Spain, for he claimed all America for himself and did not wish the Englishmen to go there thither. He determined to conquer England and thus put an end to these

English voyages, but Hawkins, Drake, Raleigh, and the man behind the English guns were too strong even for the invincible armada. Spain's sea power never recovered from this terrible blow. Englishmen could now found colonies with only slight fear of the war. the Spaniards. When the Spanish king learned of the settlement of Jamestown, he ordered an expedition to go from St. Augustine to destroy the English colony. But the Spaniards never got farther than the mouth of the James River, for when they reached that point, they thought they saw the masts and spars of an English ship. They at once turned about and sailed back to Florida as fast as they could go. End of Chapter 3.

Chapter 4 and 5 of a short history of the United States This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Part 2, Chapter 4 Colonization

1600 to 1660 Chapter 4 French colonists, missionaries, and explorers 26. The French in Acadia For nearly 40 years after the destruction of the colony on the River of May, Frenchmen were too busy fighting one another at home to send any more colonists to America. At length in 1604, a few Frenchmen settled on an island in the St. Croix River, but the place was so cold and windy that after a few months, they crossed the Bay of Fundy and founded the town of Port Royal, the country they called

Acadia. 27. Champlain and his work. The most famous of these colonists was Champlain. He sailed along the coast southward and westward as far as Plymouth. As he passed by the mouth of Boston Harbor, a mist hung low over the water, and he did not see the entrance. Had it been clear, he would have discovered Boston Harbor and Charles River and the French colonists might have settled there. In 1608, Champlain built a trading post at Quebec and lived there many years as governor or chief trader. He soon joined the St. Lawrence Indians in their war parties and explored large portions of the interior. In 1609, he went with the Indians to a beautiful lake. Far away to the east were mountains covered with snow. To the south

were other mountains, but with no snow on their tops. To the lake, the explorer gave his own name, and we still call it in his honor, Lake Champlain. While there, he drove away with his firearms a body of Iroquois Indians.

A few years later, he went with another war party to western New York and again attacked the Iroquois. 28. The French on the Great Lakes. Champlain was the first of many French discoverers. Some of these were missionaries who left home and friends to bring the blessings of Christianity to the red men of the Western world. Others were fur traders,

while still others were men who came to the wilderness in search of excitement. These French discoverers found Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. They even reached the headwaters of the Wisconsin River, a branch of the Mississippi. 29, the French missionaries. The most active, of the French missionaries were the Jesuits. The Jesuits built stations on the shores of the Great Lakes. They made long expeditions to unknown regions.

Some of them were killed by those whom they tried to convert to Christianity. Others were robbed and left to starve. Others still were tortured and cruelly abused. But the prospect of starvation, torture, and death only made them more eager to carry on their

great work. 30. The Iroquois. strongest of all the indian tribes were the nations that formed the league of the iroquois ever since champlain fired upon them they hated the sight of a frenchman on the other hand they looked upon the dutch and the english as their friends french missionaries tried to convert them to christianity as they had converted to st lawrence indians but the iroquois saw in this only another attempt at french conquest so they hung red-hot stones about the missionary necks, or they burn them to death, or they cut them to pieces while yet living. For a century and a half, the Iroquois stood between the Dutch and the English settlers and their common enemies in Canada. Few events in American history, therefore, have had such great consequences as Champlain's unprovoked attacks upon the Iroquois.

End of Chapter 4. Chapter 5. Virginia and Maryland 31. The Virginia Company 1606. English people were now beginning to think in earnest of founding colonies. It was getting harder and harder to earn one's living in England, and it was very difficult to invest one's money in any useful way. It followed from this that there were many men who were glad to become colonists and many persons who were glad to provide money to pay for founding colonies. In 1606, the Virginia Company was formed and colonization began on a large scale. 32. Founding of Jamestown, 1607. The first colonists sailed for Virginia in December 1606. They were months on the way and suffered terrible hardships.

At last, they reached Chesapeake Bay in James River and settled on a peninsula on the James about 30 miles from its mouth. Across the little Isthmus which connected this peninsula with the mainland, they built a strong fence or stockade to keep the Indians away from their huts. Their settlement, they named Jamestown. The early colonists of Virginia

were not very well fitted for such work. Some of them were gentlemen who had never labored with their hands. Others were poor, idle fellows, whose only wish was to do nothing whatsoever. There were a few energetic men among them as Ratcliffe, Archer, and Smith, but these spent most of their time in exploring the bay and the rivers and hunting for gold and in quarreling with one another. With the summer came fevers, and soon 50 of the 105 original colonists were dead. Then followed a cold, hard winter, and many of those who had not died of fever in the summer now died of cold.

Colonists brought little food with them. They were too lazy to plant much corn, and they were able to get only small supplies from the Indians. Indeed, the early history of Virginia is given mainly to accounts of, quote, starving times. Of the first thousand colonists, not 100 live to tell the tale of those early days. 33. Sir Thomas Dale in good order. In 1611, Sir Thomas Dale came out as ruler, and he ruled with an iron hand. If a man refused to work, Dale made a slave of him for three years. If he did not work hard enough, Dale had him soundly whipped. But Sir Thomas Dale was not only a severe man, he was also a wise man.

Hitherto, everything had been in common. Dale now tried the experiment of giving three acres of land to every one of the old planters, and he also allowed them time to work on their own land. 34. Tobacco growing and prosperity. European people were now beginning to use tobacco. Most of it came from the Spanish colonies. Tobacco grew wild in Virginia, but the colonists at first did not know how to dry it and

make it fit for smoking. After a few years, they found out how to prepare it. They now worked with great eagerness and planted tobacco. on every spot of cleared land. Men with money came over from England. They brought many working men with them and planted large pieces of ground. Soon, tobacco became the money of the colony

and the whole life of Virginia turned on its cultivation. But it was difficult to find enough laborers to do the necessary work. 35. Servants and slaves. Most of the laborers were white men and women who were bound to service for terms of years. These were called.

servants. Some of them were poor persons who sold their labor to pay for their passage to Virginia. Others were unfortunate men and women, and even children, who were stolen from their families and sold to the colonists. Still, others were criminals whom King James sent over to the colony because that was the cheapest thing to do with them. In 1619, the first Negro slaves were brought to Virginia by a Dutch vessel. The Virginians bought them all, only 20 in number. But, the planters preferred white laborers. It was not until more than 25 years had passed away that the slaves really became numerous enough to make much difference in the life of the colony. 36. The first American legislature, 1619. The men who first formed the Virginia Company had long

since lost interest in it. Other men had taken their place. These latter were mostly Puritans, or were the friends and workers with the Puritans. The best known of them was Sir Edward Sandys, the playmate of William Brewster, one of the pilgrim fathers. Sandy's and his friends sent Sir George Yardley to Virginia as governor. They ordered him to summon an assembly to be made up of representatives chosen by the freedom of the colony. They ordered him to summon an assembly to be made up of representatives chosen by the freemen of the colony. These representatives soon did away with Dale's ferocious regulations. and made other and much milder laws.

37. Virginia becomes a royal province, 1624. The Virginians thought this was a very good way to be governed, but King James thought that the new rulers of the Virginia Company were much too liberal, and he determined to destroy the company. The judges in those days dared not displease the king, for he could turn them out of office at any time. So when he told them to destroy the Virginia charter, they took the very first opportunity to declare it to be of no force. In this way, the Virginia Company came to an end, and Virginia became a royal province with a governor appointed by the king.

38. Religious intolerance. In 1625, King James died, and his son Charles became king. He left the Virginians to themselves, for the most part. liked this, but they did not like his giving the northern part of Virginia to a Roman Catholic favorite, Lord Baltimore, with the name of Maryland. Many Roman Catholics soon settled in Lord Baltimore's colony. The Virginians feared, less they might come to Virginia, and made severe laws against them. Puritan missionaries also came from New England and began to convert the Virginians to Puritanism. Governor Berkeley and the leading Virginians were Episcopalians. They did not like

the Puritans any better than they liked the Roman Catholics. They made harsh laws against them and drove them out of Virginia into Maryland. 39. Settlement of Maryland. Maryland included the most valuable portion of Virginia north of the Potomac. Besides being the owner of all this land, Lord Baltimore was also the ruler of the colony. He invited people to go over and settle in Maryland and offered to give them large tracts of land on payment of a small sum every year forever. Each man's payment was small, but all the payments taken together made quite a large amount, which went on growing larger and larger as Maryland was settled. The Baltimore's were broad-minded men. They gave their colonists a large share in the government of the colony and did what they could to bring about religious toleration,

in Maryland. 40. The Maryland Toleration Act, 1649. The English Roman Catholics were cruelly oppressed. No priest of that faith was allowed to live in England, and Roman Catholics, who were not priests, had to pay heavy fines simply because they were Roman Catholics. Lord Baltimore hoped that his fellow Catholics might find a place of shelter in Maryland, and many of the leading colonists were Roman Catholics. But most of the laborers were Protestants. Soon came the Puritans from Virginia. They were kindly received and given land, but it was evident that it would be difficult for Roman Catholics, Episcopalians,

and Puritans to live together without some kind of law to go by. So a law was made that any Christian might worship as he saw fit. This was the first toleration act in the history of America. It was the first toleration act in the history of modern times. But the Puritans, Roger Williams had already established religious freedom in Rhode Island. 41 Maryland Industries Tobacco was the most important crop in early Maryland, but grain was raised in many parts of the colony. In time, also, there grew up a large trading town. This was Baltimore. Its shipowners and merchants became rich and numerous, while there were almost no shipowners

or merchants in Virginia. There were also fewer slaves in Maryland than in Virginia. Nearly all the hard labor in the former colony was done by white servants. In most other ways, however, Virginia and Maryland were nearly alike. End of Chapter 5.

Chapter 6 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, here, please visit Librevox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 6. New England

42. The Puritans The New England colonies were founded by English Puritans who left England because they could not do as they wished in the homeland. All Puritans were agreed in wishing for a freer government than they had in England under the Stuart Kings, and in state matters, were really the liberals of their time. In religious matters, however, they were not all of one mind. Some of them wished to make only a few changes in the church. These were called non-conformists.

Others wished to make so many changes in religion that they could not stay in the English state church. These were called separatists. The settlers of Plymouth were separatists. The settlers of Boston and neighboring towns were. non-conformists. 43. The Pilgrims. Of all the groups of the separatists scattered over England,

none became so famous as those who met at Elder Brewster's House at Scrooby. King James decided to make all Puritans conform to the state church, or to hunt them out of the land. The Scrooby people soon felt the weight of their persecution.

After suffering great hardships and cruel treatment, they fled away to Holland, but there they found very difficult to make a living. They suffered so terribly that many of their English friends preferred to go to prison in England rather than lead such a life of slavery in Holland. So the pilgrims determined to found a colony in America. They reasoned that they could not be worse off in America because that would be impossible. At all events, their children would not grow up as Dutchmen, but would still be Englishmen. They had entire religious freedom in Holland,

but they thought they would have the same in America. 44. The voyage across the Atlantic. Brewster's old friend, Sir Edwin Sandys, was now at the head of the Virginia Company. He easily procured land for the pilgrims in northern Virginia near the Dutch settlements. Some London merchants lent them money, but they lented on such harsh conditions that the pilgrim's early life in America was nearly as hard as their life had been in Holland. They had a dreadful voyage across the Atlantic in the Mayflower. At one time, it seemed as if the ship would surely go down, but the pilgrims helped the sailors to place a heavy piece of wood under one of the deck beams

and saved the vessel from going to pieces. On November 19, 1620, they sited land off the coast of Cape Cod. They tried to sail around the Cape to the southward, but the storms drove them back, and they anchored in Provincetown Harbor. The Mayflower Compact 1620 All the passengers on the Mayflower were not pilgrims. Some of them were servants

sent out by the London merchants to work for them. These men said that as they were outside of Virginia, the leaders of the expedition would have no power over them as soon as they got on land. This was true enough, so the pilgrims drew up and signed a compact which obliged the signers to obey whatever was decided to be for the public good.

It gave the chosen leader. leader's power to make the unruly obey their commands. 46. The first winter at Plymouth. For nearly a month, the pilgrims explored the shores of Cape Cod Bay. Finally, on December 21, 1620, a boat party landed on the mainland inside of Plymouth Harbor. They decided to found their colony on the shore of that place. About a week later, the Mayflower anchored in Plymouth Harbor. For months, the pilgrims lived on the ship.

while working parties built the necessary huts on shore. It was in the midst of a cold New England winter. The work was hard, and food and clothing were not well suited to the workers' needs. Before the Mayflower sailed away in the spring, one half of the little band was dead. 47, New Plymouth Colony Of all the Indians who once had lived near Plymouth, only one remained. His name was Squanto. He came to the pilgrims in the spring.

He taught them to grow corn and to dig clams, and thus saved them from starvation. The pilgrims cared for him most kindly as long as he lived. Another and more important Indian also came to Plymouth. He was Massasoit, the chief of the strongest Indian tribe near Plymouth. With him, the pilgrims made a treaty which both parties obeyed for more than 50 years. Before long, the pilgrim's life became somewhat easier. They worked hard to raise food for themselves. They fished off the coasts and brought furs from the Indians.

In these ways, they got together enough money to pay back the London merchants. Many of their friends joined them. Other towns were settled nearby, and Plymouth became the capital of the colony of New Plymouth. But the colony was never very prosperous, and in the end was added to Massachusetts. 48. The founding of Massachusetts, 1629 to 30. Unlike the poor and humble pilgrims were the founders of Massachusetts. They were men of wealth and social position, as, for instance, John Winthrop and Sir Richard Sultanstahl.

They left comfortable homes in England to found a Puritan state in America. They got a great tract of land extending from the Merrimack to the Charles and westward across the continent. Hundreds of colonists came over in the years 1629 to 1613. They settled Boston, Salem, and neighboring towns. In the next 10 years, thousands more joined them. From the beginning, Massachusetts was strong and prosperous. Among so many people there were some who did not get on happily with the rulers of the colony. 49. Roger Williams and Religious Liberty. Among the newcomers was Roger Williams, a Puritan minister. He disagreed with the Massachusetts leaders on several points. For instance, he thought that the Massachusetts people had no right to their lands, and he insisted that the rulers had no power in religious matters as enforcing the laws as to Sunday. He insisted on these points so strongly that the Massachusetts government expelled him from the colony. In the spring of 1636, with four companions, he founded the town of Providence.

There, he decided that everyone should be free to worship God as he or she saw fit. 50, the Rhode Island Towns. Soon another band of exiles came from Massachusetts. These were Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers. Mrs. Hutchinson was a brilliant Puritan woman who had come to Boston

from England to enjoy the ministry of John Cotton, one of the Boston ministers. She soon began to find fault with the other ministers of the colony. Naturally, they did not like this. Their friends were more numerous than were Mrs. Hutchinson's friends,

and the latter had to leave Massachusetts. They settled on the island of Rhode Island in 1637. 51. The Connecticut Colony Besides those Puritans whom the Massachusetts people drove from their colony, there were other settlers who left Massachusetts of their own free will. Among these were the founders of Connecticut. The Massachusetts people would gladly have had them remain, but they were discontented and insisted on going away.

They settled the towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Weathersfield on the Connecticut River. At about the same time, John Winthrop Jr. led a colony to Saybrook at the mouth of the Connecticut. Up to this time, the Dutch had seemed to have the best chance to settle the Connecticut Valley, but the control of that region was now definitely in the hands of the English. 52. The Pequot War, 1637. The Pequot Indians were not so rich. ready as the Dutch to admit that resistance was hopeless. They attacked Weathersfield. They killed several colonists and carried others away into captivity. Captain John Mason of Connecticut and Captain

John Underhill of Massachusetts went against them with about 100 men. They surprised the Indians in their fort. They set fire to the fort and shot down the Indians as they strove to escape from their burning wigwams. In a short time, the Pequot tribe was destroyed. 53. The First American Constitution, 1638 to 39. The Connecticut colonists had leisure now to settle the form of their government. Massachusetts had such a liberal charter that nothing more seemed to be necessary in that colony. The Mayflower Compact did well enough for the pilgrims. The Connecticut people had no charter, and they wanted something more definite than a vague compact. Act. So, in the winter of 1638 to 1639, they met at Hartford and sat down on paper a complete set of rules for their guidance. This was the first time in the history of the

English race that any people had tried to do this. The Connecticut Constitution of 1638 to 39 is therefore looked upon as the first truly political written constitution in history. The government thus established was very much the same as, as that of Massachusetts, with the exception that in Connecticut there was no religious condition for the right to vote, as there was in Massachusetts. 54. New Haven 1638 The settlers of New Haven went even farther than the Massachusetts rulers and held that the state should really be a part of the church. Massachusetts was not entirely to their tastes.

They passed only one winter there and then moved away and settled New Haven. but this colony was not well situated for commerce and was far too near the dutch settlement it was never as prosperous as connecticut and was finally joined to that colony fifty five the new england confederation sixteen forty three besides the settlements that have already been described there were colonists living forty three the pilgrims of all the groups of the separatists scattered over england For some of those towns were within her limits. In 1640, the long parliament met in England, and in 1645, Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans destroyed the royal army in the Battle of Naisby. In these troubled times,

England could do little to protect the New England colonists and could do nothing to punish them for acting independently. The New England colonists were surrounded by foreigners. There were the French on the north and the east and the Dutch on the West. The Indians, too, were living in their midst and might at any time turn on the whites and kill them. Thinking all these things over,

the four leading colonies decided to join together for protection. They formed the New England Confederation and drew up a constitution. The colonists living in Rhode Island and in Maine did not belong to the Confederation, but they enjoyed many of the benefits flowing from it, for it was quite certain that the Indians and the French and the Dutch would think twice before attacking any of the New England settlements. 56. Social Conditions

The New England colonies were all settled on the town system, for there were no industries which demanded large plantations as tobacco planting. The New Englanders were small farmers, mechanics, shipbuilders, and fishermen. There were few servants in New England and almost no Negro slaves. Most of the laborers were free. men and worked for wages as laborers now do. Above all, the New Englanders were very zealous in the matter of education. Harvard College was founded in 1636. A few years later, a law was passed compelling every town to provide schools for all the children in the town.

End of Chapter 6. Chapter 7 of a short history of the United States. This is a Librevox recording. Maine. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevots.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 7. New Netherland and New Sweden. 57. The Dutch At this time, the Dutch were the greatest traders and shipowners in the world. They were especially interested in the commerce of the East Indies.

Indeed, the Dutch India Company was the most successful trading company in existence. The way to the East Indies lay through seas carefully guarded by the Portuguese, so the Dutch India Company hired Henry Hudson, an English sailor, to search for a new route to India. 58. Hudson's Voyage, 1609. He set forth in 1609 in the Half Moon, a staunch little ship. At first he sailed northward, but ice soon blocked. his way. He then sailed southwestward to find a straight, which was said to lead through America north of Chesapeake Bay. On August 3rd, 1609, he reached the entrance of what is now New York Harbor.

Soon, the half-moon entered the mouth of the river that still bears her captain's name. Up, up the river she sailed, until finally she came to anchor near the present side of Albany. The ship's boat sailed even farther north. Everywhere the country was delightful. The Iroquois came off to the ship in their canoes. Hudson received them most kindly. Quite unlike the way Champlain treated the Iroquois Indians at about the same time on the shore of Lake Champlain. Then Hudson sailed down the river again and back to Europe. He made one later voyage to America, this time under the English flag. He was turned adrift by his men in Hudson's Bay and perished in the cold and ice.

59. The Dutch fur traders. Hudson's failure to find a new way to India made the Dutch India Company lose interest in American exploration. But many Dutch merchants were greatly interested in Hudson's account of the Great River of the Mountain. They thought they could make money from trading for furs with the Indians. They sent many expeditions to Hudson's River and made a great deal of money. Some of their captains explored the coast northward and southward as far as Boston Harbor and Delaware Bay. Their principal trading posts were on Manhattan Island and near the site of Albany.

In 1614, some of the leading traders obtained from the Dutch government the sole right to trade between New France and Virginia. They called this region New Netherland. 60. The founding of New Netherland. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company was founded. Its first object was trade, but it also was directed to advance the peopling of the American lands claimed by the Dutch. Colonists now came over. They settled at New Amsterdam on the southern end of Manhattan Island and also on the western end of Long Island. By 1628, there were 400 colonists in New Netherland, but the colony did not grow rapidly,

so the company tried to interest rich men in the scheme of colonization by giving them large tracts of land and large powers of government. These great landowners were called patroons. Most of them were not very successful. Indeed, the whole plan was given up before long and land was given to anyone who would come out and settle. 61. Kieft and the Indians, 1643 to 44. The worst of the early Dutch governors was William Kieft.

He was a bankrupt and a thief who was sent to New Netherland in the hope that he would reform. At first he did well and put a stop to the smuggling and cheating, which were common in the colony. Immigrants came over in large numbers and everything seemed to be going on well when Keefe's brutality brought on an Indian war that nearly destroyed the colony. The Indians living near New Amsterdam sought shelter from the Iroquois. on the mainland opposite Manhattan Island. Kieft thought it would be a grand thing to kill all these Indian neighbors

while they were collected together. He sent a party of soldiers across the river and killed many of them. The result was a fierce war with all the neighboring tribes. The Dutch colonists were driven from their farms. Even in New Amsterdam with its stockade was not safe.

For the Indians sometimes came within the stockade and killed the people in the town. When there were less than 200 people left in New Amsterdam, Kieft was recalled, and Peter Stuyvesant was sent as governor in his stead. 62. Stuyvesant's rule. Stuyvesant was a hot-tempered, energetic soldier who had lost a leg in the company's service. He ruled New Netherland for a long time, from 1647 to 1664,

and he ruled so sternly that the colonists were glad when the English came and conquered them. This unpopularity was not entirely Stuyvesant's fault. The Dutch West India Company was a failure. It had no money to spend for the defense of the colonists, and Stuyvesant was obliged to lay heavy taxes on the people. 63. New Sweden. When the French, the English, and the Dutch were founding colonies in America, the Swedes also thought that they might as well have a colony there too.

They had no claim to any land in America. But Swedish armies were fighting the Dutchmen's battles in Europe, so the Swedes sent out a colony to settle on lands claimed by the Dutch. As long as the European war went on, the Swedes were not interfered with. But when the European war came to an end, Suivisant was told to conquer them. This he did without much trouble, as he had about as many soldiers as there were Swedish colonists.

In this way, New Sweden became a part of New Netherland. Summary We have seen how the French, the Dutch, the Swedish, and the English colonies were established on the Atlantic seashore and in the St. Lawrence Valley. South of these settlements, there was the earlier Spanish colony of St. Augustine. The Spanish colonists were very few in number, but they gave Spain a claim to Florida.

The Swedish colony had been absorbed by the stronger Dutch colony. We have also seen how very unlike were the two English groups of colonies. They were both settled by Englishmen, but there the likeness stops. For Virginia and Maryland were slave colonies. They produced large crops of tobacco. The New England colonists, on the other hand, were practically all free. They lived in towns and engaged in all kinds of industries. In the next hundred years, we shall see how the English conquered first the Dutch, and then the French,

how they planted colonies far to the south of Virginia, and in these ways occupied. the whole coast north of Florida. End of chapter 7. Chapters 8 and 9 of a short history of the United States. This is a Librevox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org.

This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing, Part 3. A Century of Colonial History, from 1660 to 1760. Chapter 8. The Colonies under Charles II 65. The Puritans and the Colonists, 1649 to 60. In 1649, Charles I was executed, and for 11 years, the Puritans were supreme in England. During this time, the New England colonists governed themselves and paid little heed to the wishes and order. of the England's rulers. After some hesitation, the Virginians accepted the authority of Cromwell and the Puritans. In return, they were allowed to govern themselves. In Maryland, the Puritans overturned Baltimore's governor and ruled the province for some years. 66. Colonial Policy of Charles II. In 1660, Charles II became king of England or was restored to the throne, as people

said at the time. Almost at once there was a great revival of interest in colonization and the new government interfered vigorously in colonial affairs. In 1651, the Puritans had begun the system of giving the English trade only to English merchants and shipowners. This system was now extended and the more important colonial products could only be carried to English ports. 67, attacks on Massachusetts. The new government was especially done. displeased by the independent spirit shown by Massachusetts. Only good Puritans could vote in that colony, and members of the Church of England could not even worship as they wished. The Massachusetts people paid no heed whatever to the navigation laws and asserted that acts of Parliament had no force

in the colony. It chanced that at this time Massachusetts had placed herself clearly in the wrong by hanging four persons for no other reason than that they were Quakers. The English government thought that now the time had come to assert its power. It ordered the Massachusetts rulers to send other Quakers to England for trial. But when this order reached Massachusetts, there were no Quakers in prison awaiting trial, and none were ever sent to England. 68. Connecticut and Rhode Island.

While the English government was attacking Massachusetts, it was giving liberal charters to Connecticut and Rhode Island. Indeed, these charters were so liberal that they remained the constitutions of the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island until long after the American Revolution. The Connecticut Charter included New Haven within the limits of the larger colony, and thus put an end to the separate existence of New Haven. 69. Conquest of New Netherland, 1664. The English government now determined to conquer New Netherland, an English fleet, sailed to New Amsterdam. Stuyvesant thumped up and down

on his wooden leg, but he was almost the only man in New Amsterdam who wanted to fight. He soon surrendered and New Netherland became an English colony. The Dutch later recaptured it and held it for a time, but in 1674 they finally handed it over to England. 70, New York. Even before the colony was seized in 1664, Charles II gave it away to his brother James, Duke of York, and Albany, who afterward became king as James, as James the second. The name of New Netherland was therefore changed to New York, and the principal towns were

also named in his honor, New York in Albany. Little else was changed in the colony. The Dutch were allowed to live very nearly as they had lived before, and soon became even happier and more contented than they had been under Dutch rule. Many English settlers now came in.

The colony became rich and prosperous, but the people had little to do with their own government. 71, New Jersey. No sooner had James received New Netherland from his brother than he hastened to give some of the best portions of it to two faithful friends, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley. Their territory extended from New York Harbor to the Delaware River

and was named New Jersey in honor of Carteret's defense on the island of Jersey against the Puritans. Colonists at once began coming to the new province and settled at Elizabeth Town. 72. Later New Jersey. Soon, New Jersey was divided into two parts, East Jersey and West Jersey. West Jersey belonged to Lord Berkeley, and he sold it to the Quakers. Not very many years later, the Quakers also bought East Jersey. The New Jersey colonists were always getting into disputes with one another,

so they asked Queen Anne to take charge of the government of the province. This she did by telling the governor of New York to govern New Jersey also. This was not what the Jersey was not what the Jersey was. people had expected, but they had their own legislature. In time, they also secured a governor all to themselves and became a royal province entirely separate from New York. Pennsylvania and New York protected the Jersey people from the French and the Indians and provided markets for the products of Jersey farms. The colonists were industrious and their soil was fertile. They were very religious and paid great attention to education. New Jersey became very prosperous and so

continued until the revolution. 73. The founding of Carolina. The planting of New Jersey was not the only colonial venture of Carteret in Berkeley, with Lord Chancellor Clarendon and other nobleman they obtained from Charles land in southern Virginia, extending southward into Spanish, Florida. This great territory was named Carolina. 74. The Carolina Colonists. In 1663, when the Carolina Charter was granted, there were a,

few settlers living in the northern part of the colony. Other colonists came from outside, mainly from the Barbados, and settled on the Cape Fear River. In this way, was formed a colony in Northern Carolina, but the most important settlement was in the southern part of the province at Charleston. South Carolina at once became prosperous. This was due to the fact that the soil and the climate of that region were well suited to the cultivation of rice. The rice swamps brought riches to the planters. They also compelled the employment of large numbers of Negro slaves.

Before long, indeed, there were more Negroes than whites in South Carolina. In this way, there grew up two distinct centers of colonial life in the province. 75. Bacon's Rebellion, 1676. By this time, the Virginians had become

very discontented. There had been no election to the Colonial Assembly since 1660, and Governor Berkeley was very tyrannical. The Virginians also wanted more churches and more schools. To add to these causes of discontent, the Indians now attacked the settlers, and

Berkeley seemed to take very little interest in protecting the Virginians. Led by Nathaniel Bacon, the colonists marched to Jamestown and demanded authority to go against the Indians. Berkeley gave Bacon a commission, but as soon as Bacon left Jamestown on his expedition,

Berkeley declared that he was a rebel. Bacon returned, and Berkeley fled. Bacon marched against the Indians again, and Berkeley came back, and so the rebellion went on until Bacon died. Berkeley then captured the other leaders, one after another, and hanged

them. But when he returned to England, Charles II turned his back to him saying, The old fool has killed more men in Virginia than I for the murder of my father. 76. Virginia after Bacon's rebellion.

The Virginians were now handed over to a set of greedy governors. Some of them came to America to make their fortunes, but some of them were governors whom the people of other colonies would not have. The only event of importance in the history of the colony during the next 25 years was the founding of William and Mary College, 1691, at Williamsburg. It was the second oldest college in the English colonies. 77. King Phillips War 1675 to 76. It was not only in Virginia and Maryland that the Indians were restless at this time. In New England, they also attacked the whites. They were led by Massasoit's son, King Philip, an able and far-seeing

man. He saw with dismay how rapidly the whites were driving the Indians away from their hunting grounds. The Indians burned the English villages on the frontier and killed hundreds of the settlers. The strongest chief to join Philip was Cannonchette of the Niergensets. The colonial soldiers stormed his fort and killed a thousand Indian warriors. Before long, King Philip himself was killed, and the war slowly came to an end. Seventy-eight, William Penn. Among the greatest Englishmen of that time was William Penn. He was a Quaker, and was also a friend of Charles II and James, Duke of York. He wished to found a colony in which he and the Quakers could work out their ideas in religious and civil matters. It chanced that Charles owed Penn a large sum of men. He wished to find a large sum of

money. As Charles seldom had any money, he was very glad to give Penn instead a large tract of land in America. In this way, Penn obtained Pennsylvania. James, for his part, gave him Delaware. 79. Founding of Pennsylvania, 1682. William Penn had a great reputation for honesty and fair dealing among the English, Quakers, and among the Quakers on the continent of Europe as well. As soon as it was known that he was to found a colony, great numbers of persons came to Pennsylvania from England and from Germany. In a very short time, the colony became strong and prosperous. In the first place, the soil of Pennsylvania was rich and productive, while its climate was well suited for the growth of grain. In the second place, Penn was very liberal to his colonists. He gave them a large share in the

government of the province, and he allowed no religious persecution. He also insisted on fair and honest dealing with the Indians. 80. Mason and Dixon's line. In the 17th century, the geography of America was very little understood in Europe, and the persons who drew up colonial charters understood at least of all. Charter lines frequently overlapped, and were very often indistinct. This was particularly true of the Maryland and Pennsylvania boundaries. Penn and Baltimore tried to come to an agreement, but they never could agree.

Years afterward, when they were both dead, their heirs agreed to have a line drawn without much regard to the charters. This line was finally surveyed by two English engineers, Mason and Dixon, and is always called after their names. It is the present boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland. In colonial days, it separated the colonies where slavery was the rule from those where labor was generally free. In the first half of the 19th century, it separated the free state, from the slave states. Mason and Dixon's line, therefore, has been a famous line in the history of the United States. End of Chapter 8. Chapter 9. Colonial Development, 1688 to 1760. 81, the Stewart tyranny. Instead of admiring the growth of the colonies and strength and liberty,

Charles and James saw it with dismay. The colonies were becoming too strong and too free. They determined to reduce all the colonies to royal provinces, like Virginia, with the exception of Pennsylvania, which belonged to their friend William Penn. There was a good deal to be said in favor of this plan, for the colonists were so jealous of each other that they would not unite against the French or the Indians. If the governments were all in the hands of the king, the whole strength of the British colonies could be used against any enemy of England. 82.

The Stewart, Tyranny in New England. The Massachusetts Charter was now taken away, and Sir Edmund Andrus was sent over to govern the colony. He was ordered to make laws and to tax the people without asking their consent. He did as he was ordered to do. He set up the Church of England. He taxed the people. He even took their lands from them on the ground that the grants from the old Massachusetts government were of no value. When one man pointed to the magistrate's signature to his grant,

Andros told him that their names were worth no more than a scratch with a bear's paw. He also enforced the navigation laws and took possession of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Plymouth. At the same time, he was also governor of New Hampshire and of New York. 83. The Glorious Revolution in America, 1689. By this time, Charles was dead and James was King of England. The English people did not like James any better than the New East. Englanders like Andros. In 1688, they rebelled and made William of Orange and his wife, Mary, James's eldest daughter, king and queen of England. On their part, the Massachusetts colonists

seized Andros and his followers and shut them up in prison, April 18, 1689. The people of Connecticut and Rhode Island turned out Andros' agents and set up their old governments. In New York, also, Andros' deputy governor was expelled, and the people took control of affairs until the king and queen should send out a governor. Indeed, all the colonies, except Maryland, declared for William and Mary. Eighty-four, the new arrangements. For a year or two, William was very busy in Ireland and on the continent. At length, he had time to attend to colonial affairs. He appointed royal governors for both Pennsylvania and Maryland. William Penn soon had his colony given back to him,

but the Baltimore's had to wait many years before they recovered Maryland. In New York, there was a dreadful tragedy, for the new governor, slaughter, was persuaded to order the execution of the leaders in the Rising Against Andros. Massachusetts did not get her old charter back, but she got another charter. This provided that the king should appoint the governor,

but the people should elect a House of Representatives, The most important result of this new arrangement was a series of disputes between the King's governor and the people's representatives. Maine and New Plymouth were included in Massachusetts under the new charter, but New Hampshire remained a royal province. 85. The colonies, 1700 to 60. During these years, immigrants thronged to America, and the colonies became constantly stronger. commerce everywhere developed and many manufacturers were established throughout the colonies the people everywhere gained power and had it not been for the french and indian wars they would have been happy aside from these wars the most important events of these years were the overthrow of the

carolina proprietors and the founding of georgia 86 north and south carolina the carolina proprietors and their colonists had never got on well together. They now got on worse than ever. The greater part of the colonists were not members of the established church, but the proprietors tried to take away the right to vote from all persons who were not of that faith. They also interfered in elections and tried to prevent the formation of a true representative assembly. They could not protect the people against the pirates who blockaded Charleston for weeks at a time. In 1719, the people of Charleston rebelled. The king then interfered

and appointed a royal governor. Later, he bought out the rights of the proprietors. In this way, Carolina became a royal province. It was soon divided into two provinces, North Carolina and South Carolina. But there had always been two separate colonies

in Carolina. 87. The founding of Georgia, 1732. In those days, it was the custom in English, to send persons who could not pay their debts to prison. Of course, many of these poor debtors were really industrious persons whom misfortune or sickness had driven into debt. General Oglethorpe, a member of Parliament, looked into the prison management. He was greatly affected by the sad

fate of these poor debtors and determined to do something for them. With a number of charitable persons, he obtained a part of South Carolina for a colony and named it Georgia for George II who gave the land. Parliament also gave money. For the government thought it was very desirable to have a colony between the rich plantations of Carolina and the Spanish settlements in Florida. 88. Georgia 1733 to 52. Naturally, Oglethorpe had no difficulty in getting colonists. For the poor debtors and other oppressed persons were very glad to have a new start in life. Savannah was founded in 1733. The Spaniards, however, were not at all glad to have an English colony planted so near Florida. They attacked the Georgians, and Oglethorpe spent years in fighting them. The Georgia colonists

found it very difficult to compete with the Carolina planters, for the Carolinians had slaves to work for them, and the proprietors of Georgia would not let the Georgians own slaves. finally they gave way and permitted the colonists to own slaves but this so disheartened the Georgia proprietors that they gave up the enterprise and handed the colony over to the king in this way Georgia became a royal province end of chapter nine chapter 10 of a short history of the United States this is a Libravox recording all Libra box recordings are in the public domain For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia.

A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 10. Expulsion of the French 89. Causes of the French Wars At the time of the glorious revolution, James II found refuge with Lewis the 14th, King of France. William and Lewis had already been fighting, and it was easy enough to see that if William became King of England, he would be very much more powerful than he was when he was only Prince of Orange. So Lewis took up the cause of James and made war on the English and the Dutch. The conflict soon spread across the Atlantic.

90. Strength of the combatants. At first sight, it might seem as if the English colonists were much stronger than the French colonists. They greatly outnumbered the French. They were much more prosperous and well to do. But their settlements were scattered over a great extent of sea coast. from Kinebeck to the Savannah. Their governments were more or less free, but this very freedom weakened them for war.

The French colonial government were dispositum directed from France. Whatever resources the French had in America were certain to be well used. 91. King William's War 1689 to 97. The Iroquois began this war by destroying Montreal. The next winter, the French invaded New York.

They captured Schenectady and killed nearly all of its inhabitants. Other bands destroyed New England towns and killed or drove away their inhabitants. The English, on their part, seized Port Royal and Acadia, but they failed in an attempt against Quebec. In 1697, this war came to an end. Acadia was given back to the French, and nothing was gained by all the bloodshed and suffering. 92. Queen Anne's War 1701 to 13. In 1701, the conflict began again. It lasted for 12 years until 1713.

It was in this war that the Duke of Marlborough won the Battle of Blenheim and made for himself a great reputation. In America, the French and Indians made long expeditions to New England. The English colonists again attacked Quebec and again failed. In one thing, however, they were successful. They again seized Port Royale. This time, the English kept Port Royal and all of Acadia.

Port Royal, they called Annapolis, and the name of Acadia was changed to Nova Scotia. 93. King George's War, 1744 to 48. From 1713 to 1744, there was no war between the English and the French. But in 1744, fighting began again in earnest. The French and Indians at the French and Indians at the French. attacked the New England frontier towns and killed many people. But the New Englanders, on their part, won a great success. After the French lost Acadia, they built a strong fortress on the island of Cape Breton.

To this, they gave the name of Lewisburg. The New Englanders fitted out a great expedition and captured Lewisburg without much help from the English. But at the close of the war, 1748, the fortress was given back to the French, to the disgust of the New Englanders. 94. The French in the Mississippi Valley. Spaniards had discovered the Mississippi and had explored its lower valley, but they had found no gold there and had abandoned the country. It was left for French explorers more than 100 years later to rediscover the Great River and to explore it from its upper waters to the Gulf of Mexico. The first Frenchman to sail down the river to its mouth was La Salle. In 1881, with three canoes, he floated down the Mississippi, until he reached a place where the Great River divided into three large branches.

He sent one canoe down each branch. Returning, they all reported they had reached the open sea. 95. Founding of Louisiana. La Salle named this immense region, Louisiana, in honor of the French king. He soon led an expedition to plant a colony on the banks of the Mississippi. Sailing into the Gulf of Mexico, he missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed on the coast of Texas. Misfortune after misfortune now fell on the unhappy expedition. La Salle was murdered, the stores were destroyed, the Spaniards and Indians came and killed or captured nearly all the colonists.

A few only gained the Mississippi and made their way to Canada. In 1699, another French expedition appeared in the Gulf of Mexico. This time, the mouth of the Mississippi was easily discovered, but the colonists settled on the shores of Mobile Bay. It was not until 1718 that New Orleans was founded. 96. Struggle for the Ohio Valley. At the close of King George's war, the French set to work to connect the settlements in Louisiana with those on the St. Lawrence.

In 1749, French explorers gained the Allegheny River from Lake Erie and went down the Ohio as far as Miami. The next year, 1750, King George gave a great tract of land on the island. Ohio River to an association of Virginians who formed the Ohio Company. The struggle for the Ohio Valley had fairly begun. Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia learned that the French were building forts on the Ohio and sent them a letter protesting against their doing so. The bearer of this letter was George Washington, a young Virginia surveyor.

97. George Washington Of an old Virginia family, George Washington grew up with the idea that he must earn his on living. His father was a well-to-do planter, but Augustine Washington was the eldest son, and, as was the custom then in Virginia, he inherited most of the property. Augustine Washington was very kind to his younger brother and gave him a good practical education as a land surveyor. The younger man was a bold athlete and fond of studying military campaigns. He was full of courage, industrious, honest, and of great common sense. Before he was, he was, he was full of courage, industrious, honest, and of great common sense. Before he was 20, he had surveyed large tracts of wilderness and had done his work

well amidst great difficulties. When Dinwiddie wanted a messenger to take his letter to the French commander on the Ohio, George Washington's employer at once suggested him as the best person to send on the dangerous journey. Fort DuCon. Instead of heating Dinwiddie's warning, the French set to work to build Fort Duques at the spot, where Allegheny and Monongalea joined to form the Ohio, on the site of the present-day city of Pittsburgh. Dinwiddie, therefore, sent Washington with a small force of soldiers to drive them away, but the French were too strong for Washington.

They besieged him in fort necessity and compelled him to surrender, July 4, 1754. 99. Braddock's defeat, 1755. The English government now sent General Braddock, with a small army of regular soldiers to Virginia. Slowly and painfully, Braddock marched westward. Learning of his approach, the French and Indians left Fort Duquesne to draw him into ambush. But the two forces came together before either party was prepared for battle. For some time, the contest was even.

Then the regulars broke and fled. Braddock was fatally wounded. With great skill, Washington saved the survivors, but not until four shots had pierced his coat. and only 30 of his three companies of Virginians were left alive. 100. The War to 1759. All the earlier French and Indian wars had begun in Europe and had spread to America. This war began in America and soon spread to Europe.

At first, affairs were very ill. But in 1757, William Pitt became the British War Minister, and the war began to be waged with vigor and success. The old generals were called home and new men placed in command. In 1758, Amherst and Wolf captured Lewisburg, and Forbes, greatly aided by Washington, seized Fort Duquesne. Bradstreet captured Fortinac on Lake Ontario. There was only one bad failure, that of Abercrombie at Takenaroga, but the next year Amherst captured Takenaroga and Crown Point and opened a way to Canada by Lake Champlain. 101. Capture of Quebec, 1759

Of all the younger generals, James Wolfe was foremost. To him was given the task of capturing Quebec. Seated on a high bluff, Quebec could not be captured from the river. The only way to approach it was to gain the plains of Abraham in its rear and besiege it on the land side. Again and again, Wolf sent his men to storm the bluffs below the town. Every time they failed. wolf felt that he must give up the task when he was told that a path led from the river to the top of the bluff above the town putting his men into boats they gained the path in the darkness of night there was a guard at the top of the bluff but the officer in command was a coward and ran away In the morning, the British army was drawn up on the plains of Abraham. The French now attacked the British, and a fierce battle took place. The result was doubtful when Wolf let a charge at the head of the Louisburg grenadiers. He was killed, but the French were beaten. Five days later, Quebec surrendered. Montreal was captured in 1760, and in 1763 the war came to an end.

102. Peace of Paris, 1763. By this great treaty, or set of treaties, the French withdrew from the continent of North America. To Spain, who had lost Florida, the French gave the island of New Orleans and all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi. To Great Britain, the French gave up all the rest of their American possessions except two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Spain, on her part, gave up Florida to the British. There were now practically only two powers in America, the British, and the eastern part of the continent and the Spaniards west of the Mississippi. The Spaniards also owned the island of New Orleans and controlled both sides of the river for more than 100 miles from its mouth,

but the treaty gave the British the free navigation of the Mississippi throughout its length. End of chapter of 10. Chapter 11 through 13 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libre Vox recording. All Libre Vox recordings are in the public. domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Section 4. Colonial Union 1760 to 1774. Chapter 11. Britain's colonial system. 103. Early Colonial Policy At the outset, England's rulers had been very kind to

the Englishmen who founded colonies. They gave them great grants of land. They gave them rights of self-government greater than any Englishman living in England enjoyed. They allowed them to manage their own trade and industries as they saw fit. They even permitted them to worship God as their conscience told them to worship him. But as the colonists grew in strength and riches, Britain's rulers tried to make their trade profitable to British merchants and interfered in their government. On their part, the colonists disobeyed the navigation laws and disputed with the royal officials. For years, Britain's rulers allowed this to go on, but at length, near the close of the last French war, Mr. Pitt ordered the laws to be enforced. 104. Ritz of Assistance, 1761.

It was a good deal easier to order the laws to be carried out than it was to carry them out. It was almost impossible for the customs officers to prevent goods from being landed contrary to law. When the goods were once on shore, it was difficult to seize them, so the officers asked the judges to give them rits of assistance. Among the leading lawyers of Boston was James Otis. He was the King's Law Officer in the province, but he resigned his office and opposed the granting of the writs. He objected to the use of rits of assistance because they enabled a customs

officer to become a tyrant. Armed with one of them, he could go to the house of a man he did not like and search it from attic to cellar, turn everything upside down, and break open doors and trunks. It made no difference, said Otis, whether Parliament had said that the Ritz were legal, for Parliament could not make an act of tyranny legal. To do that was beyond even the power of Parliament. 105. The Parsons Calls 1763 The next important case arose in Virginia and came about in this way. The Virginians made a law regulating the salaries of clergymen in the colony. The king vetoed the law.

The Virginians paid no heed to the veto. The clergymen appealed to the courts and the case of one of them was selected for trial. Patrick Henry, a prosperous young lawyer, stated the opinions of the Virginians in a speech which made his reputation. The king, he said, had no right to veto a virginian. Virginia law that was for the good of the people. To do so was an act of tyranny, and the people owed no obedience to a tyrant. The case was decided for the clergyman, for the law was clearly on his side, but the jurymen agreed with Henry. They gave the clergyman only one farthing damages, and no more clergyman brought cases into the court. The king's veto was openly disobeyed.

106. The King's Proclamation of 1763 In the same year that the Parsons' cause was decided, the King issued a proclamation which greatly lessened the rights of Virginia and several other colonies to Western lands. Some of the old charter lines, as those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, and the Carolinas had extended to the Pacific Ocean. By the Treaty of 1763, the King, for himself and his subjects, abandoned all claim to lands west of the Mississippi River. Now, in the proclamation of 1763, he forbade the colonial governors to grant any lands west of the Allegheny Mountains. The western limit of Virginia and the Carolinas was fixed. Their pioneers could not pass the mountains and settle in the fertile valleys of the Ohio and its branches. End of Chapter 11

Chapter 12 Taxation Without Representation 107 George III and George Greenville George III became king in 1760 He was a narrow, stupid, well-meaning, ignorant young man of 21 He soon found in George Greenville A narrow, dull, well-meaning lawyer

A man who would do what he was told So George Greenville became the head of the government. To him, the law was the law. If he wished to do a thing and could find the law for it, he asked for nothing more. His military advisors told him that an army must be kept in America for years. It was Greenville's business to find the money to support this army. Great Britain was burdened with a national debt. The army was to be maintained, partly, at least for the protection of the colonists. Why should they not pay a part?

part of the cost in maintaining it. Parliament was the supreme power in the British Empire. It controlled the king, the church, the army, and the navy. Surely a parliament that had all this power could tax the colonists. At all events, Greenville thought it could, and Parliament passed the Stamp Act to tax them. 108, Henry's Resolutions, 1765. The colonists, however, with one voice, declared that Parliament had not. no power to tax them. Taxes, they said, could be voted only by themselves or their representatives.

They were represented in their own colonial assemblies and nowhere else. Patrick Henry was now a member of the Virginia Assembly. He had just been elected for the first time. But, as none of the older members of the Assembly proposed any action, Henry Torrey Leaf from an old law book and wrote on it a set of resolutions. These he presented in a burning speech, upholding the right to the right of Virginians. He said that to tax them by act of parliament was tyranny. Caesar and Tarquin had each his brutus, Charles I, his Cromwell, and George III, treason, shouted the speaker, may profit by their example. Slowly, Henry went on. If that be treason, make the most of it. The resolutions were voted. In them, the Virginians declared that they were not subject to acts of parliament laying

taxes or interfering in the internal affairs of Virginia. 109. Stamp Act riots. 1765. Until the summer of 1765, the colonists contented themselves with passing resolutions. There was little else they could do. They could not refuse to obey the law because it would not go into effect until November. They could not mob the stamp distributors because no one knew their names. In August, the names of the stamp distributors were, were published. Now, at last, it was possible to do something besides passing resolutions. In every colony, the people visited the stamp officers and told them to resign. If they refused,

they were mobbed until they resigned. In Boston, the rioters were especially active. They did tested Thomas Hutchinson. He was Lieutenant Governor and Chief Justice and had been active in enforcing the Navigation Acts. The rioters attacked his house. They broke his furniture, destroyed his clothing and made a bonfire of his books and papers. 110. The Stamp Act Congress, 1765. Colonial congresses were no new thing. There had been many meetings of governors and delegates from colonial assemblies. The most important of the early congresses was the Albany Congress of 1754. It was important because it proposed a plan of union. The plan was drawn up by Benjamin Franklin, but neither the king nor the colonists liked it.

and it was not adopted. All these earlier Congresses had been summoned by the King's officers to arrange expeditions against the French or to make treaties with the Indians. The Stamp Act Congress was summoned by the colonists to protest against the doings of King and Parliament. 111. Work of the Stamp Act Congress. Delegates from nine colonies met at New York in October 1765. They drew up a declaration of the rights and grievances of the colonists. In this paper, they declared that the colonists, as subject of the British king, had their same rights as British subjects living in Britain, and were free from taxes except to those which they had given their consent.

They claim for themselves the right of trial by jury, which might be denied under the Stamp Act. But the most important thing about the Congress was the fact that nine colonies had put aside their local jealousies and had joined in holding it. 112. Franklin's examination. Born in Boston,

Benjamin Franklin ran away from home and settled at Philadelphia. By great exertion and wonderful shrewdness, he rose from poverty to be one of the most important men in the city and colony. He was a printer, a newspaper editor, a writer, and a student of science.

With kite and string, he drew down the lightning from the clouds, and showed that lightning was a discharge of electricity. He was now in London as agent for Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. His scientific and literary reputation gave him great influence. He was examined at the bar of the House of Commons. Many questions and answers were arranged beforehand between Franklin and his friends in the house.

But many questions were answered on the spur of the moment. Before the passage of the Stamp Act, the feeling of the colonists toward Britain had been the best in the world. So Franklin declared. But now, he said, it was greatly altered. Still, an army sent to America would find no rebellion there. It might, indeed, make one. In conclusion, he said the repeal of the Act would not make the colonists any more willing to pay taxes.

113. Repeal of the Stamp Act, 1766. It chanced at this moment George III and George Greenville fell out. The King dismissed. the minister and gave the marquis of Rockingham the headship of a new set of ministers. Now, Rockingham and his friends needed aid from somebody to give them strength to outvote Greenville and the Tories. So when the question of what should be done about the stamp act came up, they listened most attentively to what Mr. Pitt had to say. That great man said that the

stamp act should be repealed wholly and at once. At the same time, another law should be passed declaring that Parliament had power to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever. The Rockingham's at once did as Mr. Pitt suggested. The Stamp Act was repealed. The Declaratory Act was passed. In the colonies, Pitt was praised as a deliverer. Statues of him were placed in the streets. Pictures of him were hung in public halls.

But in reality, the passage of the Declaratory Act was the beginning of more trouble. 114. The Townsend Acts 1767. The Rockingham Ministers did what Mr. Pitt advised them to do. He then turned them out and made a ministry of his own. He was now Earl of Chatham, and his ministry was the Chatham Ministry. The most active of the Chatham ministers was Charles Townsend. He had the management of the finances and found them very hard to manage. So he hit upon a scheme of laying duties on wine, oil, glass. glass, lead, painter's colors, and tea imported to the colonies. Mr. Pitt had said that Parliament could regulate colonial trade. The best way to regulate trade was to tax it. At the same time that Townsend brought in this bill, he brought in others to reorganize the Colonial Customs Service and make it possible to collect the duties. He even provided that offenses against the revenue laws should be tried by judges appointed directly by the king without being submitted to a jury of any kind.

115. Colonial Opposition 1768. Many years before this, Parliament had made a law taxing all sugar brought into the continental colonies, except sugar that had been made in the British West Indies. Had this law been carried out, the trade of Massachusetts and other New England colonies would have been ruined. But the law was not enforced. No one tried to enforce it, except during the few months.

months of vigor at the time of the arguments about rits of assistance. As taxes were not collected, no one cared whether they were legal or not. Now it was plain that this tax and the towns and duties were to be collected. The Massachusetts House of Representatives drew up a circular letter to the other colonial assemblies asking them to join in opposing the new taxes. The British government ordered the House to recall the letter. It refused and was dissolved. The other colonial assemblies were directed to take no notice of the circular letter. They replied at the first possible moment and were dissolved. 116. The new customs officers at Boston, 1768.

The chief office of the new customs organization was fixed at Boston. Soon, John Hancock's sloop, Liberty, sailed into the harbor with a cargo of Madeira Wine. As Hancock had no idea of paying the duty, The customs officers seized this sloop and told her under the guns of a warship, which was now in the harbor. Crowds of people now collected. They could not recapture the liberty. They seized one of the warships boats, carried it to the common, and had a famous bonfire. All this confusion frightened the chief's customs officers.

They fled to the castle in the harbor and wrote to the government for soldiers to protect them. 117. The Virginia Resolves of 1769. Parliament now asked the king to have colonists accused of certain crimes brought to England for trial. This aroused the Virginians. They passed a set of resolutions known as the Virginia Resolves of 1769. These resolves asserted, one, that the colonists only had the right to tax the colonists. Two, that the colonists had the right to petition either by themselves or with the people of other colonies. And three, that no colonists ought to be sent to England for trial. 118. Non-importation agreements 1769.

When he learned what was going on, the governor of Virginia dissolved the assembly. But the members met in the Raleigh Tavern nearby. There George Washington laid before them a written agreement to use. No British goods upon which duties had been paid. They all signed this agreement. Soon, the other colonies joined Virginia and the non-importation agreement. English merchants found their trade growing smaller and smaller. They could not even collect their debts.

For the colonial merchants said that trade and the colonies was so upset by the Townsend Acts that they could not sell their goods or collect the money. owing to them. The British merchants petition Parliament to repeal the duties, and Parliament answered them by repealing all the duties except the tax on tea. End of Chapter 12. Chapter 13. Revolution impending 119. The Soldiers at New York in Boston. Soldiers had been stationed at New York ever since the end of the French War, because that was the most central point on the coast. The New Yorkers did not like to have the soldiers there very well, because Parliament

expected them to supply the troops with certain things without getting any money in return. The New York Assembly refused to supply them, and Parliament suspended the Assembly's sittings. In 1768, two regiments came from New York to Boston to protect the customs officers. 120. The Boston Massacre, 1770. There were not enough soldiers at Boston to protect the customs officers if the colonists really wish to hurt them. There were quite enough soldiers at Boston to get themselves and the colonists into trouble. On March 5th, 1770, a crowd gathered around the soldiers stationed on King Street, now State Street. There was snow on the ground, and the boys began to throw snow and mud at the soldiers. The crowd grew bolder. Suddenly, the soldiers fired on the

people. They killed four colonists and wounded several more. Led by Samuel Adams, the people demanded the removal of the soldiers to the fort in the harbor. Hutchinson was now governor. He offered to send one regiment out of the town. All or none, said Adams, and all were sent away. 120. Committees of correspondence. Up to this time, the resistance of the colonists had been carried on in a half-hazard sort of way. Now, committees of correspondence began to be appointed. These committees were of two kinds. First, there were town committees of correspondence. These were invented by Samuel Adams and were first appointed in Massachusetts. But more important were the colonial committees of correspondence. The first of these was appointed by Virginia in 1769. At first, few colonies followed Massachusetts

in Virginia in appointing committees. But, as one action, of tyranny succeeded another, other colonies fell into line. By 1775, all the colonies were united by a complete system of committees of correspondence. 122. The Tea Tax Of all the towns and duties, only the tax on tea was left. It happened that the British East India Company had tons of tea in its London storehouses and was greatly in need of money. The government told the company that it might send tea to America without paying any taxes in England, but the three-penny colonial tax would have to be paid in the colonies. In this way, the colonists would get their tea cheaper than the people of England, but the colonists were not

to be bribed into paying the tax in any such way. The East India Company sent over ship loads of tea. The tea ships were either sent back again, or the tea was stored in some safe place where no one could get it. 123. The Boston Tea Party 1773. In Boston, things did not go so smoothly. The agents of the East India Company refused to resign.

The collector of the customs refused to give the ship's permission to sail away before the tea was landed. Governor Hutchinson refused to give the ship captains a pass to sail by the fort until the collector gave his permission. The commander at the it refused to allow the ships to sail out of the harbor until they had the necessary papers. The only way to get rid of the tea was to destroy it. A party of patriots, dressed as Indians,

went on board of the ships as they lay at the wharf, broke open the tea boxes, and threw the tea into the harbor. 124. Punishment of Massachusetts, 1774. The British King, the British government, and the mass of the British people were furious when they found out the Boston people had made tea with salt water. Parliament at once went to work, passing acts to punish the colonists. One act put an end to the Constitution of Massachusetts. Another act closed the port of Boston so tightly that the people could not bring hay from Charleston to give to their starving horses.

A third act provided that soldiers who fired on the people should be tried in England. A fourth act compelled the colonists to feed and shelter the soldiers employed to punish them. 125. Sympathy with the Bostonians. King George thought he could punish

the Massachusetts people as much as he wished without the people of the other colonies objecting. It soon appeared that the people of the other colonies sympathized most heartedly with the Bostonians. They sent them sheep and rice, they sent them clothes. George Washington was now a rich man.

He offered to raise a thousand men with his own money, marched with them to Boston, and rescue the oppressed people from their oppressors. But the time for war had not yet come, although it was not far off. 126. The Quebec Act 1774.

In the same year that Parliament passed the four acts to punish Massachusetts, it passed another Act, which affected the people of other colonies as well as those of Massachusetts. This was the Quebec Act. It provided that the land between the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Great Lakes should be added to the province of Quebec. Now, this land was claimed by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. These colonies were to be deprived of their rights to land in that region. The Quebec Act also provided for the establishment of a very strong

government in that province. This seemed to be an attack on free institutions. All these things drove the colonists to unite. They resolved to hold a Congress where the leaders of several continental colonies might talk over matters and decide what should be done. 127. The first Continental Congress, 1774. The members of the Continental Congress met in Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, in 1774 in September. Never, except in the Federal Convention, have so many great men met together. The greatest delegation was that from Virginia. It included George Washington, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee.

From Massachusetts, came the two Adams' John and Samuel. From New York, came John Jay. From Pennsylvania, came John Dickinson. Of all the greatest Americans, only Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were absent. 128 the american association seventeen seventy four it soon became clear that the members of congress were opposed to any hasty action they were not willing to begin war with great britain instead of so doing they adopted a declaration of rights and formed the american association the declaration of rights was of slight importance but the association was of great importance as the colonies joining it agreed to buy no more british goods This policy was to be carried out by the committees of correspondence. Any colony refusing to join the association should be looked upon as hostile to the liberties of this country and treated as an enemy.

The American Association was the real beginning of the American Union. 129. The Association carried out 1774 to 1775. It was soon evident that Congress, informing the association, had done precisely what the people wished to have done. For instance, in Virginia, committees were chosen in every county. They examined the merchant's books. They summoned, before them, persons suspected of disobeying the laws of Congress. Military companies were formed in every county and carried out the orders of the committees. The ordinary courts were entirely disregarded.

In fact, the Royal Royal. government had come to an end in the old dominion. 130. More punishment for Massachusetts, 1774 to 75. George III and his ministers refused to see that the colonies were practically united. On the contrary, they determined to punish the people of Massachusetts still further. Parliament passed acts forbidding the Massachusetts fishermen to catch fish and forbidding the Massachusetts traders to trade with the people of Virginia, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and all foreign countries.

The Massachusetts colonists were rebels. They should be treated as rebels. General Gage was given more soldiers in order to crush the rebellion. 131. Gage in Massachusetts, 1774 to 75. General Gage found he had a good deal to do before he could begin to crush the rebellion. He had to find shelter for his soldiers. He also had to find food for them. The Boston Carpenters would not work for him. He had to bring carpenters from Halifax in New York to do his work.

The farmers of eastern Massachusetts were as firm as the Boston Carpenters. They would not sell food to General Gage. So he had to bring food from England and from Halifax. He managed to buy or seize wood to warm the soldiers and hay to feed his horses. But the boats bringing these supplies to Boston were constantly upset in a most unlooked for a way. The colonists on their part elected a provincial Congress

to take the place of the regular government. The militia was reorganized and military stores gathered together. 132. Lexington and Concord April 19, 1775. Gage had said that with 10,000 men he could march all over Massachusetts. In April 1775,

he began to crush the rebellion by sending a strong force to Concord to destroy stores which his spies told him had been collected there. The soldiers began their march in the middle of the night, but Paul Revere and William Dolls were before them. The regulars are coming, was the cry. At Lexington, the British found few militiamen drawn up on the village green. Someone had fired and a few Americans were killed. On the British March to Concord. This time the militia men had gathered in large numbers. It was a hot day. The regulars were

tired. They stopped to rest. Some of the militia men attacked the regulars at Concord. And when the British started on their homeward march, the fighting began in earnest. Behind every wall and bit of rising ground were militia men. One soldier after another was shot down and left behind. At Lexington, the British met reinforcements. Or they were, they were. would all have been killed or captured. Soon they started again. Again, the fighting began. It continued until the survivors reached a place of safety

under the guns of the warships anchored off Charleston. The Americans camped for the night at Cambridge and began the siege of Boston. End of Chapter 13. Chapters 14 and 15 of a short history of the United States. This is a Lieberbox recording. All Lieberbox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org.

This reading by Allison Hester of Athens, Georgia. Section 5, Chapter 14 of a short history of the United States by Edward Channing. The War of Independence, 1775 to 1783. Chapter 14. Bunker Hill to Trenton 133. Advantages of the British. At first sight, it seems as if the Americans were very foolish to fight the British. There were five or six times as many people in the British Isles as there were in the continental colonies.

The British government had a great standing army. The Americans had no regular army. The British government had a great navy. The Americans had no navy. The British government had quantities of powder. guns and clothing, while the Americans had scarcely any military stores of any kind. Indeed, there were so few guns in the colonies that one British officer thought, if the few colonial gunsmiths could be bribed to go away,

the Americans would have no guns to fight with after a few months of warfare. 134. Advantage of the Americans. All these things were clearly against the Americans, but they had some advantages on their side. In the first place, America was a long way off from Europe. It was very difficult and very costly to send armies to America, and very difficult and very costly to feed the soldiers when they were fighting in America. In the second place, the Americans usually fought on the defensive and the country over which the army's fault was made for defense.

In New England, Hill succeeded Hill. In the Middle States, River succeeded River. In the South, wilderness succeeded wilderness. In the third place, the Americans had many great soldiers. Washington, Green, Arnold, Morgan, and Wayne were better soldiers than any in the British Army. 135. Disunion among the Americans. We are apt to think of the colonists as united in the contest with the British.

In reality, the well-to-do, the well-born, and the well-educated colonists were as a rule opposed to independence. The opponents of the revolution were strong. longest into Carolinas and were weakest in New England. 136. Siege of Boston. It was most fortunate that the British Army was at Boston when the war began. For Boston was about as bad a place for an army as could be found. In those days, Boston was hardly more than an island connected with the mainland by a strip of gravel.

Gage built a fort across this strip of ground. The Americans could not get in, but they built a fort. at the landward end, and the British could not get out. On either side of Boston was a similar peninsula. One of these was called Dorchester Heights. The other was called Charlestown. Both overlooked Boston. To hold that town, Gage must possess both Dorchester and Charlestown. If the Americans could occupy only one of these, the British would have to abandon Boston. At the same moment, Gage made up his mind to seize Dorchester, and the American, Americans determined to occupy the Charlestown Hills.

The Americans moved first, and the first battle was fought for the Charlestown Hills. 137. Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. When the seamen on the British men of war waked up on the morning of June 17th, the first thing they saw was a redoubt on the top of one of the Charlestown heels. The ships opened fire. But in spite of the balls, Colonel Prescott walked on top of the breastplate. work while his men went on digging. Gage sent three or four thousand men across the Charles River to Charlestown to drive the daring Americans away. It took the whole morning to get them to Charlestown,

and then they had to eat their dinner. This delay gave the Americans time to send aid to Prescott, especially went Stark and his New Hampshire men who posted themselves behind a breastwork of fence rails and hay. At last, the British soldiers marched to the attack. When they came within good shooting distance, Prescott gave the word to fire. The British line stopped, hesitated, broke, and swept back. Again, the soldiers marched to the attack, and again they were beaten back. More soldiers came from Boston, and a third time a British line marched up the hill. This time, it could not be stopped, for the Americans had no more powder. They had to give up the heel and escape as well as they could. One half of the British

soldiers actually engaged in the assaults were killed or wounded. The Americans were defeated, but they were encouraged and were willing to sell Gage as many hills as he wanted at the same price. 138. Washington in command July 1775. The Continental Congress was again sitting at Philadelphia. It took charge of the defense of the colonies. John Adams named Washington for commander-in-chief, and he was elected. Washington took command of the army on Cambridge Common, July 3, 1775. He found everything in confusion. The soldiers of one colony were jealous of the soldiers of other colonies. Officers who had not been promoted were jealous of those who had been promoted. In the winter, the army had to be made over. During all this time, the people expected Washington to fight,

but he had not powder enough for half a battle. At last, he got supplies in the following way. In the spring of 1775, Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain boys, with the help of the people of Western Massachusetts and Connecticut, had captured Taken to Rogha and Crown Point. These forts were filled with cannon and stores left from the French campaigns. Some of the cannon were now dragged by oxen over the snow

and placed in forts around Boston. Captain Manley of the Massachusetts Navy captured a British person, brig loaded with power. Washington now could attack. He seized and held Dorchester Heights. The British could no longer stay in Boston. They went on board their ships and sailed away. 139. Invasion of Canada 1775 to 76. While the siege of Boston was going on, the Americans undertook the invasion of Canada. There were very few regular soldiers in Canada in 1775, and the Canadians were not likely to fight very hard for their British masters. So the leaders in Congress thought that if an American force should suddenly appear before Quebec, the town might surrender. Montgomery, with a

small army, was sent to capture Montreal and then to march down the St. Lawrence to Quebec. Benedict Arnold led another force through the main woods. After tremendous exertions and terrible sufferings, he reached Quebec. But the garrison had been warned of his coming. He blockaded the town and waited for Montgomery. The garrison was constantly increased, for Arnold was not strong enough to fully blockade the town. At last, Montgomery arrived.

At night, amidst a terrible snowstorm, Montgomery and Arnold led their brave followers to the attack. They were beaten back with cruel loss. Montgomery was killed, and Arnold was severely wounded. In the spring of 1776, the survivors of this little band of heroes were rescued, at the cost of the life,

lives of 5,000 American soldiers. 140. British attack on Charleston, 1776. In June 1776, a British fleet and army made an attack on Charleston, South Carolina. This town has never been taken by attack from the sea. Sandbars guard the entrance of the harbor, and the channels through these shoals lead directly to the end of Sullivan's Island. At that point, the Americans built a fort of Palmetto Law,

and sand. General Moultrie commanded at the fort, and it was named in his honor, Fort Moultrie. The British fleet sailed boldly in, but the balls from the ship's gun were stopped by the soft palmetto logs. At one time, the flag was shot away and fell down outside the fort, but Sergeant Jasper rushed out, seized the broken staff, and again set it up on the rampart. meantime general clinton had landed on an island and was trying to cross with the soldiers to the further end of sullivan's island but the water was at first two shoal for the bolts the soldiers jumped overboard to wade suddenly the water deepened and they had to jump aboard to save themselves from drowning all this time the americans were firing at them from the beach general clinton ordered a retreat the fleet also sailed out all that could get away and the whole experience expedition was abandoned. 141. Long Island and Brooklyn Heights, 1776. The very day that the British left Boston, Washington ordered five regiments to New York,

for he well knew that city would be the next point of attack. But he need not have been in such a hurry. General Howe, the new British commander-in-chief, sailed first to Halifax, and did not begin to campaign in New York until the end of August. He then, landed his soldiers on Long Island and prepared to drive the Americans away. Marching in a roundabout way, he cut the American army in two and captured one part of it. This brought him to the foot of Brooklyn Heights. On the top was a fort. Probably Howe could have easily captured it, but he had led in the field at Bunker Hill

and had had enough of attacking forts defended by Americans. So he stopped his soldiers with some difficulty. That night, the wind blew a gale, and the next day was foggy. The British fleet could not sail into the East River. Skillful fishermen safely ferried the rest of the American Army across to New York. When at length the British marched to the attack, there was no one left in the fort on Brooklyn Heights. 142. From the Hudson to the Delaware, 1776. Even now, with his splendid fleet,

and great army, Howell could have captured the Americans? But he delayed so long that Washington got away in safety. Washington's army was now fast breaking up. Soldiers deserted by the hundreds. A severe action at White Plains only delayed the British advance. The fall of Fort Washington, on the end of Manhattan Island, destroyed all hope of holding anything near New York. Washington sent one part of his army to secure the highlands of the Hudson,

while the other part he retired across New Jersey to the southern side of the Delaware River. The end of the war seemed to be in sight. In December 1776, Congress gave the sole direction of the war to Washington and then left Philadelphia for a place of greater safety. 143. Trenton, December 26, 1776. Washington did not give up. On Christmas night, 1776, he crossed the Delaware with a division of his army. A violent snowstorm was raging, and the river was full of ice. But Washington was there in person, and the soldiers crossed. Then the storm changed to sleet and rain, but on the soldiers marched. When the Hessian garrison at Trenton looked about them the next morning, they saw that Washington and Green held the roads leading inland from the town.

Stark and a few soldiers, among them James Monroe, held the the bridge leading over to the Asan Pink to the next British post. A few horsemen escape before a start could prevent them, but all the foot soldiers were killed or captured. A few days later, nearly 1,000 prisoners marched through Philadelphia. They were Germans who had been sold by their rulers to Britain's king to fight his battles. They were called Hessians by the Americans because most of them came from the little German state of Hesse-Cassel. 144. Princeton, January 1777. Trenton saved the revolution by giving the Americans renewed courage.

General Howell sent Lord Cornwallis with a strong force to destroy the Americans. Washington, with the main part of his army, was now encamped on the southern side of the Austin Pink. Cornwallis was on the other bank at Trenton, leaving a few men to keep up the campfires and to throw up a slight fort by the bridge over the stream, Washington led his army away by night toward Princeton. There he found several regiments hastening to Cornwallis. He drove them away and led his army to the highlands of New Jersey where he would be free from attack.

The British abandoned nearly all their posts in New Jersey and retired to New York. End of Chapter 14. Chapter 15. The Great Declaration and the French Alliance. one forty five growth of the spirit of independence the year seventeen seventy six is even more to be remembered for the doings of congress than it is for the doings of the soldiers the colonists loved england they spoke of it as home they were proud of the strength of the british empire and glad to belong to it but their feelings rapidly changed when the british government declared them to be rebels made war upon them and hired foreign soldiers to kill them They could no longer be subjects of George III.

That was clear enough. They determined to declare themselves to be independent. Virginia led in this movement, and the chairman of the Virginia delegation moved a resolution of independence. A committee was appointed to draw up a declaration. 146. The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. The most important members of this committee were Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. Of these, Jefferson was the youngest and the least known, but he had already

drawn up a remarkable paper called A Summary View of the Rights of British America. The others asked him to write out a declaration. He sat down without book or notes of any kind and wrote out the Great Declaration in almost the same form in which it now stands. The other members of the committee proposed a few changes and then reported the declaration to Congress. There was a fierce debate in Congress over the adoption of the Virginia Resolution for Independence, but finally it was adopted. Congress then examined the Declaration of Independence as reported by the committee. It made a few changes in the words and struck out a clause condemning the slave trade.

The first paragraph of the declaration contains a short, clear statement of the basis of the American system of government. It should be learned by heart by every American boy and girl. and always kept in mind. The declaration was adopted on July 4, 1776. A few copies were printed on July 5th, with the signatures of John Hancock and Charles Thompson, President and Secretary of Congress. On August 2, 1776, the declaration was signed

by the members of Congress. 147, the loss of Philadelphia 1777. For some months after the Battle of Prince, there was little fighting. But in the summer of 1777, Howe set out to capture Philadelphia. Instead of marching across New Jersey, he placed his army on board ships and sailed to Chesapeake Bay. As soon as Washington learned what Howe was about, he marched to Chad's Ford, where the road from Chesapeake Bay to Philadelphia crossed Brandywine Creek. Howe moved his men as if about to attempt to cross the ford. Meantime, he sent Cornwallis with a strong force to cross the creek higher up.

Cornwallis surprised the right wing of the American army, drove it back, and Washington was compelled to retreat. Howe occupied Philadelphia and captured the forts below the city. Washington tried to surprise a part of the British army which was posted at Germantown, but accidents and mist interfered. The Americans then retired to Valley Forge. A strong place in the hills not far from Philadelphia. 148. The Army at Valley Forge, 1777 to 78. The sufferings of the soldiers during the following winter can never be overstated. They seldom had more than half enough to eat.

Their clothes were in rags. Many of them had no blankets. Many more had no shoes. Washington did all he could do for them. but Congress had no money and could not get any. At Valley Forge, the soldiers were drilled by Baron Steuben, a Prussian veteran. The army took the field in 1778, weak in numbers, and poorly clad. But what soldiers there were were as good as any soldiers to be found anywhere in the world. During that winter, also, an attempt was made to dismiss Washington from Chief Command

and to give his place to General Gates. but this attempt ended in failure. 149. Burgoyne's March to Saratoga, 1777. While Howe was marching to Philadelphia, General Bergoin was marching southward from Canada. It had been intended that Bergoin and Howe should seize the line of the Hudson and cut New England off from the other states. But the orders reached Hal too late, and he went southward to Philadelphia. Vergoin, on his part, was fairly successful at first, for the Americans abandoned post after post.

But when he reached the southern end of Lake Champlain and started on his march to the Hudson, his troubles began. The way ran through a wilderness. General Schuller had had trees cut down across its woodland paths and had done his work so well that it took Bergoin about a day to march the mile and a half. This gave the Americans time to gather from all quarters and far his southward way. But many of the soldiers had no faith in Schuller, and Congress gave the command to General Horatio Gates. 150 Bennington 1777 Bergoin had with him many cavalrymen, but they had no horses.

The army, too, was sadly in need of food, so Bergoin sent a force of dismounted dragoons to Bennington, in southern Vermont to seize horses and food. It happened, however, that General Stark, with soldiers from New Hampshire, Vermont, and Western Massachusetts was nearer Bennington than Burgoyne supposed. They killed or captured all the British soldiers. They then drove back with great loss, a second party which Burgoyne had sent to support the first one. 151. Arriscany 1777

meantime st leger with a large body of indians and canadian frontiersmen was marching to join bergoine by the way of lake ontario and the mohawk valley near the site of the present city of rome and new york was fort schueler garrisoned by an american force st leger stopped to besiege this fort the settlers on the mohawk marched to relieve the garrison and st leger defeated them at ariscony but his indian Now grew tired of the siege, especially when they heard that Arnold with a strong army was coming. St. Liger marched back to Canada and left Burgoyne to his fate. 152. Saratoga, 1777. Marching southward on the western side of the Hudson, Bergoin and his army came upon the Americans in a forest clearing called Freeman's Farm. Led by Daniel Morgan and Benedict Arnold, the Americans fought so hard that Burgoyne stopped where he was and fortified the position.

This was on September 19th. The army posted itself nearby on Bemis Heights. For weeks, the two armies faced each other. Then on October 7th, the Americans attacked. Again, Arnold led his men to victory. They captured a fort in the center of the British line, and Burgoyne was obliged to retreat. But when he reached the crossing place of the Hudson,

to his dismay, he found a strong body of New Englanders with artillery on the opposite bank. Gates had followed the retiring British, and soon Bregoyne was practically surrounded. His men were starving, and on October 17th, he surrendered. 153. The French Alliance, 1778. Burgoyne's defeat made the French think

that the Americans would win their independence. So, Dr. Franklin, who was at Paris, was told that France would recognize the independence of the United States, would make treaties with the new nation and give aid openly. Great Britain at once declared war on France. The French lent large sums of money to the United States. They sent large armies and splendid fleets to America.

Their aid greatly shortened the struggle for independence, but the Americans would probably have won without French aid. 154. Monmouth, 1778. The first result of the French alliance was the retreat of the British from Philadelphia to New York. As Sir Henry Clinton, the new British commander, led his army across the jerseys, Washington determined to strike it a blow. This he did near Munmouth. The attack was a failure owing to the treason of General Charles Lee, who led the advance. Washington reached the front only in time to prevent a dreadful disaster,

but he could not bring about victory, and Clinton seized the first moment to continue his march to New York. There were other expeditions and battles in the north, but none of these had any important effect on the outcome of the war. 155. Clark's Western Campaign 1778 to 79. The Virginians had long taken great interest in the western country. Their hearty pioneers had crossed the mountains and begun the settlement of Kentucky. The Virginians now determined to conquer the British posts in the country northwest of the Ohio. The command was given to George Rogers Clark. Gathering a strong band of hardy frontiersmen, he set out on his dangerous expedition. He seized the posts in Illinois, and Vincennes surrendered to him. Then the British governor

of the northwest came from Detroit with a large force and recaptured Vincennes. Clark set out from Illinois to surprise the British. It was the middle of the winter, and some places the snow lay deep on the ground. Then came the early floods. For days the Americans marched and water up to their waists. At night, they sought some little hill where they could sleep on dry ground, then on again through the flood. They surprised the British garrison at Vincennes and forced it to surrender. That was the end of the contest for the northwest. 156. Arnold and Andre, 1780. Of all the leaders under Washington, none was abler in battle than Benedict Arnold. Unhappily, he was always in trouble about money. He was distrusted by Congress and was not promoted. At Saratoga, he quarreled with

gates and was dismissed from his command. Later, he became military governor of Philadelphia and was censured by Washington for his doings there. He then secured the command of West Point and offered to surrender the post to the British. Major Andre, of Clinton's staff, met Arnold to arrange the final details. On his return journeyed to New York, Andre was arrested and taken before Washington. The American commander asked his generals if Andre was a spy. They replied that Andre was a spy, and he was hanged.

Arnold escaped to New York and became a general in the British Army. End of Chapter 15. Chapter 16 and 17 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing.

Chapter 16. Independence 157. Fall of Charleston, 1780. It seemed quite certain that Clinton could not conquer the northern states with the forces given him. In the South, there were many loyalists. Resistance might not be so stiff there. At all events, Clinton decided to attempt the conquest of the South. Savannah was easily seized, 1778, and the French and Americans could not retake it in 1779. In the spring of 1780, Clinton, with a large army, landed on the coast between Savannah and Charleston. He marched over to Charleston and besieged it from the land side. Americans held out for a long time, but they were finally forced to surrender. Clinton then sailed

back to New York and left Lord Cornwallis the further conquest of the Carolinas. 158. Gates defeat at Camden 1780. Cornwallis had little trouble in occupying the greater part of South Carolina. There was no one to oppose him, for the American army had been captured with Charleston. Another small army was got together in North Carolina and the command given to Gates, the victor at Saratoga. One night, both Gates and Cornwallis set out to attack the others' camp. The two armies met at daybreak, the British having the best position. But this really made no difference for Gates Virginia militia men ran away before the British came within fighting distance.

The North Carolina militia followed the Virginians. Only the regulars from Maryland and Delaware were left. They fought on like heroes until their leader, General John DeKalb fell with 17 wounds. Then the survivors surrendered. Gates himself had been carried far to the rear by the rush of the fleeing militia. 159. Kings Mountain, October 1780. Cornwallis now thought that resistance surely was at an end.

He sent an expedition to the settlements on the lower slopes of the Allegheny Mountains to get recruits, for there were many loyalists in that region. Suddenly, from the mountains and from the settlements in Tennessee, wrote a body of armed frontiersmen. They found the British soldiers encamped on the top of King's Mountain. In about an hour, they had killed or captured every British soldier. 160. The Cow Pins, 1781. General Green was now sent to the south to take charge of the resistance to Cornwallis. A great soldier and a great organizer, Green found that he needed all his ability.

His coming gave new spirit to the survivors of Gates Army. He gathered militia from all directions and marched toward Cornwallis. Dividing his army into two parts, he sent General Daniel Morgan to threaten Cornwallis from one direction, while he threatened him from another direction. Cornwallis at once became uneasy and sent Tarleton to drive Morgan away, but the hero of many hard-fault battles was not easily frightened. He drew up his little force so skillfully that in a very few few feet of his men, he was not easily frightened. minutes the British were nearly all killed or captured. 161. The Guilford Campaign, 1781. Cornwallis now

made a desperate attempt to capture the Americans, but Green and Morgan joined forces and marched diagonally across North Carolina. Cornwallis followed so closely that frequently the two armies seemed to be won. When, however, the River Dan was reached, there was an end of marching, for Green had caused all the boats to be collected at one spot. His men crossed and kept the boats on their side of the river. Soon, Green found himself strong enough to cross the river again to North Carolina. He took up a very strong position near Guilford Courthouse. Cornwallis attacked.

The Americans made a splendid defense before Green ordered a retreat, and the British won the Battle of Guilford. But their loss was so great that another victory of the same kind would have destroyed the British Army. it was, Green had dealt it such a blow that Cornwallis left his wounded at Guilford and set out as fast as he could for the sea coast. Green pursued him for some distance and then marched southward to Camden. 162. Green's later campaigns. At Hopkirk's Hill near Camden, the British soldiers who had been left behind by Cornwallis attacked Green. But he beat them off and began

the siege of a fort on the frontier of South Carolina. The British then marched. up from Charleston and Green had to fall back. Then the British marched back to Charleston and abandoned the interior of South Carolina to the Americans. There was only one more battle in the South at Utah Springs. Green was defeated there too, but the British abandoned the rest of the Carolinas in Georgia with the exception of Savannah and Charleston. In these wonderful campaigns with a few good soldiers, Green had forced the British from the southern states. He had lost every battle. He had won every campaign. 163. Cornwallis in Virginia, 1781.

There were already two small armies in Virginia, the British under Arnold, the Americans under Lafayette. Cornwallis now marched northward from Wilmington and added the troops in Virginia to his own force. Arnold, he sent to New York. Cornwallis then set out to capture Lafayette and his men. Together they marched from saltwater across Virginia to the mountains and then they marched back to saltwater again. Cornwallis had called Lafayette the boy and had declared that, quote, the boy should not escape him. Finally, Cornwallis fortified Yorktown and Lafayette settled down at Williamsburg, and there they still were in September 1781. 164. Plans of the Allies

In 1780, the French government had since then. over a strong army under Rauschenbo. It was landed at Newport. It remained there a year to protect the vessels in which it had come from France, from a capture by a stronger British fleet that had once appeared off the mouth of the harbor. Another French fleet and another French army were in the West Indies. In the summer of 1781, it became possible to unite all these French forces and with the Americans to strike a crushing blow at the British. Just that this moment. moment, Cornwallis shut himself up in Yorktown and was determined to besiege him there. 165. Yorktown, September to October, 1781.

Rishon Boe led his men to New York and joined the main American army. Washington now took command of the Allied forces. He pretended that he was about to attack New York and deceived Clinton so completely that Clinton ordered Cornwallis to send some of his soldiers to New York. But the Allies were marching. southward through Philadelphia before Clinton realized what they were about. The French-West India fleet under de Gras reached one end of the Chesapeake Bay at the same time the Allies reached the other end. The British fleet attacked it and was beaten off.

There was now no hope for Cornwallis. No help could reach him by sea. The soldiers of the Allies outnumbered him two to one. On October 17, 1781, four years to a day since the surrender of Borgoyne, a drummer boy appeared on the rampart of Yorktown and beat a parley. Two days later, the British soldiers marched out to the good old British tune of The World Turned Upside Down and laid down their arms. 166. The Treaty of Peace, 1783. This disaster put an end to British hopes of conquering America. But it was not until 1783 that Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay brought

the negotiations for peace to an end. Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States. The territory of the United States was defined as extending from the Great Lakes to the 31st parallel of latitude and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Spain had joined the United States in France in the war. Spanish soldiers had conquered Florida and Spain kept Florida at the peace. In this way, Spanish, Florida, and Louisiana surrounded the United States on the side. South and the West. British territory bounded the United States on the North and the Northeast. End of Chapter 15. Part 6. The Critical Period. 1783 to 1789. Chapter 17183 to 1787.

167. Problems of Peace. The war was over, but the future of the American nation. was still uncertain. Indeed, one can hardly say that there was an American nation in 1783, while the war lasted a sense of danger bound together the people of the different states. But as soon as this peril ceased, their old jealousies and self-seekings came back. There was no national government to smooth over these differences and to compel the states to act justly towards one another. There was, indeed, the Congress of the Confederation, but it is absurd to speak of it as a national government. 168. The Articles of Confederation, 1781. The Continental Congress began drawing up the Articles of Confederation in June 1776, but there were long delays, and each month's delay made it more impossible to form a strong government. It fell out in this way that the Congress of the Confederation had no real power. It could not make a state or an individual pay money or do anything at all. In the course of a few years, Congress asked the states to give it over $6 million to pay the debts and expenses of the United States.

It received about a million dollars and was fortunate to get that. 169. A time of distress. It is not right to speak too harshly of the refusal of the state governments to give Congress the money it asked for, as the people of the states were in great distress and had no money to give. As soon as peace was declared, British merchants said, sent over great quantities of goods. People bought these goods, for everyone thought that good times were coming now that the war was over.

But the British government did everything it could do to prevent the coming of good times. The prosperity of the northern states was largely based on profitable trade with the West Indies. The British government put an end to that trade. No gold and silver came to the United States from the West Indies, while gold and silver constantly went out of the country to pay debts. due to British merchants. Soon gold and silver grew scarce, and those who had any, promptly hit it. The real reason of all this trouble was the lack of a strong national government which could have compelled the British government to open its ports to American commerce.

But the people only saw that money was scarce and called upon the state legislatures to give them paper money. 170. Paper money. Most of the state legislatures did what they were asked to do. They printed quantities of paper money. They paid the public expenses with it and sometimes lent it to individuals without much security for its repayment. Before long, this paper money began to grow less valuable. For instance, on a certain day, a man could buy a bag of flour for $5. In three months' time, a bag of flour might cost him $10. Soon it became difficult to buy flour for any number of paper dollars. 171. Tender laws The people then clamored for tender laws.

These were laws which would make it lawful for them to tender or offer paper money in exchange for flour or other things. In some cases, it was made lawful to tender paper money and payments of debts which had been made when gold and silver were still in use. The merchants now shut up their shops and business was almost ceased. The lawyers only were busy. For those to whom the money was owed, tried to get it paid before the pay. paper money became utterly worthless. The courts were crowded and the prisons were filled with poor debtors. 172. Stay laws. Now the cry was for stay laws. These were laws to prevent those to whom money was due from enforcing their rights. These laws promptly put an end to whatever business was

left. The only way that any business could be carried on was by barter. For example, a man who had a bushel of wheat that he did not want for his family would exchange it for three or four bushels of potatoes or four or five days of labor. In some states, the legislators passed very severe laws to compel people to receive paper money. In one state, indeed, no one could vote who would not receive paper money. 173. Shea's Rebellion, 1786 to 87. In Massachusetts, especially, the discontent was very great. The people were, were angry with the judges for sending men to prison who did not pay their debts. Crowds of armed men visited the judges and compelled them to close the courts.

The leader in this movement was Daniel Shays. He even threatened to seize the United States Arsenal at Springfield. By this time, Governor Baldoyne and General Lincoln had also gathered a small force of soldiers. In the midst of winter, through snowstorms and over terrible roads, Lincoln marched with his men. He drove Shays from place to place, captured his followers, and put down the rebellion. There were risings in other states, especially in North Carolina, but Shays' rebellion in Massachusetts was the most important of them all because it convinced the New Englanders that a stronger national government was necessary.

174. Claims to Western Lands The Confederation seemed to be falling to pieces. That it did not actually fall to pieces was largely due to the fact that, all the states were interested in the settlement of the region northwest of the Ohio River. It will be well to stop a moment and see how this came about. Under their old charters, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, Carolina, and Georgia had claims to lands west of the Alleghenies. Between 1763 and 1776, the British government had paid slight heed to these claims.

But Daniel Boone and other colonists had settled west of the mountains and what are now the states of Kentucky and Tennessee. When the revolution began, the states having claims to Western lands at once put them forward, and New York also claimed a right to about one-half of the disputed territory. Naturally, the states that had no claims to these lands had quite different views. The Marylanders, for example, thought that the Western lands should be regarded as national territory and used for the common benefit. Maryland refused to join the Confederation until New York,

York had seated her claims to the United States and Virginia had proposed a session of the territory claimed by her. 175. The land sessions. In 1784, Virginia gave up her claims to the land northwest of the Ohio River with the exception of certain large tracks which she reserved for her veteran soldiers. Massachusetts seated her claims in 1785. The next year, 1786, Connecticut gave up her.

her claims, but she reserved a large tract of land directly west of Pennsylvania. This was called the Connecticut Reserve, or more often, the Western Reserve. South Carolina and North Carolina ceded their lands in 1787 and 1790, and finally Georgia gave up her claims to Western lands in 1802. 176. Passage of the Ordinance of 1787. What should be done with the lands which in this way had come into the possession of the people of all the states. It was quite impossible to divide these lands among the people of the 13 states. They never could have agreed as to the amount due to each state. In 1785, Congress took the first step. It passed a law or an ordinance for the government of the territory northwest of the Ohio River. This ordinance wasn't perfect and few persons immigrated

to the west. There were many persons who wished to immigrate from the old states to the new region, but they were unwilling to go unless they felt sure they would not be treated by Congress as the British government had treated the people of the original states. Dr. Cutler of Massachusetts laid these matters before Congress and did his work so well that Congress passed a new ordinance. This was in 1787. The ordinance is therefore called the Ordinance of 1787. It was so well suited to its purpose that nearly all the territories of the United States

have been settled and governed under its provisions. It will be well to study this great document at more length. 177. The Ordinance of 1787. In the first place, the ordinance provided for the formation of one territory to be called the territory northwest of the Ohio, but it is more often called the Northwest Territory, or simply, the Old Northwest. At first, it was to be governed by the persons appointed by Congress, but it was further provided that when settlers should arrive in sufficient numbers, they should enjoy self-government.

When fully settled, the territory should be divided into five states. These should be admitted to the Confederation on a footing of equality with the original states. The settlers in the territory should enjoy full rights of citizenship. Education should be encouraged. Slavery should never be permitted. This last provision is especially important as it saved the Northwest to freedom. In this way, a new political organization was invented. It was called a territory.

It was really a colony, but it differed from all other colonies because in time it would become a state on a footing of entire equality with the parent states. End of Chapter 17. Chapters 18 and 19 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. this reading by Alison Hester of Athens Georgia

A short history of the United States by Edward Channing Chapter 18 The Making of the Constitution 1787 to 1789 178 Necessity for a New Government At this very moment a convention was making a constitution to put an end to the Confederation itself

It was quite clear that something must be done or the states soon would be fighting one another. Attempt after attempt had been made to amend the Articles of Confederation so as to give Congress more power. But every attempt had failed because the consent of every state was required to amend the articles. And one state or another had objected to every amendment that had been proposed. It was while affairs were in this condition that the Federal Convention met at Philadelphia in May 1787. 179.

James Madison. Of all the members of the convention, James Madison of Virginia best deserves the title of Father of the Constitution. He drew up the Virginia plan which was adopted as the basis of the new Constitution. He spoke convincingly for the plan in the convention. He did more than anyone else to secure the ratification of the Constitution by Virginia. He kept a careful set of notes of the debates of the convention which show us precisely how the Constitution was made. With Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, he wrote a series of papers which is called the Federalist and is still the best guide to the Constitution. 180. Other fathers of the Constitution George Washington was chosen as president of the convention. He made a few speeches, but the speeches that he made were very important. And the mere fact that he approved the Constitution had a tremendous influence throughout the country. The oldest man in the convention was Benjamin Franklin.

His long experience in politics and diplomacy with his natural shrewdness made him an unrivaled manager of men. From all the states came able men. In fact, with the exception of John Adams, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Thomas Jefferson, the strongest men in political life were in the federal convention. Never in the history of the world have so many great political leaders learned students, of politics and shrewd businessmen gathered together. The result of their labors was the most marvelous product of political wisdom that the world has ever seen.

181. Plans for a national government As soon as the convention was in working order, Governor Randolph of Virginia presented Madison's plan for a national government. Charles Pinckney of South Carolina also brought forward a plan. His scheme was more detailed than Madison's plan was. But, like it, it provided for a government with supreme legislative, executive, and judicial powers. On May 30th, the convention voted that a national government ought to be established,

consisting of a supreme legislative, executive, and judiciary. It next decided that the legislative department should consist of two houses, but when the delegates began to talk over the details, they began to disagree. 182. Disagreement as to representation The Virginia plan proposed that representation in one branch of the new Congress should be divided among the states according to the amount of money each state paid into the national treasury or according to the number of free inhabitants of each state.

The Delaware delegates at once said they must withdraw. In June, Governor Patterson of New Jersey brought forward a plan which had been drawn up by the delegates from the small states. It is always called, however, the New Jersey Plan. It proposed simply to amend the Articles of Confederation so as to give Congress more power. After a long debate, the New Jersey plan was rejected. 183. The Compromise as to Representation The discussion now turned on the question of representation in the two houses of Congress. After a long debate and a good deal of excitement, Benjamin Franklin and Roger Sherman proposed a compromise. This was, the members of the House of Representatives should be

apportioned among the states according to their population and should be elected directly by the people. In the Senate, they proposed that each state, regardless of size, population, or wealth, should have two members. The senators representing the states would fittingly be chosen by the state legislatures. It was agreed that the states should be equally represented in the Senate, but it was difficult to reach a conclusion as to the apportionment of representatives in the House. 184. Compromise as to apportionment. Should the members of the House of Representatives be distributed among the states according to population? At first sight, the answer seemed to be perfectly clear,

but the real question was, should slaves who had no vote be counted as part of the population? It was finally agreed that slaves should be counted as three-fifth, of their real number. This rule was called the federal ratio. The result of this rule was to give the southern slave states representation in Congress out of all proportion to their voting population. 185. Compromise as to the slave trade. When the subject of the powers to be given to Congress came to be discussed, there was even greater excitement. The northerners wanted Congress to have the power to regulate commerce. But the Southerners opposed it because they feared

Congress would use this power to put an end to the slave trade. John Rutledge of South Carolina even went so far as to say unless this question was settled in favor of the slaveholders, the slave states would not be parties to the union.

In the end, this matter also was compromised by providing that Congress could not prohibit the slave trade until 1808. These were the three great compromises but there were compromises on so many smaller points that we cannot even mention them here. 186. Franklin's Prophecy It was with a feeling of real relief that the delegates finally came to the end of their labors.

As they were putting their names to the Constitution, Franklin pointed to a rising sun that was painted on the wall behind the presiding officer's share. He said that painters often found it difficult to show the difference between a rising sun and a setting sun. i have often and often said the old statesman looked at that behind the president without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting but now at length i have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun and so indeed it has proved to be one eighty seven the constitution it will be well now to note some of the points in which the new constitution was unlike the old articles of confederation In the first place, the government of the Confederation had to do only with the states. The new government would deal directly with individuals. For instance, when the old Congress needed money, it called on the states to give it.

If a state refused to give any money, Congress could remonstrate, and that was all. The new government could order individuals to pay taxes. Anyone who refused to pay his tax would be tried in the United States court and compelled to pay or go to prison. In the second place, the old government had almost no executive powers. The new government would have a very strong executive in the person of the president of the United States. 188. The Supreme Court But the greatest difference of all was to be found in the Supreme Court of the United States provided in the Constitution. The new Congress would have very large powers of making laws.

But the words defining these powers were very hard to understand. It was the duty of the Supreme Court to say what these words meant. Now, the judges of the Supreme Court are very independent. It is almost impossible to remove a judge of this court, and the Constitution provides that his salary cannot be reduced while he holds office. It fell out that under the lead of Chief Justice John Marshall, the Supreme Court defined the doubtful words in the Constitution so as to give the greatest amount of power to the Congress of the United States.

As the laws of the United States are the supreme laws of the land, it will be seen how important this action of the Supreme Court has been. 189. Objections to the Constitution The great strength of the Constitution alarmed many people. Patrick Henry declared that the government under the new Constitution would be a national government and not a federal government at all. Other persons objected to the Constitution because it took the control of affairs out of the Constitution. the hands of the people. For example, the senators were chosen by the state legislators, and the president was to be elected in a roundabout way by presidential electors. Others objected to the Constitution because there was no bill of rights attached to it. They pointed out, for instance,

that there was nothing in the Constitution to prevent Congress from passing laws to destroy the freedom of press. Finally, a great many people objected to the Constitution because there was no provision in it reserving to the states or to the people those powers that were not expressly given to the new government. 1.90. The first 10 amendments. These defects seem to be so grave that patriots like Patrick Henry, R. H. Lee, Samuel Adams, and John Hancock could not bring themselves to vote for its adoption. Conventions of delegates were elected by the people of the several states to ratify or to reject the Constitution. The excitement was intense. It seemed as if the Constitution would not

be adopted, but a way was found out of the difficulty. It was suggested that the conventions should consent to the adoption of the Constitution, but should, at the same time, propose amendments which would do away with many of these objections. This was done. The first Congress under the Constitution and the state legislatures adopted most of these amendments and they became a part of the Constitution. There were 10 amendments in all and they should be studied as carefully as the Constitution itself is studied. 191. The Constitution adopted 1787 to 88. In June 1788, New Hampshire and Virginia adopted the Constitution. They were the 9th and 10th states to take this action. The Constitution provided that it should go into effect when it should be adopted by nine states.

That is, of course, it should go into effect only between those states. Preparations were now made for the organization of the new government. But this took some time. Washington was unanimously elected president and was inaugurated in April 1789. By that time, North Carolina and Rhode Island were the only states which had not adopted the Constitution and come under the new state. roof, as it was called. In a year or two, they adopted it also, and the union of the 13 original states was complete. End of Chapter 18. Part 7. The Federalist Supremacy, 1789 to 1801. Chapter 19. Organization of the Government. 192. Washington elected president.

In the early years under the Constitution, the presidents and vice presidents were elected, in the following manner. First, each state chose presidential electors, usually by vote of its legislature. Then the electors of each state came together and voted for two persons without saying which of the two should be president. When all the electoral votes were counted, the person having the largest number, provided that it was more than half of the whole number of electoral votes, was declared president. The person having the next largest number became vice president. At the first election, every elector voted for Washington. John Adams received the next largest number of votes and became vice president. 193. Washington's journey to New York.

At 10 o'clock on the morning of April 14, 1789, Washington left Mount Vernon and set out for New York. Wherever he passed, the people poured forth to greet him. at trenton new jersey a triumphal arch had been erected the schoolgirls strewed flowers in its path and sang an ode written for the occasion a barge manned by thirteen pilots met him at the water's edge and bore him safely to new york one ninety four the first inauguration april thirtieth seventeen eighty nine long before the time set for the inauguration ceremonies the streets around federal hall were closely packed with sightseeked sightseers. Washington and a suit of velvet with white silk stockings came out on the balcony and took the oath of office

ordered in the Constitution. I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. Cannon roared forth a salute and Chancellor

Livingston turned to the people and proclaimed, long-lived George Washington, President of the United States. Reentering the hall, Washington read a simple and solemn address. 195. The First Cabinet. Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State.

Since writing the Great Declaration, Jefferson had been Governor of Virginia and American Minister at Paris. The Secretary of the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton. Born in the British West Indies, he had come to New York to attend King's College. Now, Columbia University. For Secretary of War, Washington selected Henry Knox.

He had been chief of artillery during the Revolution. Since then, he had been head of the War Department. Edward Randolph became Attorney General. He had introduced the Virginia Plan of Union into the Federal Convention, but he had not signed the Constitution in its final form. These four officers formed the Cabinet. There was also a postmaster general, but his office was of slight,

importance at the time. 196. Appointments to office. The president now appointed the necessary officers to execute the national laws. These were mostly men who had been prominent in the Revolutionary War. For instance, John Jay was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and General Lincoln was appointed the Collector of Customs at Boston. It was, in having officers of its own to carry out its laws, that the new government

seemed to the people to be so unlike the old government. Formally, if Congress wanted anything done, it called on the states to do it. Now, Congress by law authorized the United States officials to do their tasks. The difference was a very great one, and it took the people some time to realize what a great change had been made. 197. The question of titles. The first fiercely contested debate in the new Congress was over the question of titles. Don Adams, the vice president, and the presiding officer of the Senate, began the conflict by asking the Senate how he should address the president. One senator suggested that the president should be entitled His Patriotic Majesty.

Other senators proposed that he should be addressed as, Your Highness, the President of the United States, and protector of their liberties. Fortunately, the House of Representatives had the first chance to address Washington and simply called him Mr. President of the United States. States. 198. Ceremonies and Progresses Washington liked a good deal of ceremony and was stiff and aristocratic. He soon gave receptions or levies, as they were called. To these, only persons who had tickets were admitted. Washington stood on one side of the room and bowled stiffly to each guest as he was announced.

When all were assembled, the entrance doors were closed. The president then slowly walked around the room, saying, pleasant to each person. In 1789 he made a journey through New England. Everywhere he was received by guards of honor and was splendidly entertained. At one place an old man greeted him with God bless your majesty. This was all natural enough for Washington was first in the hearts of his countrymen. But many good men were afraid that the new government would turn out to really be a monarchy. 1.99. The first tariff act, 1789. The first important business that Congress took in hand was a bill for raising revenue and a lively debate began. Representatives from New England and the middle states wanted protection from their commerce and their struggling manufacturers. Representatives from the southern states opposed all protective duties as harmful to agriculture, which was the only important pursuit of the southerners. But the

Southerners would have been glad to have a duty placed on hemp. This, the New Englanders opposed, because it would increase the cost of rigging ships. The Pennsylvanians were eager for a duty on iron and steel, but the New Englanders opposed this duty because it would add to the cost of building a ship, and the Southerners opposed it because it would increase the cost of agricultural tools. And so it was, as to nearly every duty that was proposed. But duties must be laid, and the only thing that could be done was compromise in every direction. Each section got something that it wanted, gave up a great deal that it wanted, and agreed to something that it did not want at all. And so it has been with every tariff act from that day to this. 200. The first census, 1791. The Constitution provided that

representatives should be distributed among the states according to population as modified by the federal ratio. To do this, it was necessary to find out how many people there were in each state. In 1791, the first census was taken. By that time, both North Carolina and Rhode Island had joined the Union, and Vermont had not been admitted as the 14th state. It appeared that there were nearly four million people in the United States, or not as many as 100 years later, lived around the shores of New York Harbor. There were then about 700,000. slaves in the country. Of these, only 50,000 were in the states north of Maryland. The country, therefore, was already divided into two sections, one where slavery was of little importance,

and another where it was of great importance. 201, the new states. The first new state to be admitted to the Union was Vermont. 1791. The land which formed this state was claimed by New Hampshire and by New York. But during the revolution, the Green Mountain Boys had declared themselves independent and had drawn up a constitution. They now applied to Congress for admission to the union as a separate state. The next year, Kentucky came into the union. This was originally part of Virginia, and the colonists had brought their slaves with them to their new homes. Kentucky, therefore, was a slave state. Vermont was a free state, and its constitution forbade slavery. 202. The National Debt

The national debt was the price of independence. During the war, Congress had been too poor to pay gold and silver for what it needed to carry on the war, so it had given promises to pay at some future time. These promises to pay were called by various names as bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and paper money. Taken together, they formed what was called the domestic debt, because it was owed to persons living in the United States. There was also a foreign debt. This was owed to the King of France

and to other foreigners who had lent money to the United States. 203. Hamilton's financial policy. Alexander Hamilton was the ablest secretary of the Treasury the United States has ever had. To give people confidence in the new government, he proposed to redeem the old certificates in bonds, dollar for dollar, in new bonds.

To this plan there was violent objection. Most of the original holders of the certificates and bonds had sold them long ago. They were now mainly held by speculators who had paid about 30 or 40 cents for each dollar. Why should the speculator get one dollar for that which had cost him only 30 or 40 cents? Hamilton insisted that his plan was the only way to place the public credit on a firm foundation and it was finally adopted. Assumption of state debts. A further part of Hamilton's original scheme aroused even greater opposition. During the Revolutionary War, the states, too, had become heavily in debt.

They had furnished soldiers and supplies to Congress. Some of them had undertaken expeditions at their own expense. Virginia, for example, had borne all the costs of Clark's conquest to the northwest. She had later seated nearly all her rights in the conquered territory to the United States. These debts had been incurred for the benefit of the people as a whole. Would it not then be fair

for the people of the United States as a whole to pay them? Hamilton thought that it would. It chanced, however, that the northern states had a much larger debt than had the southern states. One result of Hamilton's scheme

would be to relieve the northern states of a part of their burdens and to increase the burdens of the southern states. The Southerners, therefore, were strongly opposed to the plan. The North Carolina representatives reached New York just in time to vote against it, and that part of Hamilton's plan was defeated.

205, the National Capital. In these days of fast express trains, it makes little difference whether one is going to Philadelphia or to Baltimore, only a few hours more or less in a comfortable railroad car. But in 1791, it made a great deal of difference whether one were going to Philadelphia or to Baltimore. traveling was especially hard in the south there were few roads or taverns in that part of the country and those few were bad the southerners were anxious to have the national capital as far south as possible they were also opposed to the assumption of the state debts by the national government now it happened that the northerners were in favor of the assumption of the debts and did not care very much where the national capital might be in the end jefferson and hamilton made a deal the first of its kind in our history.

Enough Southerners voted for the assumption bill to pass it. The Northerners on their part agreed that the temporary seat of government should be at Philadelphia and that the permanent seat of government on the Potomac. Virginia and Maryland at once seated enough land to form a

federal district. This was called the District of Columbia. Soon preparations were begun to build a capital city there, the city of Washington. 206. The first Bank of the United States. Two parts of Hamilton's plan were now adopted. To the third part of his scheme, there was even more opposition. This was the establishment of a great bank of the United States.

The government in 1790 had no place in which to keep its money. Instead of establishing government treasuries, Hamilton wanted a great national bank controlled by the government. This bank could establish branches in important cities. The government's money could be deposited at any of these branches and could be paid out by checks sent from the Treasury. Furthermore, people could buy a part of the stock of the bank with the new bonds of the United States. This would make the people more eager to own the bonds and so would increase their price.

For all these reasons, Hamilton thought the bank would be very useful and therefore necessary and proper for carrying out all of the powers given by the Constitution to the national government. Jefferson, however, thought that the words, necessary and proper meant necessary and not useful. The bank was not necessary, according to the ordinary use of the word. Congress, therefore, had no business to establish it. After thinking the matter over, Washington signed the bill and it became a law, but Jefferson had sounded the alarm. Many persons agreed with him. Many others agreed with Hamilton. Two great political parties

were formed and began the contest for power that has been going on ever since. End of chapter 19. Chapter 20 of a short history of the United States. This is a Librevox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing.

Chapter 20. Rise of political parties. 207. The Federalists. There were no political parties in the United States in 1789. All the leading men were anxious to give the new Constitution a fair trial. Even Patrick Henry supported Washington. Many men, as Alexander Hamilton and Governor Morris,

believed a monarchy to be the best form of government, but they saw clearly that the American people would not permit a monarchy to be established. So they supported the Constitution, although they thought it was a frail and worthless fabric. but they wished to establish the strongest possible government that could be established under the Constitution. This they could do by defining in the broadest way the doubtful words in the Constitution, as Hamilton had done in the controversy over the bank charter. Hamilton had little confidence in the wisdom of the plain people.

He believed it would be safer to rely on the richer classes, so he and his friends wished to give to the central government and to the richer classes the greatest possible amounts of power. those who believed as Hamilton believed called themselves federalists. In reality, they were nationalists. 208. The Republicans. Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Albert Gallatin, and their friends entirely disagreed with the federalists on all of these points. They called themselves Republicans. In the Great Declaration, Jefferson had written that government rested on the consent of the governed. He also thought that the common sense of the plain people was a safer guide than the wisdom of the

richer classes. He was indignant at the way in which Hamilton defined the meaning of phrases in the Constitution. He especially relied on the words of the 10th Amendment. This amendment provided that all powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively or to the people. Jefferson thought that phrases like not delegated and necessary and proper should be understood in their ordinary. meanings. He now determined to arouse public opinion. He once declared that if he had to choose between having a government and having a newspaper press, he should prefer the newspaper press. He established a newspaper devoted to his principles and began a violent and determined attack on the

federalists, calling them monarchists. These disputes became especially violent in the treatment of the questions which grew out of the French Revolution. 209, the French Revolution. 209. The French Revolution In 1789, the French people rose against their government. In 1792, they imprisoned their king and queen. In 1793, they beheaded them and set up a republic. The monarchs of Europe made common calls against the spirit of revolution. They made war on the French Republic and began a conflict which soon spread to all parts of the world.

2.10. French Revolution and American Politics. Jefferson and his political friends rejoiced at the overthrow of the French monarchy and the setting up of the republic. It seemed as if American ideas had spread to Europe. Soon Jefferson's followers began to ape the manners of the French revolutionists. They called each other citizen this and citizen that. Reports of French victories were received with rejoicing. At Boston, an ox, roasted whole, bread, and punch were distributed to the people in the streets. And cakes stamped with the French watchwords, liberty and equality, were given to the children. But while the Republicans were rejoicing over the downfall of the French

monarchy, the federalists were far from being happy. Hamilton had no confidence in the government by the people anywhere. Washington, with his aristocratic ideas, did not at all like the way the Republicans were acting. He said little on the subject, but Lady Washington expressed her mind freely and spoke of Jefferson's followers as, quote, filthy Democrats. 211. Citizen Jeanette The new French government soon sent an agent or minister to the United States. He was the Citizen Jeanette. He landed at Charleston, South Carolina.

He fitted out privateers to prey on British commerce and then set out overland for Philadelphia. Washington had recently made a tour through the South, but even he had not. not been received with the enthusiasm that greeted Jeanette. When Jeanette reached Philadelphia and began to confer with Jefferson about getting help from the government, he found little except delay, trouble, and good advice. Jefferson especially tried to warn Jeanette not to be overconfident, but Jeanette would not listen. He even appealed to the people against Washington, and the people rallied to the defense of the president. Soon another and wiser French minister came to the United States.

212. The Neutrality Proclamation, 1793. Washington and his advisors had a very difficult question to settle. For the Treaty of 1778 with France, gave to French ships the use of United States ports in wartime and closed those ports to the enemies of France. The treaty might also oblige the United States to make war on Great Britain in order to preserve the French-West India Islands to France. It was quite certain at all events that if French warships were allowed to use American ports

and British warships were not allowed to do so, Great Britain would speedily make war on the United States. The treaty had been made with the King of France. Could it not be set aside on the ground that there was no longer a French monarchy? Washington at length made up his mind to regard it as suspended, owing to the confusion which existed in France. He therefore issued a proclamation of neutrality. his proclamation, he warned all citizens not to aid either of the fighting nations. It was in this way that Washington began the policy of keeping the United States out of European conflicts. 213. The Whiskey Insurrection, 1794. The increasing expenses of the government made new taxes necessary. Among the new taxes was an internal revenue tax on whiskey. It happened that this tax bore heavily

on the farmers of Western Carolina and Western Pennsylvania. The farmers of those regions could not take their grain to the seaboard because the roads were bad and the distance was great. So they made it into whiskey, which could be carried to the seaboard and sold at a profit. The new tax on whiskey would make it more difficult for these Western farmers to earn a living and to support their families. They refused to pay it. They fell upon the tax collectors and drove them away. Washington sent commissioners to explain matters to them, but the farmers paid no heed to the commissioners. The president then called out 15,000 militiamen and sent them to Western Pennsylvania under the command of Henry Lee, governor of Virginia. The rebellious farmers

yielded without fighting. Two of the leaders were convicted of treason, but Washington pardoned them, and the conflict ended there. The new government had shown its strength and had compelled people to obey the laws. That in itself was a very great thing to have done. 214. J. Scha. Treaty, 1794. Ever since 1783, there had been trouble with the British. They had not surrendered the posts on the Great Lakes, as the Treaty of 1783 required them to do. They had oppressed American commerce. The American states also had broken the treaty by making laws to prevent the collection of debts due to British subjects by American citizens. The Congress of the Confederation had been too weak to compel either the British government or the

American states to obey the treaty. But the new government was strong enough to make treaties respected at home and abroad. Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to London to negotiate a new treaty. He found the British government very hard to deal with. At last he made a treaty, but there were many things in it which were not favorable to the United States. For instance, it provided that cotton should not be exported from the United States and that American commerce with British West Indies should be greatly restricted. 215. Ratification of Jay's Treaty, 1795. After a long discussion, the Senate voted to ratify the treaty without these two clauses. In the House of Representatives, there was a fierce debate. For although

the House has nothing to do with ratifying treaties, it has a great deal to do with voting money, and money was needed to carry out this treaty. At last, the House voted the necessary money. The British surrendered the posts on the Great Lakes and the debts due to British subjects were paid. Many people were very angry with Jay and with Washington for making this treaty. Stuffed figures of Jay were hanged and Washington was attacked in the papers as if he had been a common pickpocket, to use his own words. 216. The Spanish Treaty of 1795. France and Great Britain were not the only countries with which there was trouble. The Spaniards held posts on the Mississippi within the limits of the United States and refused to give them up. For a hundred miles, the Mississippi flowed through Spanish territory.

In those days, before steam railroads connected the Ohio Valley with the eastern sea coast, the farmers of Kentucky and Tennessee sent their goods by boat or raft down the Mississippi to New Orleans. At that city, they were placed on sea-going vessels and carried to the markets of the world. The Spaniards refused to let this commerce be carried on. In 1795, however, they agreed to abandon the posts and to permit American goods to be deposited at New Orleans while awaiting shipment by sea-going vessels. 2017. Washington's farewell address. In 1792, Washington had been re-elected president. In 1796, there would be a new election, and Washington declined another nomination.

He was disgusted with the tone of public life and detested party politics and desired to pass the short remainder of his life in quiet at Mount Vernon. He announced his intention to retire in a farewell address, which should be read and studied by every American. In it, he declared the Union to be the main pillar of independence, prosperity, and liberty. Public credit must be carefully maintained and the United States should have as little as possible to do with European affairs. In declining a third term as president, Washington said an example which has ever since been followed. End of Chapter 20. Chapter 21, the last Federalist Administration. 21, John Adams elected president, 1796.

In 1796, John Adams was the Federalist candidate for president. His rival was Thomas Jefferson, the founder and chief of the Republican Party. Alexander Hamilton was the real leader of the federalists, and he disliked Adams. Thomas Pinckney was the federalist candidate for vice president. Hamilton suggested a plan which he thought would lead to the election of Pinkney as president instead of Adams, but Hamilton's scheme did not turn out very well, for by it Jefferson was elected vice president. Indeed, he came near being president, for he had only three less electoral votes than Adams. 219. More trouble with France. France was now, 1796 to 97, governed by five chiefs of the revolution, who called themselves the directory. They were very angry when they heard of Jay's Treaty, for they had hoped that the Americans would make war on the British. James Monroe was then American minister at Paris. Instead of doing all he could to smooth over this difficulty, he urged on the wrath of the directory.

Rinkton recalled Monroe and sent, in his stead, General Charles Coteworth's Pinkney of South Carolina. The directory promptly refused to receive Pinckney and ordered him to leave France. News of this action of the directory reached Philadelphia three days after Adams' inauguration. 220. The X, Y, Z Affair, 1797 to 98. Adams at once summoned Congress and addressed the members. in stirring words. He denied that the Americans were a degraded people, humiliated under a colonial

sense of fear, and regardless of national honor, character, and interest. It seemed best, however, to make one more effort to avoid war. Adams, therefore, sent John Marshall, a Virginia federalist, an Elbridge Jerry, a Massachusetts Republican to France. They were to join Pinkney and together to negotiate with the French Directory. When they reached Paris, three men came to see them. These men said that America, one, must apologize for the president's vigorous words. Two, must lend money to France. And three, must bribe the directory and the minister of foreign affairs. These outrageous suggestions were emphatically put aside. In sending the papers to Congress, the three men were called Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z.

So the incident is always known as the X, Y, Z affair. 221. Indignation in America. Federalists and Republicans joined in indignation. Millions for defense. Not one cent for tribute was the cry of the day. French flags were everywhere torn down. Hell, Columbia, was everywhere sung. Adams declared that he was,

would not send another minister to France until he was assured that the representative of the United States would be received as the, quote, representative of a great, free, powerful, and independent state. 22. War with France 1797 to 98. The organization of a provisional army was now at once begun. Washington accepted the chief command on condition that Hamilton should have the second place. already a few vessels in the Navy. A Navy department was now organized. The building of more warships has begun, and merchant vessels were bought and converted into cruisers. French privateers sailed along the American coasts and captured American vessels off the entrances of the principal harbors, but this did not last long, for the American warships drove the privateers to the West Indies

and pursued them as they fled southward. Soon, the American cruisers began to capture French, men of war. Captain Truxton, in the constellation, captured the French frigate Linsurgent. Many other French vessels were captured, and preparations were made to carry on the naval war even more vigorously when a Treaty with France was signed. 223. Treaty with France, 1800. This vigor convinced the French that they had been hasty in their treatment of the Americans. They now said that if another minister were sent to France, he would be honorably received. Adams wished to send one of the American ministers then in Europe and thus end the dispute as soon as possible. But the other federalist leaders thought that it would be

better to wait until France sent a minister to the United States. Finally, they consented to the appointment of three commissioners. Napoleon Bonaparte was now the ruler of France. He received the commissioners honorably and a treaty was soon signed. On two points, however, he refused to give way. He declined to pay for American property seized by the French, and he insisted that the Treaty of 1778 was still binding on both countries. It was finally agreed that the Americans should give up their claims for damages, and the French government should permit the treaty to be annulled. John Adams always looked upon this peaceful ending of the dispute with France as the most prudent and successful act of his whole life. But Hamilton and other federalists thought it was

treachery to the party. They set to work to prevent his re-election to the presidency. 224. Alien and Sedition Acts 1798. The Federalists, even if they had been united, would probably have been defeated in the election of 1800, for they had misused their power to pass several very foolish laws. The first of these laws was the Naturalization Act. It lengthened the time of residence in the United States from five to 14 years before a foreign immigrant could gain the right to vote. This law bore very harshly on the Republicans because most of the immigrants were Republicans. Other laws, called the Alien Acts, were also aimed at the Republican immigrants.

These laws gave the president power to compel immigrants to leave the United States or to live in certain places that he named. The worst law of all was the Sedition Act. This was aimed against the writers and printers of Republican newspapers. It provided that anyone who attacked the government in the press should be severely punished as a seditious person. Several trials were held under this law. Every trial made hundreds of persons determined to vote for the Republican candidate at the next election. 225. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions 1798 to 99. In the exciting years before the Revolutionary War, the colonial legislatures had passed many resolutions condemning the acts of the British governments. Following this example, Jefferson and Madison now brought it about that the Virginia

and Kentucky legislatures passed resolutions against the Alien and Sedition Acts. They declared that the Constitution was a compact between the states. It followed from this that any state could determine for itself whether any act of Congress were constitutional or not. It followed from this. It followed from this, again that any state could refuse to permit an act of Congress to be enforced within its limits. In other words, any state could make null or nullify any act of Congress that it saw fit to oppose. This last conclusion was found only in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1799, but Jefferson wrote to this effect in the original draft of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions called the voters' attention to the federalist abuse of power and did much to form public opinion.

226. Death of Washington, 1799. In the midst of this excitement, George Washington died. People forgot how strongly he had taken the federalist's side in the last few years and united to do honor to his memory. Henry Lee spoke for the nation when he declared that Washington was, quote, first in war, first, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen. To this day, we commemorate Washington's birthday as we do that of no other man, though of late years we have begun to keep Lincoln's birthday also. 227. Election of 1800. It was for a moment only that the noise of party conflict was hushed by the death of America's first president. The strife soon began anew. Indeed,

the election of 1800 was fought with a vigor and violence unknown before and scarcely exceeded since. John Adams was the Federalist candidate, and he was defeated. Jefferson and Burr, the Republican candidates, each received 73 electoral votes, but which of them should be president? The Republican voters clearly wished Jefferson to be president, but the Federalists had a majority in the House of Representatives. They had a clear legal right to elect Burr president, but, To do that would be to do what was morally wrong. After a useless struggle, the Federalists permitted Jefferson to be chosen, and he was inaugurated on March 4, 1801.

End of Chapter 21. Chapters 22 and 23 of a short history of the United States. This is the Librevox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information, order to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. This reading by Allison Hester of Athens, Georgia A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Part 8

The Jeffersonian Republicans, 1801 to 1812. Chapter 22. The United States in 1800. 228. Area and population, 1800. The area of the United States in 1800 was the same as at the close of the Revolutionary War, but the population had begun to increase rapidly. In 1791, there were nearly 4 million people in the United States. By 1800, this number had risen to 5 and 1 quarter million.

Two-thirds of the people still lived on or near Tidewater, but already nearly 400,000 people lived west of the Alleghenies. In 1791, the center of population had been east of Baltimore. It was now 18 miles west of that city. 229. Cities and towns in 1800. Philadelphia was the largest city in the United States. It had a population of 70,000, but New York was not far behind Philadelphia and population.

Except these two, no city in the whole United States had more than 30,000 inhabitants. The seat of government had been removed from Philadelphia to Washington, but the new capital was a city only in name. One broad, long street, Pennsylvania Avenue, led from the unfinished capital to the unfinished White House. Congress held its sessions in a temporary wooden building. The White House could be lived in, but Mrs. Adams found the unfinished reception room very convenient for drying clothes on rainy Mondays. A few cheaply built and very uncomfortable boarding houses completed the city. 2.30. Traveling in 1800. The traveler in those days had a very very very hard time on the best roads of the north and the best coach and with the best weather

one might cover as many as 40 miles a day but the traveler had to start very early in the morning to do this generally he thought himself fortunate if he made 25 miles in the 24 hours south of the Potomac there were no public coaches and the traveler generally rode on horseback a few rich men like Washington rode in their own coaches everywhere north and south the ends were uncomfortable and the food was poor. Whenever it was possible, the traveler went by water. But that was dangerous work.

Lighthouses were far apart, and there were no public buoys to guide the mariner, and almost nothing had been done to improve navigation. 21, the steamboat. The steamboat came to change all this. While Washington was still president, a queer-looking boat sailed up and down the Delaware. She was propelled by oil. or paddles which were worked by steam. This boat must have been very uncomfortable and few persons wished to go on her. Robert Fulton made the first successful steamboat. She was named the Claremont

and was launched in 1807. She had paddle wheels and steamed against the wind and tide of the Hudson River. At first some people thought she was bewitched. But when it was found that she ran safely and regularly, people began to travel on her. Before a great while, steamboats appeared in all, parts of the country. 232. Making of the West. Even before the Revolutionary War, explorers and settlers had crossed the Allegheny Mountains. In Washington's time, pioneers, leaving

Pittsburgh, floated down the Ohio River in flatboats. Some of these settled in Cincinnati. Others went farther down the river to Louisville, in Kentucky, and still others founded Wheeling and Marietta. In 1811, the first steamboat appeared on the west rivers. The whole problem of living in the West rapidly changed, for the steamboat could go upstream as well as downstream. Communication between the new settlements and New Orleans and Pittsburgh

was now much safer and very much easier. 233. Cotton growing in the South. Cotton had been grown in the South for many years. It had been made on the plantations into a rough cloth. Very little had been sent away. The reason for this was that it took a very long time to separate the cotton fiber from the seed. One slave working for a whole day could hardly clean more than a pound of cotton. Still, as time went on, more cotton was grown. In 1784, a few bags of cotton were sent to England. The Englishman promptly seized it because they did not believe that so much cotton could be grown in America. In 1791, nearly 200,000 pounds of cotton were exported from the South. Then came Whitney's great invention, which entirely changed the whole history of the

country. 234. Whitney's cotton gin, 1793. Eli Whitney was a Connecticut schoolmaster. He went to Georgia to teach General Green's children. He was very ingenious, and one day, Mrs. Green suggested to him that he might make a machine which would separate the cotton fiber from the cotton seed. Whitney set to work and soon made an engine, or gin, as he called it, that would do this. The first machine was a rude affair, but even with it, one slave could clean 100 pounds of cotton in a day. Mrs. Green's neighbors promptly broke into Whitney's shop and stole his machine. Whitney's cotton gin made the growing of cotton profitable and so fastened slavery on the South. With the exception of the steam locomotive and the Reaper, no invention has so tremendously

influenced the history of the United States. 235. Colonial Manufactures Before the Revolutionary War, there were very few mills or factories in the colonies. There was no money to put into such undertakings and no operatives to work the mills if they had been built. The only colonial manufacturers that amounted to much were the making of nails and shoes. These articles could be made at home on the farms in the winter when no work could be done out of doors. 236.

Growth of manufacturers. 1789 to 1800. As soon as the new government with its wide powers was established, manufacturing started into life. Old meals were set to work. While the revolution had been going on in America, great improvements in the spinning of yarn and the weaving of cloth had been made in England.

Parliament made laws to prevent the export from England of machinery or patterns of machinery. but it could not prevent Englishmen from coming to America. Among the recent immigrants to the United States was Samuel Slater. He brought no patterns with him, but he was familiar with the new methods of spinning. He soon built spinning machinery. New cotton mills were now set up in several places, but it was some time before the new weaving machinery was introduced into America.

End of Chapter 22. Chapter 23. Jefferson's Administrations 27, President Jefferson Thomas Jefferson was a Republican. He believed in the Republican form of government. He believed the wisdom of the people to be the best guide. He wished the president to be simple and cordial in his relations with his fellow citizens. Adams had ridden to his inauguration in a coach drawn by six cream-colored horses.

Jefferson walked with a few hundred friends from his boarding house to the capital. Washington and Adams had gone into state to Congress, and had opened the session with a speech. Jefferson sent a written message to Congress by a messenger. Instead of bowing stiffly to those who came to see him, he shook hands with them and tried to make them feel at ease in his presence. 238. The Civil Service One of the first matters to take Jefferson's attention

was the condition of the Civil Service. There was not a Republican office holder in the government service. Washington, in the last years of his presidency, and Adams also had given all. office only to the Federalists. Jefferson thought it was absolutely necessary to have some officials upon whom he could rely, so he removed a few Federalist office holders and appointed Republicans to their places. Adams had even gone so far as to appoint officers up to the midnight of his last day in office. Indeed, John Marshall, his Secretary of State, was busy signing commissions when Jefferson's

Attorney General walked in with his watch in hand and told Marshall that it was 12 o'clock. Jefferson and Madison, the new Secretary of State, refused to deliver these commissions even when Marshall, as Chief Justice, ordered Madison to deliver them. 239. The Judiciary Act of 1801 One of the last laws made by the Federalists was the Judiciary Act of 1801. This law greatly enlarged the National Judiciary, and Adams eagerly seized the opportunity to appoint his friends to the new offices. The Republican Congress now repealed this. Judiciary Act and legislated out of office all the new judges, for it must be remembered that the Constitution makes only the members of the Supreme Court sure of their offices. Congress also got

rid of many other Federalist office holders by repealing the Internal Revenue Act. But while all this was done, Jefferson steadily refused to appoint men to office merely because they're Republicans. One man claimed an office on the ground that he was a Republican, and that the Republicans were the Saviors of the Republic. Jefferson replied that Rome had been saved by geese, but he had never heard that geese were given offices. 240. Paying the national debt. Jefferson was especially anxious to cut down the expenses of the government and to pay as much as possible of the national debt. Madison and Gallatin worked heartily with him to carry out this policy. The repeal of the Internal Revenue Act took much revenue from the government, but it also did away with the salaries of a great

many officials. The repeal of the Judiciary Act also put an end to many salaries. Now that the dispute with France was ended, Jefferson thought that the army and the Navy might safely be reduced. Most of the naval vessels were sold. A few good ships were kept at sea, and the rest were tied up at the wharves. The number of ministers to European states was reduced to the lowest possible limit, and the civil service at home was also cut down. The expenses of the government were in these ways greatly lessened. At the same time, the revenue from the Customs Service increased. The result was that in the eight years of Jefferson's administrations, the national debt shrank from $83 million to $45 million. Yet, in the same time, the United States paid

$15 million for Louisiana and waged a series of successful and costly wars with the pirates of the northern coast of Africa. 21. Louisiana, again, a French colony. Spanish territory now bounded the United States on the south and the west. The Spaniards were not good neighbors because it was very hard to make them come to an agreement and next to impossible to make them keep an agreement when it was made. But this did not matter very much because Spain was a weak power and was growing weaker every year. Sooner or later, the United States would gain its point.

Suddenly, however, it was announced that France had got back Louisiana. and almost at the same moment the spanish governor of louisiana said that americans could no longer deposit their goods at new orleans at once there was a great outcry in the west jefferson determined to buy from france new orleans and the land eastward from the mouth of the mississippi two forty two the louisiana purchase eighteen o three when napoleon got louisiana from spain he had an idea of again founding a great french colony in america at the moment four hundred France and Great Britain were at peace, but it soon looked as if war would begin again. Napoleon knew that the British would at once seize Louisiana, and he could not keep it anyway. So one day, when the Americans and the French were talking about the purchase of New Orleans, the French minister suddenly asked if the United States would not like to buy the whole of Louisiana. Monroe and Livingston, the American ministers, had no authority to buy Louisiana,

but the purchase of the whole colony would be a great benefit to the United States, so they quickly agreed to pay $15 million for the whole of Louisiana. 243. The treaty ratified. Jefferson found himself in a strange position. The Constitution nowhere delegated the United States power to acquire territory. But after thinking it over, Jefferson felt sure that the people would approve of the purchase. The treaty was ratified. The money was paid. This purchase turned out to be a most for.

fortunate thing. It gave to the United States the whole western valley of Mississippi. It also gave to the Americans the opportunity to explore and settle Oregon, which lay beyond the limits of Louisiana. 244. Lewis and Clark's Expeditions. Jefferson soon sent out several expeditions to explore the unknown portions of the continent. The most important of these was the expedition led by two army officers, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, brother of General George Rogers Clark. Leaving St. Louis, they slowly ascended the muddy Missouri. They passed the site of the present city of Omaha.

They passed the council bluffs. The current of the river now became so rapid that the explorers left their boats and traveled along the river's bank. They gained the sources of the Missouri and came to a westward flowing river. On and on, they followed it until they came to the river's mouth.

A fog hung low over the water. Suddenly, it lifted. There, before the explorer's eyes, the river, in waves like small mountains, rolled out into the ocean. They had traced the Columbia River from its upper course to the Pacific. Captain Gray in the Boston ship Columbia had already entered the mouth of the river, but Lewis and Clark were the first white man to reach it over land. 245. The 12th Amendment, 1804. Four presidential elections had now been held under the method provided by the Constitution, and that method had not worked well.

It was now, 1804, changed by the adoption of the 12th Amendment, which is still in force. The old machinery of presidential electors was kept, but it was provided that in the future, each elector should vote for president and vice president on separate and distinct ballots. The voters had no more part in the election under the new system than they had had had. under the old system. The old method of apportioning electors among the states was also kept. This gives to each state as many electors as it has senators and representatives in Congress. No matter how small its territory or how small its population, a state has at least two senators and one representative and, therefore, three electors. The result is that each voter in a small state has more influence in choosing the president than each voter in a large state.

Indeed, several presidents have been elected by minorities of the voters of the country as a whole. 246. Re-election of Jefferson, 1804. Jefferson's first administration had been most successful. The Republicans had repealed many unpopular laws. By the purchase of Louisiana, the area of the United States had been doubled, and an end put to the dispute as to the navigation of the Mississippi. The expenses of the national government had been cut down, and a part of the state. portion of the national debt had been paid. The people were prosperous and happy. Under these circumstances, Jefferson was triumphantly re-elected. He received 162 electoral votes to only 14 for his federalist rival. End of Chapter 23. Chapter 24 and 25 of a short history of

the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 24. Causes of the War of 1812. 247. The North Africa Pirates Stretching along the northern shores of Africa from Egypt, westward to the Atlantic, were four states.

These states were named Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco. Their people were Muhammadans and were rulers over by persons called days or bays or Pachas. These rulers found it profitable and pleasant to attack and capture Christian ships. The cargoes of the captured vessels they sold at good prices, and the seamen and passengers they sold at good prices too, as slaves. The leading powers of Europe, instead of destroying these pirates, found it easier to pay them to let their ships alone.

Washington and Adams also paid them to allow American ships to sail unharmed. But the pirates were never satisfied with what was paid them. Jefferson decided to put an end to this tribute paying. He sent a few ships to seize the pirates and shut up their harbors. More and more vessels were sent, until at last the days and the bays and Pachas thought it would be cheaper to behave themselves properly. So they agreed to release their American principles. prisoners and not to capture any more American ships. In these little wars, American naval officers

gained much useful experience and did many glorious deeds, especially Decatur and Summers won renown. 248. America, Britain, and France Napoleon Bonaparte was now the Emperor of the French. In 1804, he made war on the British and their allies. Soon he became supreme on the land. and the British became supreme on the water. They could no longer fight one another very easily, so they determined to injure each other's trade and commerce as much as possible. The British declared continental ports closed to commerce,

and Napoleon declared all British commerce to be unlawful. Of course, under these circumstances, British and continental ships could not carry on trade, and American vessels rapidly took their places. The British ship owners called upon their government to put an end to this American. commerce. Old laws were looked up and enforced. American vessels that disobeyed them were seized by the British, but if any American vessel obeyed these laws, Napoleon seized it as soon as it

entered a French harbor. 249. The impressment controversy. With the British, the United States had still another cause of complaint. British warships stopped American vessels and took away all their seamen who looked like Englishmen. These they compelled to serve. on British men of war. As Americans and Englishmen looked very much alike, they generally seized all the best-looking seamen. Thousands of Americans were captured in this way and forced into slavery on British men of war.

This method of kidnapping was also called impressment. 250. The embargo, 1807 to 1809. Jefferson hardly knew what to do. He might declare war on both Great Britain and on France, but to do that would surely put a speedy end to all American commerce. In the old days, before the Revolutionary War, the colonists had more than once brought the British to terms by refusing to buy their goods. Jefferson now thought if people of the United States should refuse to trade with the British and the French,

the governments, both of Great Britain and of France, would be forced to treat American commerce properly. Congress, therefore, passed an embargo act. This forbade vessels to leave American ports after a certain day. If the people had been united, the embargo might have done what Jefferson expected it would do. But the people were not united, especially in New England. The ship owners tried in every way to break the law. This led to the passing of stricter laws.

Finally, the New Englanders even talked of succeeding from the Union. 251. The Outrage on the Chesapeake, 1807. The British now added to the anger of the Americans by impressing seamen from the decks of an American warship. The frigate Chesapeake left the Norfolk Navy yard for a cruise. At once the British vessel Leopard sailed toward her and ordered her to stop. As the Chesapeake did not stop, the leopard fired on her. The American frigate was just setting out and everything was in confusion on her decks. But a coal was brought from the cook stove and one gun was fired.

Her flag was then hauled down. The British came on board and seized four seamen, who they said were deserters from the British Navy. This outrage aroused tremendous excitement. Jefferson ordered all British warships out of American waters and forbade the people to supply them with provisions, water, or wood. The British offered to restore the imprisoned seamen and ordered out of American waters, the Admiral under whose direction the outrage had been done.

But they would not give up impressment. 252. Madison elected president, 1808. There is nothing in the Constitution to limit the number of times a man may be chosen president. Many persons would gladly have voted a third time for Jefferson. But he thought that unless some limit were set, the people might keep on re-electing a popular and successful president term after term. This would be very dangerous to the Republican form of government. So Jefferson followed Washington's example and declined a third term. Washington and Jefferson thus established a custom that has ever since been followed.

The Republicans voted for James Madison, and he was elected president, 1808. 253. The Non- Intercourse Act, 1809. By this time, the embargo had become so very unpopular that it could be maintained only at the cost of civil war. Madison suggested that the embargoes, embargo act should be repealed, and a non-intercourse act passed in its place. Congress at once did as he suggested. The Non-intercourse Act prohibited commerce with Great Britain and with France, and countries controlled by France. It permitted commerce with the rest of the world. There were not many European countries with which America could trade under this law. Still, there were a few

countries, as Norway and Spain, which still maintained their independence, and goods could be sold through them to the other European countries. At all events, no sooner was the embargo removed than commerce revived. Rates of freight were very high, and the profits were very large, although the French and British captured many American vessels. 254. Two British ministers. Soon after Madison's inauguration, a new British minister came to Washington. His name was Erskine, and he was very friendly. A treaty was speedily made on conditions which Madison thought could be granted. He suspended non-intercourse with Great Britain and hundreds of vessels set sail for that country, but the British rulers soon put an end to this friendly feeling. They said that Erskine had no authority

to make such a treaty. They refused to carry it out and recalled Erskine. The next British minister was a person named Jackson. He accused Madison of cheating Erskine and repeated the accusation. The upon, Madison sent him back to London. As the British could not carry out the terms of Erthgine's Treaty, Madison was compelled to prohibit all intercourse with Great Britain. 255. British and French trickery. The scheme of non-intercourse did not seem to bring the British and French to terms much better than the embargo had done. In 1810, therefore, Congress set to work and produced a third plan. This was to allow intercourse with both Great Britain and France. But this was coupled with the promise that if one of the two nations

stopped seizing American ships and the other did not, then intercourse with the unfriendly country should be prohibited. Napoleon at once said he would stop seizing American vessels on November 1st of that year if the British, on their part, would stop their seizures before that time. The British said that they would stop seizing when Napoleon did. Neither of them really did anything except to keep on capturing American vessels whenever they could get a chance. 256. Indian Troubles, 1810. To this everlasting trouble with Great Britain and France were now added the horrors of an Indian war. It came about in this way. Settlers were pressing into Indiana territory west of the new state of Ohio. Soon the lands which the United States had bought of the

Indians would be occupied. New lands must be bought. At this time, there were two able Indian leaders in the northwest. These were Takumte or Takumse, and his brother, who was known as the Prophet. These chiefs set on foot a great Indian Confederation. They said that no one Indian tribes should sell land to the United States without the consent of all the tribes of the Confederation 257. Battle of Tippecanoe. This determined attitude of the Indians seemed to American leaders to be very dangerous. Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana territory gathered a small army of regular soldiers

and volunteers from Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana. He marched to the Indian settlements. The Indians attacked him at Tippecanoe. He beat them off and, attacking in his turn, routed them. Tecumthe was not at the battle, but he immediately fled to the British in Canada. The Americans had suspected that the British were stirring up the Indians to resist the United States. The reception giving to Ticumphi made them feel that their suspicions were correct. 28. The War Party in Congress

There were abundant reasons to justify war with Great Britain or with France or with both of them, But there would probably have been no war with either of them had it not been for a few energetic young men in Congress. The leaders of this war party were Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Clay was born in Virginia, but as a boy, he had gone to Kentucky. He represented the spirit of the young and growing west. He was a true patriot and felt angry at the way the British spoke of America and Americans, and at the way they acted toward the United States. He was a very popular man and won men to him by his attractive qualities and by his energy.

Calhoun was a South Carolinian who had been educated in Connecticut. He was a man of the highest personal character. He had a strong, active mind, and he was fearless in debate. As with Clay, so with Calhoun. They both felt the rising spirit of nationality. They thought that the United States had been patient long enough. They and their friends gained a majority in Congress and forced Madison to send a warlike message to Congress. 259. Madison's Reasons for War, 1812. In his message, Madison stated that the grounds for complaint against the British as follows.

One, they impressed American seamen. Two, they disturbed American commerce by stationing warships off the principal ports. Three, they refused to permit trade between America and Europe. Four, they stirred up the Western Indians to attack the settlers. Five, they were really making war on the United States, while the United States was at peace with them. For these reasons, Madison advised the declaration of war against Great Britain, and war was declared. End of Chapter 24. Part 9. War in Peace, 1812 to 1829. Chapter 25. The Second War of Independence. 1812 to 1815.

260. Plan of Campaign, 1812. The American Plan of Campaign was that General Hull should invade Canada from Detroit. He could then march eastward, north of Lake Erie, and meet another army which was to cross the Niagara River. These two armies were to take up the eastward march and join a third army from New York. The three armies would then capture Montreal and Quebec and generally all of Canada. It was a splendid plan, but there were three things in the way of carrying it out. One, there was no trained American army. Two, there were no supplies for any army when gathered and trained. And three, there was a small, well-trained and well-supplied army in Canada. 261. Hull's Surrender of Detroit, 1812. In those days, Detroit was separated from the settled parts of Ohio by 200 miles of wilderness.

To get his men and supplies to Detroit, Hull had to, first of all, to cut a road through the forest. The British learned of the actual declaration of war before Hull knew of it. They dashed down on his scattered detachments and seized his provisions. Hull sent out expedition after expedition to gather supplies and bring in the scattered settlers. Tecumse and the other Indian allies of the British

captured one expedition after another. The British advanced on Detroit and Hulls surrendered. By this disaster, the British got control of the upper lakes. They even invaded Ohio. 262. Perry's victory on Lake Erie, 1813. But the British triumph did not last long. In the winter of 1812 to 13, Captain Oliver Hazard Perry built a fleet of warships on Lake Erie. They were built of green timber cut for the purpose. They were poor vessels, but they were as good as the British vessels. In September 1813, Perry sailed in search of the British ships. Coming up with them, he hoisted at his masthead a large blue flag with Lawrence's immortal words, Don't give up the ship, worked upon it. The battle was fiercely fought. Soon, Perry's flagship, the Lawrence, was disabled, and only nine of her

crew were uninjured. Rowing to another ship, Perry continued the fight. In 15 minutes more, all the British ships surrendered. The control of Lake Erie was now in American hands. The British retreated from the southern side of the lake. General Harrison occupied Detroit. He then crossed into Canada and defeated a British army on the banks of the river Times. 263. The Frigate Constitution One of the first vessels to get to see was the Constitution, commanded by Isaac Hull. She sailed from Chesapeake Bay for New York, where she was to serve as a guardship. On the way, she fell in with a British squadron.

The Constitution sailed on with the whole British fleet in pursuit. Soon the wind began to die away. The Constitution's sails were soaked with water to make them hold the wind better. Then the wind gave out all together. Captain Hull lowered his boats and the men began to tow the ship but the British lowered their boats also. They set a great

many boats to towing their fastest ship and she began to gain on the Constitution. Then Captain Hull found that he was sailing over shoal water, although out of sight of land so he sent a small anchor ahead in a boat. The anchor was dropped and men on the ship pulled in the anchor line. This was

done again and again. The Constitution now began to gain on the British fleet. Then a sudden squaw burst on the ships. Captain Hull saw it coming and made every preparation to take advantage of it. When the rain cleared away, the Constitution was beyond fear of pursuit, but she could not go to New York, so Captain Hull took her to Boston. The government at once ordered him to stay where he was, but before the orders reached Boston, the Constitution was far away. 264. Constitution and Guiririri, 1812. For some time, Hull cruised about in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

One day, he cited a British frigate, Viguerreity, one of the ships that had chased the Constitution. But now that Hull found her alone, he steered straight for her. In 30 minutes from the firing of the first gun, the Gririrdi was a ruinous wreck. All of her masts and spars were shot away, and most of her crew were killed or wounded. The Constitution was only slightly injured and was soon ready to fight another British frigate had there been one to fight. Indeed, the surgeons of the Constitution went on board the Guirity to help dress the wounds of the British seaman. The Gririty was a little smaller than the Constitution and had smaller guns, but the real reason for this great victory was that the American ship and the American guns were very much better

handled than were the British ship and the British guns. 265 The Wasp and the Frolick, 1812. at almost the same time the american ship wasp captured the british brig frolic the wasp had three masts and the frolic had only two masts but the two vessels were really of about the same size as the american ship was only five feet longer than her enemy and had the lighter guns In a few minutes, after the beginning of the fight, the frolic was a shattered hulk with only one sound man on her deck. Soon after the conflict, a British battleship came up and captured both the Wasp and her prize. The effect of these victories of the Constitution and the Wasp was tremendous. Before the war, British naval officers had called the Constitution, quote, a bundle of sticks. Now it was thought to be no longer safe for British frigates to sail in the seas alone.

They must go in pairs to protect each other from old iron sides. Before long, the Constitution, now commanded by Captain Bainbridge, had captured the British frigate Java, and the frigate United States, Captain Decatur, had taken the British ship Macedonian. On the other hand, the Chesapeake was captured by the Shannon. This victory gave great satisfaction to the British, but Captain Lawrence's last words, don't give up the ship, have always been a glorious inspiration to American sailors. 266. Brown's invasion of Canada, 1814. In the first two years of the war, the American armies in New York had done nothing, but abler men were now in command. Of these, General Jacob Brown, General McComb,

Colonel Winfield Scott, and Colonel Ripley deserved to be remembered. The American plan of campaign was that Brown, Scott and Ripley would cross the Niagara River and invade Canada. General McComb, with a naval force under McDonough, was to hold the line of Lake Champlain. The British plan was to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain. Brown crossed the Niagara River and fought two brilliant battles at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. The latter battle was especially glorious because the Americans captured British guns and held them against repeated attacks by British veterans. In the United, end, however, Brown was obliged to retire. 267. McDonough's victory at Plattsburgh, 1814.

General Previst, with a fine army of veterans, marched southward from Canada, while a fleet sailed up Lake Champlain. At Plattsburgh, on the western side of the lake, was General McComb, with a force of American soldiers. Anchored before the town was McDonough's fleet. Prevost attacked McComb's army and was driven back. The British fleet, attacked McDonough's vessels and was destroyed. That put an end to Prevost's invasion. He retreated back to Canada as fast as he could go. 268. The British in the Chesapeake, 1814. Besides their operations on the Canadian frontier, the British tried to capture New Orleans and the cities on Chesapeake Bay. The British landed below Washington. They marched to the capital. They entered Washington.

They burned the capital, the White House, and several other parts. public buildings. They then hurried away, leaving their wounded behind them. Later on, the British attacked Baltimore and were beaten off with great loss. It was at this time that Francis Scott Key wrote the Star-Spangled Banner. He was detained on board one of the British warships during the fight. Eagerly, he watched through the smoke for a glimpse of the flag over Fort McHenry at the harbor's mouth. In the morning, the flag was still there. This defeat closed the British operations on the Chesapeake. 269. The Creek

War. The Creek Indians lived in Alabama. They saw with this May the spreading settlements of the whites. The Americans were now at war. It would be a good chance to destroy them. So the creeks fell upon the whites and murdered about 400.

General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee commanded the American Army in the southwest. As soon as he knew that the creeks were attacking the settlers, he gathered soldiers and followed the Indians to their stronghold. He stormed their fort and killed most of the garrison. 270. Jackson's defense of New Orleans, 1814 to 15. Jackson had scarcely finished this work when he learned of the coming of a great British expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi River.

He at once hastened to the defense of New Orleans. Below the city, the country greatly favored the defender, for there was very little solid ground except along the river's bank. Picking out an especially narrow place, Jackson built a breastwork of cotton bales and rubbish. In front of the breastwork, he dug a deep ditch. The British rushed to the attack. Most of their generals were killed or wounded, and the slaughter was terrible. Later they made another attack, and were again beaten off. 271. The War on the Sea, 1814.

It was only in the first year or so of the war that there was much fighting between American and British warships. After that, the American ships could not get to sea, for the British stationed whole fleets off the entrances to the principal harbors. But a few American vessels ran the blockade and did good service. For instance, Captain Charles Stewart and the Constitution captured two British ships at one time, but most of the warships that got to see were captured sooner or later. 272. The Privateers No British fleets could keep the privateers from leaving port. They swarmed upon the ocean and captured hundreds of British merchantmen, some of them within sight of the shores of Great Britain.

In all, they captured more than 2,500 British ships. They even fought the smaller warships of the enemy. 273. Treaty of Ghent, 1814 The war had hardly begun before commissioners to treat for peace were appointed by both the United States and Great Britain. But they did nothing until the failure of the 1814 campaign showed the British government that there was no hope of conquering any portion of the United States. Then the British were ready enough to make peace and a treaty was signed at Ghent in December 1814. This was two weeks before the British disaster at New Orleans occurred and months before the news of it reached Europe.

None of the things about which the war was fault were ever mentioned in this treaty. But this did not really make much of a difference, for the British had repealed their orders as to American ships before the news of the Declaration of War reached London. As for impressment, the guns of the Constitution had put an end to that. 274.

The Hartford Convention, 1814. While the new commissioners were talking over the Treaty of Peace, other debaters were discussing the war at Hartford, Connecticut. These were leading New England Federalists. They thought that the government at Washington

had done many things that the Constitution of the United States did not permit it to do. They drew up a set of resolutions. Some of these read like other resolutions drawn up by Jefferson and Madison in 1798. The Hartford debaters also thought that the national government had not done enough to protect the coasts of New England from British attacks. They proposed, therefore, that the taxes collected by the national government in New England should be handed over to the New England states to use for their defense. Commissioners were actually at Washington to propose this division of the national revenue when news came of Jackson's victory at New Orleans and of the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The commissioners hastened home and the Republican Party regained its popularity

with the voters. 275. Gains of the war. The United States gained no territory after all this fighting on sea and land. It did not even gain the abolition of impressment in so many words. But what was of far greater importance, the American people began to think of itself as a nation. Americans no longer looked to France or to England as models to be followed. They became Americans. The getting of this feeling of independence and of nationality was a very great step forward. It is right, therefore, to speak of this war as the second war of independence. End of Chapter 25.

Chapter 26 and 27 of a short history of the United States. This is the Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 26. The Era of Good Feeling, 1815 to 1824. 276. The era as a whole. The years 1815 to 24 have been called the era of good feeling because there was no hard political fighting in all that time, at least not until the last year or two.

In 1816, Munro was elected president without much opposition. In 1820, he was re-elected president without any opposition whatever. Instead of fighting over politics, the people were busily employed in bringing vast regions of the West under cultivation and in founding great many manufacturing industries in the east. They were also making roads and canals to connect the western farms with the eastern cities and factories. The later part of the era was a time of unbounded prosperity. Every now and then, some hard question would come up for discussion. Its settlement would be put off, or the matter would be compromised. In these years, the Federalist Party had disappeared, and the Republican Party split into factions. By 1824,

the differences in the Republican Party had become so great that there was a sudden ending to the era of good feeling. 277. Western immigration. During the first few years of this period, the people of the older states on the sea coast felt very poor. The ship owners could no longer make great profits. For now, there was peace in Europe, and European vessels competed with American vessels. Great quantities of British goods were sent to the United States and were sold at very low prices. The demand for American goods fell off. Meal owners closed their meals. Working men and women could find no work to do. The result was a great rush of immigrants from the older states on the seaboard to the new settlements in the West.

In the West, the immigrants could buy land from the government at a very low rate, and, by working hard, could support themselves and their families. This Western movement was at its height in 1817. In the years, 1816 to 19, four states were admitted to the Union. These were Indiana, 1816, Mississippi, 1817, Illinois, 1818, and Alabama, 1819. Some of the immigrants even crossed the Mississippi River and settled in Missouri and Arkansas. In 1819, they asked to be admitted to the Union as the state of Missouri, or given a territorial government under the name of Arkansas. The people of Maine also asked Congress to admit them to the Union as the state of Maine.

278. Opposition to the admission of Missouri. Many people in the north opposed the admission of Missouri because the settlers of the proposed state were slaveholders. Missouri would be a slave state, and these northerners did not want any more slave states. Originally, slavery had existed in all the old 13 states, but every state north of Maryland had before 18,000. either put an end to slavery or had adopted some plan by which slavery would gradually come to an end. Slavery had been excluded from the northwest by the famous ordinance of 1787. In these ways, slavery had ceased to be a vital institution north of Maryland and Kentucky. Why should slavery be allowed west of the Mississippi River?

Louisiana had been admitted as a slave state, 1812, but the admission of Louisiana had been provided for in the Treaty for the Purchase of Louisiana from France. The Southerners felt as strongly on the other side. They said that their slaves were their property, and they had a perfect right to take their property and settle on the land belonging to the nation. Having founded a slave state, it was only right that the state should be admitted to the union.

279. The Missouri Compromise 1820 When the question of the admission of Maine and Missouri came before Congress, the Senate was equally divided between the slave states and the free states, but the majority of the House of Representatives was from the free states. The free states were growing faster than were the slave states, and would probably keep on growing faster.

The majority from the free states in the House, therefore, would probably keep on increasing. If the free states obtained a majority in the Senate also, the Southerners would lose all control of the government. For these reasons, the Southerners would not consent to the admission of Maine as a free state unless at the same time Missouri was admitted as a slave state. After a long struggle, Maine and Missouri were both admitted, the one as a free state, the other as a slave state. But it was also agreed that all of the Louisiana purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri, with the single exception of the state of Missouri, should be free soil forever. This arrangement was called the

Missouri Compromise. It was the work of Henry Clay. It was an event of great importance. It was an event of great importance because it put off for 25 years the inevitable conflict over slavery. 280. The Florida Treaty, 1819. While this contest was going on, the United States bought of Spain a large tract of land admirably suited to Negro slavery. This was Florida. It belonged to Spain and was a refuge for all sorts of people, runaway Negroes, fugitive Indians, smugglers, and criminals of all kinds. Once in Florida, fugitives generally were safe, but they were not always safe. For instance, in 1818, General Jackson chased some fleeing Indians over the boundary. They sought refuge in a Spanish fort, and Jackson was obliged to take the fort as well as the Indians.

This exploit made the Spaniards more willing to sell Florida. The price was $5 million, but when it came to giving up the province, the Spaniards found great difficulty in keeping their promises. The treaty was made in 1819, but it was not until 1821 that Jackson, as governor of Florida, took possession of the new territory. Even then, the Spanish governor refused to hand over the record books, and Jackson had to shut him up in prison until he became more reasonable. 281. The Holy Alliance Most of the people of the other Spanish colonies were rebelling against Spain, and there was a rebellion

in Spain itself. There were rebellions in other European countries, as well as in Spain. In fact, there seemed to be a rebellious spirit nearly everywhere. This alarmed the European emperors and kings. With the exception of the British king, they joined together to put down rebellions. They called their union the Holy Alliance. They soon put the Spanish king back on his throne. Then they thought that they would send warships and soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean to crush the rebellions in the Spanish colonies. Now, the people of the United States sympathized with the Spanish colonists

and their desire for independence. They also dislike the idea of Europeans interfering in American affairs. America for Americans was the cry. It also happened that Englishmen desired the freedom of the Spanish colonists. As her subjects, Spain would not let them buy English goods, but if they were free,

they could buy goods wherever they pleased. The British government, therefore, proposed that the United States and Great Britain should join in a declaration that the Spanish colonies were independent states. John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was Monroe's Secretary of State. He thought that this would not be a wise course to follow, because it might bring American affairs within European control. He was all the more anxious to prevent this entanglement, as the Tsar of Russia was preparing to found colonies on the western coast of North America, and Adams wanted a free hand to deal with him.

282. The Monroe Doctrine, 1823. It was under these circumstances that President Monroe sent a message to Congress. In it, he stated that the policy of the United States was as follows. 1. America is closed to colonization by any European power. 2. The United States have not interfered and will not interfere in European affairs. 3. The United States. States regard the extension of the system of the Holy Alliance to America as dangerous to the United States and four. The United States would regard the interference of the Holy Alliance

in American Affairs as an unfriendly act. This part of the message was written by Adams. He had had a long experience in diplomacy. He used the words, unfriendly act as diplomatists use them when they mean that such an unfriendly act would be a cause for war. The British government also informed the Holy Allies that their interference in American affairs would be resented. The Holy Alliance gave over all idea of crushing the Spanish colonists. And the Tsar of Russia agreed to found no colonies south of 54 degrees and 40 degrees north latitude.

283. Meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. The ideas contained in Monroe's celebrated message to Congress. are always spoken of as the Monroe Doctrine. Most of these ideas were not invented by Monroe or by Adams. Many of them may be found in Washington's Neutrality Proclamation, in Washington's Farewell Address, in Jefferson's inaugural address, and in other documents. What was new in Monroe's message was the statement

that European interference in American affairs would be looked upon by the United States as an unfriendly act leading to war. European kings might crush out, liberty in Europe. They might divide Asia and Africa among themselves. They must not interfere in American affairs. End of Chapter 26. Chapter 27, New parties and new policies, 1824 to 1829. 284. End of the era of good feeling. The era of good feeling came to a sudden ending in 1824. Monroe's second term as president would end in 1825. He refused to be a candidate for re-election.

And thus, following the example set by Washington, Jefferson, and Madison, Monroe confirmed the custom of limiting the presidential term to eight years. There was no lack of candidates to succeed him in his high office. 285. John Quincy Adams. First and foremost was John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts. He was Monroe's Secretary of State, and this office had been a kind of stepping stone to the presidency. Monroe had been Madison's Secretary of State, Madison had been Jefferson's Secretary of State, and Jefferson had been Washington's Secretary of State, although he was vice president when he was chosen to the first place. John Quincy Adams was a statesman of great experience and of ability. He was a man of the highest honor and intelligence. He was nominated by the legislatures of

Massachusetts and of the other New England states. 286 William H. Crawford. Besides Adams, two other members of Monroe's cabinet wished to succeed their chief. These were John C. Calhoun and William H. Crawford. Calhoun soon withdrew from the contest to accept the nomination of all the factions to the place of vice president. Crawford was from Georgia and was Secretary of the Treasury. As the head of that great department, he controlled more appointments than all other members of the cabinet put together. The habit of using public offices to reward political forms.

friends had begun in Pennsylvania. Washington in his second term, Adams and Jefferson had appointed to the office only members of their own party. Jefferson had also removed from office a few political opponents, but there were great difficulties in the way of making removals. Crawford hit upon the plan of appointing officers for four years only. Congress at once fell in with the idea and passed the Tenure of Office Act, limiting appointments to four years. Crawford promptly used this new power to build up a strong political machine in the Treasury Department devoted to his personal advancement. He was nominated for the presidency by a congressional caucus and became the regular candidate. 287. Clay and Jackson

Two men outside of the cabinet were also put forward for Monroe's high office. These were Andrew Jackson of Tennessee and Henry Clay of Kentucky. Clay and Calhoun had entered politics about the same time. They had then believed in the same policy. Calhoun had abandoned his early ideas, but Clay held fast to the policy of nationalization. He still favored internal improvements at the national expense. He still favored the protective system. He was the great peacemaker, and tried by means of compromises to unite all parts of the union. He loved his country, and had unbounded faith in the American people. The legislatures of Kentucky and other states nominated him for the presidency. The strongest man of all the candidates was Andrew Jackson,

the hero of New Orleans. He had never been prominent in politics, but his warlike deeds had made his name and his strength familiar to the voters, especially to those of the West. He was a man of the people, as none of his rivals were. He stood for democracy and the union. The legislatures of Tennessee and other states nominated Jackson for presidency. Adams chosen president, 1824. The election was held. The presidential electors met in their several states and cast their votes for president and vice president. The ballots were brought to Washington and were counted. No candidate for the presidency had received a majority of all the votes cast. Jackson had more votes than any other candidate. Next came Adams, then Crawford, and last of all, Clay. The House of Representatives voting by states, must choose one of the first three president. Clay, therefore, was out of the race. Clay and his friends believed in the same things that Adams and his friends believed in, and had slight sympathy with the views of Jackson or of Crawford. So they joined the Adams men and chose Adams president. The Jackson

men were furious. They declared that the representatives had defeated the will of the people. 289. Misfortunes of Adams administration. Adams' first mistake was the appointment of Clay a Secretary of State. It was a mistake because it gave the Jackson men a chance to assert that there had been a deal between Adams and Clay. They called Clay the Judas of the West. They said that the will of the people had been defeated by a corrupt bargain. These charges were repeated over and over again until many people really began to think there must be some reason for them. The Jackson men also most unjustly accused Adams of stealing the nation's money. The British government seized the opportunity of Adams' weak administration to close the West India ports to

American shipping. 290. Early tariffs. Ever since 1789, manufacturers had been protected. The first tariff rates were very low, but the Embargo Act, the non-intercourse law, and the War of 1812, put an end to the importation of foreign goods. Capitalists invested large amounts of money in cotton mills, woolen mills, and iron mills. With the return of peace in 1815, British merchants flooded the American markets with cheap goods. The manufacturers appealed to Congress for more protection, and Congress promptly passed a new tariff act, 1816. This increased the duties over the earlier laws, but it did not give the manufacturers

all the protection that they desired. In 1824, another law was drawn up. It raised the duties still higher. The Southerners opposed the passage of this last law, for they clearly saw. that protection did them no good, but the northerners and the westerners were heartily in favor of the increased duties, and the law was passed. 291 The Tariff of Abominations, 1828

In 1828, another presidential election was to be held. The manufacturers thought that this would be a good time to ask for even higher protective duties, because the politicians would not dare to oppose the passage of the law for fear of losing votes. The Jackson men hit upon a plan by which they would seem to favor higher duties while at the same time they were really opposing them. They therefore proposed high duties on manufactured goods. This would please the northern manufacturers. They proposed high duties on raw materials. This would please the Western producers. But they thought that the manufacturers would oppose the final passage of the bill because the high duties on raw materials would enter them very much.

The bill would fail to pass. And this would please the same. southern cotton growers. It was a very shrewd little plan, but it did not work. The manufacturers thought that it would be well at all events to have the high duties on manufactured goods. Perhaps they might, before long, secure the repeal of the duties on raw materials. The northern members of Congress voted for the bill, and it passed. 2.92. Jackson elected President 1828. In the midst of all this discouragement as to foreign affairs, in this contest over the tariff, the presidential campaign of 1828 was held. Adams and Jackson were the only two candidates.

Jackson was elected by a large majority of electoral votes, but Adams received only one vote less than he had received in 1824. The contest was very close in the two large states of Pennsylvania and New York. Had a few thousand more voters in those states cast their votes for Adams, the electoral votes of those states would have been given to him, and he would have been elected. It was fortunate that Jackson was chosen for a great contest between the states and the national government was coming on. It was well that a man of Jackson's commanding strength and great popularity should be at the head of the government. End of chapter 27. Chapter 28 and 29 of a short

history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Part 10. The National Democracy, 1829 to 1844. Chapter 28. The American People in 1830. 293. A new race. Between the election of President Jefferson and the election of President Jackson,

great changes had taken place. The old revolutionary statesmen had gone. New men had taken their places. The old sleepy life had gone. Everywhere now was a bustle and hurry. In 1800, the Federalists favored the British and the Republicans favored the French. Now, no one seemed to care for either the British or the French.

At last, the people had become Americans. The Federalist Party had disappeared. Everyone was now either a National Republican and voted for Adams, or a Democrat Republican and voted for Jackson. 294. Numbers and area. In 1800, there were only 5 and 1.5 million people in the whole United States. Now, there were nearly 13 million people, and they had a very much larger country to live in.

In 1800, the area of the United States was about 800,000 square miles, but Louisiana and Florida had been bought since then. Now, 1830, the area of the United States was about 2 million square miles, The population of the old states had greatly increased, especially the cities had grown. In 1800, New York City held about 60,000 people. It now held 200,000 people, but it was in the West that the greatest growth had taken place. Since 1800, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Missouri had all been admitted to the Union. 295. National Roads

Steamboats were now running on the Great Lakes, and on all the important rivers, of the West. The first result of this new mode of transport was the separation of the West from the East. Steamboats could carry passengers in goods up and down the Mississippi and its branches more cheaply and more comfortably than people and goods could be carried over the Alleghenies. Many persons, therefore, advised the building of a good wagon road to connect the Potomac with the Ohio. The eastern end of this great road was at Cumberland on the Potomac in Maryland. It is generally called, therefore, the Cumberland Road. It was begun at the national expense in 1811. By 1820, the road was built as far as wheeling

on the Ohio River. From that point, steamboats could steam to Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, St. Louis, or New Orleans. Later on, the road was built farther west, as far as Illinois. Then the coming of the railroad made further building unnecessary. 296, the Erie Canal. The best way to connect one steamboat route with another was to dig a canal. The most famous of all of all the city. these canals was the one connecting the Hudson River with Lake Erie called the Erie Canal. It was begun in 1817 and was completed so that a boat could pass through it in 1825. It was DeWitt Clinton, who argued that such a canal would benefit New York City by bringing to it the produce of the northwest and of western New York. At the same time, it would benefit the farmers of those regions

by bringing their produce to tidewater, cheaper than it could be brought by road through Pennsylvania. It would still further benefit the farmers by enabling them to buy their goods much cheaper, as the rates of freight would be so much lower by canal than they were by road. People who did not see these things as clearly as DeWitt Clinton saw them spoke of the enterprise most sneeringly and called the canal Clinton's big ditch. It very soon appeared that Clinton was right. In one year, the cost of carrying a ton of grain from Lake Erie to the Hudson River fell from $100 to $15. New York City soon outstripped all its rivals and became the center of trade and money in the United States. Other canals, as the Chesapeake and the Ohio Canal, were marvels of skill, but they were not so

favorably situated as the Erie Canal and could not compete with it successfully. 297. Early railroads The best stone and gravel roads were always rough in places. It occurred to someone that it would be better to lay down wooden rails and then to place a rim or flange on the road. the wagon wheels to keep them on the rails. The first road of this kind in America was built in Boston in 1807. It was a very rude affair and was only used to carry dirt from the top of a hill to the harbor. The wooden rails soon wore out, so the next step was to nail strips of iron to the top of them. Long lines of railroads of this kind were soon built. Both passengers and goods could be carried on them.

Some of them were built by private persons or by companies. Others were built by a town or estate. anyone having horses and wagons with flanged wheels could use the railway on the payment of a small sum of money. This was a condition of affairs when the steam locomotive was invented. 298, the steam locomotive. Steam was used to drive boats through the water. Why should not steam be used to haul wagons over a railroad? This was a very easy question to ask and a very hard one to answer. Year after year, inventors worked on the problem.

Suddenly, about 1830, it was solved in several places and by several men at nearly the same time. It was some years, however, before the locomotive came into general use. The early railroad trains were rude affairs. The cars were hardly more than stagecoaches with flanged wheels. They were fastened together with chains, and when the engine started or stopped, there was a terrible bumping and jolting. The smoke pipe of the engine was very tall and was hinged so that it could be let down when coming to a low bridge or a tunnel. Then the smoke and cinders poured straight into the passenger's faces. But these trains went faster than canal boats or steamboats.

Soon the railroad began to take the first place as a means of transport. 299. Other inventions. The coming of the steam locomotive hastened the changes which one saw on every side in 1830. For some time, men had known that there was plenty of hard coal or anthracite in Pennsylvania, but it was so hard that it would not burn in the old-fashioned stoves or fireplaces. Now a stove was invented that would burn anthracite, and the whole matter of housewarming was completely changed. Then means were found to make iron from ore with anthracite.

The whole iron industry awoke to new life. Next, the use of gas made from coal became common in cities. The great increase in manufacturing and the great changes in modes of transport led people to crowd together in cities and towns. These inventions made it possible to feed and warm large numbers of persons gathered into small areas. The cities began to grow so fast that people could no longer live near their work or the shops. Lines of stage coaches were established, and the coaches were soon followed by horse cars, which ran on iron tracks laid in the streets.

300. Progress in Letters There was also great progress in learning. The school system was constantly improved, especially was this the case in the West, where the government devoted one-36th part of the public lands to education. High schools were founded, and soon normal schools were added to them. Even the colleges awoke from their long sleep. More students went to them, and the methods of teaching were improved. Some slight attention, too, was given to teaching the sciences.

In 1828, Noah Webster published the first edition of his great decaductive. Unfortunately, he tried to change the spelling of many words, but in other ways his dictionary was a great improvement. He defined words so that it could now be understood, and he gave the American meaning of many words as Congress. American writers now began to make great reputations. Cooper, Irving, and Bryant were already well known. They were soon joined by a wonderful set of men who speedily made America famous.

These were Emerson, Lowell, Longfellow, Holmes, Hawthorne, Prescott, Motley, Bancroft, and Sparks. In science, also men of Mark were beginning their labors, as Pierce, Gray, Silliman, and Dana. Louis Agassiz, before long, began his wonderful lectures, which did much to make science popular. In short, Jackson's administration marks the time when American life began to take on its modern form. End of Chapter 28. Chapter 29 The reign of Andrew Jackson

1829 to 1837 301 General Jackson Born in the back woods of Carolina Jackson had early crossed the alleghenies and settled in Tennessee Whenever trouble came to the Western people Whenever there was a need of a stout heart

and an iron will Jackson was at the front He always did his duty And he always did his duty well Honest and sincere He believed in himself and he believed in the American people. As president, he led the people in one of the stormiest periods in our history. Abel men gathered about him, but he relied chiefly on the advance of a few friends who smoked their

pipes with him and formed his kitchen cabinet. He seldom called a regular cabinet meeting. When he did call one, it was often merely to tell the members what he had decided to do. 3.02. The spoils system. Among the able men who had fought the election for Jackson were Van Buren and Marcy of New York and Buchanan of Pennsylvania. They had built up strong party machines in their states, for they saw nothing wrong in the principle that to the victors belong the spoils of victory. So they rewarded their party workers with offices when they won. The spoil system was now begun in the national government, those who had worked for Jackson rest to Washington. The hotels and boarding houses could not hold them.

Some of them camped out in the parks and public squares of the capital. Removals now went merrily on. Rotation in office was the cry. Before long, Jackson removed nearly 1,000 office holders and appointed political partisans in their places. 303. The North and a South. The South was now a great cotton-producing region. This cotton was grown by Negro slaves. The North was now a great manufacturing.

and commercial region. It was also a great agricultural reason, but the labor and the meals, fields, and ships of the north was all free white labor. So the United States was really split into two sections. One devoted to slavery and to a few great staples as cotton. The other devoted to free white labor and to industries of many kinds. 304. The political situation 1829. The South was growing richer all the time, but the North was growing. growing richer a great deal faster than was the South. Calhoun and other Southern men thought that this difference in the rate of progress was due to the protective system. In 1828, Congress had passed a tariff that was so bad that it was called the tariff of abominations. The Southerners

could not prevent its passage, but Calhoun wrote an exposition of the constitutional doctrines in the case. This paper was adopted by the legislature of Carolina as giving its ideas. In this paper, Calhoun declared that the Constitution of the United States was a compact. Each state was a sovereign state and could annul any law passed by Congress. The protective system was unjust and unequal in operation. It would bring poverty and utter desolation to the South. The Tariff Act should be annulled by South Carolina and other Western states. 305. Webster and Hane, 1830.

Calhoun was vice president and provided over the debate of the Senate. So it fell to Senator Hane of South Carolina to state Calhoun's ideas. This he did in a very able speech. To him, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts replied in the most brilliant speeches ever delivered in Congress. The Constitution, Webster declared, was the, quote, people's constitution, the people's government, made by the people and answerable to the people. The people have declared that this constitution shall be the supreme law, end quote. The Supreme Court of the United States alone could declare a national law to be unconstitutional. No state could do that.

He ended this great speech with the memorable words, quote, liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable. 306. Nullification, 1832 to 33. In 1832, Congress passed a new tariff act. The South Carolinians decided to try Calhoun's weapon of nullification. They held a convention, declared the act null and void, and forbade South Carolinians to obey the law. They probably thought that Jackson would not oppose them, but they should have had no doubts on that subject. For Jackson already had proposed his famous toast on Jefferson's birthday.

Our federal union, it must be preserved. He now told the Carolinians that he would enforce the laws, and he set about doing it with all his old-time energy. He sent ships and soldiers to Charleston and ordered the collector of that port to collect the duties. He then asked Congress to give him greater power, and Congress passed the force bill, giving him the power he asked for. The South Carolinians, on their part, suspended the nullification ordinance and thus avoided an armed conflict with Old Hickory, as his admirers call Jackson. 307, the Compromised Tariff, 1833. The nullifiers really gained a part of the battle for the tariff law of 1832 was repealed. In its place, Congress passed what was called the Compromise Tariff.

This compromise was the work of Henry Clay, the peacemaker. Under it, the duties were to be gradually lowered until in 1842, they would be as low as they were by the Tariff Act of 1816. 308, the Second United States Bank. Nowadays, anyone with enough money can open a national bank under the protection of the government at Washington. At this time, however, there was one great United States bank. Its headquarters were at Philadelphia, and it had branches all over the country. Jackson, like Jefferson, had very grave doubts as to the power of the national government to establish such a bank. Its size and prosperity alarmed him.

Moreover, the stockholders and managers, for the most part, were his political opponents. The United States Bank also interfered seriously with the operations of the state banks, some of which were managed by Jackson's friends. The latter urged him on to destroy the United States Bank, and he determined to destroy it. 309. Struggle over the Bank Charter. The charter of the bank would not come to an end until 1836, while the term for which Jackson had been elected in 1828 would come to an end in 1833. But in his first message to Congress, Jackson gave notice that he would not give up his consent to a new charter.

Clay and his friends at once took up the challenge. They passed a bill rechartering the bank. Jackson vetoed the bill. The Clay men could not get enough votes to pass it over his veto. The bank question, therefore, became one of the issues of the election of 1832. Jackson was reflected by a large majority over Clay. The people were clearly on his side. and he at once set to work to destroy the bank.

310, removal of the deposits. In those days, there was no United States Treasury building at Washington with great vaults for the storing of gold, silver, and paper money. There were no sub-treasuries in the important commercial cities. The United States Bank and its branches received the government's money on deposit and paid it out on checks signed by the proper government official. In 1833, the United States Bank had in its vaults. about $9 million belonging to the government.

Jackson directed that this money should be drawn out as required to pay the government's expenses and that no more government money should be deposited in the bank. In the future, it should be deposited in certain state banks. The banks selected were controlled by Jackson's political friends and were called the Pet Banks. 311 Jackson's Species Circular, 1836. The first result of the removal of the deposit, was very different from what Jackson had expected. At this time, there was active speculation in

Western lands. Men who had a little spare money bought Western lands. Those who had no money in hand, borrowed money from the banks, and with it bought Western lands. Now, it happened that many of the pet banks were in the West. The government's money deposited with them tempted their managers to lend money more freely. This, in turn, increased the ease with which people could speculate. and saw that unless something were done to restrain this speculation, disaster would surely come, so he issued a circular to the United States land officers. This circular was called the species circular, because in it the president forbade the land officers to receive anything except gold and silver and certain certificates and payments for public lands. 312. Payment of the debt

1837 The national debt had now all been paid. The government was called. collecting more money than it could use for national purposes, and it was compelled to keep on collecting more money than it could use because the compromised tariff made it impossible to reduce duties any faster than a certain amount each year. No one dared to disturb the compromised tariff, because to do so would bring on a most bitter political fight. The government had more money into pet banks than was really safe. It could not deposit more with them.

313. Distribution of the surplus, 1837. A curious plan was now hit upon. It was to loan the surplus revenues to the states in proportion to their electoral votes. Three payments were made to the states. Then the panic of 1837 came and the government had to borrow money to pay its own necessary expenses. Before this occurred, however, Jackson was no longer president. In his place was Martin Van Buren, his secretary of state, who had been chosen president in November 1836. End of chapter 29.

Chapters 30 and 31 of A Short History of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 30. Democrats and Wigs 1837,

1844. 314. The panic of 1837. The panic was due directly to Jackson's interference with the banks, to his species circular, and to the distribution of the surplus. It happened in this way. When the species circular was issued, people who held paper money at once went to the banks to get gold and silver in exchange for it to pay for the lands bought of the government. The government on its part, drew out money from the banks to pay the state their share of the surplus. The banks were obliged to

sell their property and demand payment of money do them. People who owed money to the banks were obliged to sell their property to pay the banks, so everyone wanted to sell and few wanted to buy. Prices of everything went down with a rush. People felt so poor that they would not even buy new clothes. The mills and mines were closed, and the bank suspended payments. Thousands of working men and women were thrown out of work. They could not even buy food for themselves or their families. Terrible bread riots took place. After a time, people began to pluck up their courage, but it was a long time before that good times came again. 315. The Independent Treasury System. What should be done with the government's money? No one could think of depositing it with the state banks. Clay and his friends thought the best thing to do would be to establish a new United States Bank, but Van Buren was opposed to that.

His plan, in short, was to build vaults for storing money in Washington and in the leading cities. The main storehouse or treasury was to be in Washington. Subordinate storehouses or sub-treasuries were to be established in the other cities. To these sub-treasuries, the collectors of customs would pay the money collected by them. in this way the government would become independent of the general business affairs of the country in eighteen forty congress passed an act for putting this plan into effect but before it was in working order van buren was no longer president three sixteen democrats and whigs in the era of good feeling there was but one party the republican party in the confused times of eighteen twenty four the several sections of the party took the name of the name of the same twenty four the several sections of the party took the name of the name of the age of the party in the same time of the party took the name of the party in the of their party leaders, the Adamsmen, the Jackson men, the Claymen, and so on. Soon, the Adams men and the Claymen began to act together and to call themselves national

Republicans. They did because they wished to build up the nation's resources at the expense of the nation. The Jackson men called themselves Democrat Republicans because they upheld the rights of the people. Before long, they dropped the word Republican and called themselves simply Democrats. The National Republicans dropped the whole of their name and took that of the Great English Liberal Party, the Whigs. This they did because they favored reform. 317. Election of 1840. General William Henry Harrison was the son of Benjamin Harrison of Virginia, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. General Harrison had moved to the West and had one distinction at Tippecanoe, and also in the war of 1812. The Whigs nominated him in 1836, but he was beaten.

They now re-nominated him for president, with John Tyler of Virginia as candidate for vice president. Van Buren had made a good president, but his term of office was associated with panic and hard times. He was a rich man and gave great parties. Plainly, he was not a, quote, man of the people, as was Harrison. A Democratic orator sneered at Harrison and said all he wanted was a log cabin of his own and a jug of cider. The wigs eagerly seized on this description. They built log cabins at the street corners and dragged through the streets log cabins on great wagons. They held immense open-air meetings at which people sang songs of Tipa Canoe and Tyler 2. Harrison and Tyler received nearly all the electoral votes and were chosen president and vice-examination.

President. 318. Death of Harrison. 1841. The people's president was inaugurated on March 4, 1841. For the first time since the establishment of the spoil system, a new party came into control of the government. Thousands of office seekers thronged to Washington. They even slept in out-of-the-way corners of the White House. Day after day, from morning till night, they pressed their claims on Harrison. One morning, early, before the office seekers were a stir, he went out for a walk. He caught cold and died suddenly, just one month after his inauguration. John Tyler at once became president. 319. Tyler and the Whigs

President Tyler was not a wig like Harrison or Clay, nor was he a Democrat like Jackson. He was a Democrat who did not like Jackson's ideas. As a president, he proved to be in. but a wig. He was willing to sign a bill to repeal the Independent Treasury Act, for that was a democratic measure he had not liked. But he refused to sign a bill to establish a new bank of the United States. Without either a bank or a treasury, it was well-nigh impossible to carry on the business of the government. But it was carried on in one way or another. Tyler was willing to sign a new tariff act, and one was passed in 1842.

This was possible as the compromise tariff came to an end that year. 320. Treaty with Great Britain, 1842. Perhaps the most important event of Tyler's administration was the signing of the Treaty of 1842 with Great Britain. Ever since the Treaty of Peace in 1783, there had been a dispute over the northeastern boundary of Maine. If the boundary had been run according to the plain meaning of the Treaty of Peace, the people of Upper East. Canada would have found it almost impossible to reach New Brunswick or Nova Scotia in winter. At that time of the year, the St. Lawrence River is frozen over, and the true northern boundary of Maine ran so near to the St. Lawrence that it was difficult to build a road which would be wholly

in British territory, so the British had tried in every way to avoid settling the matter. It was now arranged that the United States should have a little piece of Canada north of Vermont in New York and should give up the extreme northeastern corner of Maine. It was also agreed that criminals escaping from one country to the other should be returned. A still further agreement was made for checking the slave trade from the coast of Western Africa. 321, the Electric Telegraph. Benjamin Franklin and Joseph Henry made great discoveries in electricity, but Samuel F. B. Morris was the first to use electricity in a practical way. Moore is found that if a man at one end of a line of wire press down a key,

electricity would be made at the same moment to press down another key at the other end of the wire. Moreover, the key at the farther end of the line could be arranged as to make an impression on a piece of paper that was slowly drawn under it by clockwork. Now, if the man at one end of the line held his key down for only an instant, this impression would look like a dot. If he held it down longer, it would look like a short dash. Morris combined these dots and dashes into an alphabet. For instance, one dash meant the letter T and so on. For a time, people only laughed at Morse, but at length, Congress gave him enough

money to build a line from Baltimore to Washington. It was opened in 1844 and proved to be a success from the beginning. Other lines were soon built and the more system, greatly improved, is still in use. The Telegraph made it possible to operate long lines of railroad, as all the trains could be managed from one office so that they would not run into one another. It also made it possible to communicate with people afar off and get an answer in an hour or so. For both these reasons, the Telegraph was very important and with the railroads did much to unite the people of different portions of the country. 32.

The McCormick Reaper. Every great staple depends for its production on some particular tool. For instance, cotton was of slight importance until the invention of the cotton gin made it possible to cheaply separate the seed from the fiber.

The success of wheat growing depended upon the ability to quickly harvest the crop. Wheat must be allowed to stand until it is fully ripened. Then it must be quickly reaped and stored away out of the reach of the rain and wet. For a few weeks in each year, there was a great demand for labor on the wheat farms, and there was little labor to be had. Cyrus H. McCormick solved this problem for the wheat growers by inventing a horse reaper.

The invention was made in 1831, but it was not until 1845 that the reaper came into general use. By 1855, the use of the horse reaper was adding every year $55 million, $15 million, to the wealth of the country. Each year, its use moved the fringe of civilization 50 miles farther west. Without harvesting machinery, the rapid settlement of the West would have been impossible. And, had not the West been rapidly settled by free whites, the whole history of the country between 1845 and 1865 would have been very different from what it has been. The influence of the Horse Reaper on our political history, therefore, is as important as the influence of the steam locomotive or of the cotton gin.

End of chapter 30. Section 6. Chapter 31. Section 6. Slavery in the Territories, 1844 to 1859. Chapter 31. Beginning of the anti-slavery agitation. 323. Growth of slavery in the south. South of Pennsylvania and of the Ohio River, slavery had increased great since 1787, Washington, Jefferson, Henry, and other Great Virginians were opposed to the slave

system, but they could find no way to end it, even in Virginia. The South Carolinians and Georgians fought every proposition to limit slavery. They even refused to come into the Union unless they were given representation in Congress for a portion, at least, of their slaves. And in the first Congress, under the Constitution, they opposed bitterly every proposal to limit slavery. Then came Whitney's invention of the cotton gin. That at once made slave labor vastly more profitable in the cotton states and put an end to all hopes of peaceful emancipation in the South. 324. Rise of the abolitionists.

About 1830, a new movement in favor of the Negroes began. Some persons in the north as, for example, William Ellery Channing, proposed that slaves should be set free and their owners paid for their loss. They suggested that the money received from the sale of the public lands might be used in this way, but nothing came of these suggestions. Soon, however, William Lloyd Garrison began at Boston, the publication of a paper called The Liberator.

He wished for complete abolition without payment. For a time, he labored almost alone. Then, slowly, others came to his aid, and the anti-slavery society was founded. 3.25. Opposition to the abolitionists. It must not be thought that the abolitionists were not opposed. They were most vigorously opposed. Very few northern men wished to have slavery re-established in the north, but very many northern men objected to the anti-slavery agitation because they thought it would injure business. Some persons even argued that anti-slavery movement would bring about the destruction of the union. idea, there was a good deal of truth, for Garrison grew more and more outspoken. He condemned the union with slaveholders and wished to break down the Constitution because it permitted slavery. There were anti-ab abolitionist riots in New York, New Jersey, and New Hampshire.

In Boston, the rioters seized Garrison and dragged him about the streets. At about the time that Garrison established the Liberator at Boston, a slave rebellion broke out in Virginia. The rebels were led by a slave named Nat Turner, and the rebellion is often called Nat Turner's rebellion. It was a very small affair and was easily put down. But the Southerners were alarmed because they felt that the northern anti-slavery agitation would surely lead to more rebellions. They called upon the government to forbid the sending of the Liberator, and similar incendiation. publications through the mails. 327. The right of petition.

One of the most sacred rights of freedom is the right to petition for redress of grievances. In the old colonial days, the British Parliament had refused even to listen to petitions presented by the colonists. But the First Amendment to the Constitution forbade Congress to make any law to prevent citizens of the United States from petitioning. John Quincy Adams, once president, was now a member of the House of Representatives. In 1836, he presented petition after petition, praying Congress to forbid slavery in the District of Columbia. Southerners, like Calhoun, thought these petitions were insulting to southern slaveholders. Congress could not prevent the anti-slavery people petitioning.

They could prevent the petitions being read when presented. This they did by passing gag resolutions. Adams protested against these resolutions as an infringement on the rights of his consultant. but the resolutions were passed. Petitions now came pouring into Congress. Adams even presented one from some Negro slaves. 328. Change in Northern sentiment. All these happenings brought about a great change of sentiment in the North.

Many people who cared little about Negro slaves cared a great deal about the freedom of press and the right of petition. Many of these did not sympathize with the abolitionists, but they wished that some limit might be set to the extension of slavery. At the same time, the Southerners were uniting to resist all attempts to interfere with slavery. They were even determined to add new slave territory to the United States. End of Chapter 31. Chapters 32 and 33 of A Short History of the United States.

This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter

32. The Mexican War 329. The Republic of Texas The Mexicans won their independence from Spain in 1821 and founded the Mexican Republic. Soon, immigrants from the United States settled in the northeastern

part of the new republic. This This region was called Texas. The Mexican government gave these settlers large tracks of land, and for a time, everything went on happily. Then war broke out between the Mexicans and the Texans. Led by Samuel Houston, a settler from Tennessee, the Texans won the battle of San Jacinto and captured General Santa Ana, the president of the Mexican Republic. The Texans then established the Republic of Texas in 1836 and asked to be admitted to the Union as one of the United States.

3.30. The Southerners and Texas. The application of Texas for admission to the Union came as a pleasant surprise to many Southerners. As a part of the Mexican Republic, Texas had been free soil. But Texas was well suited to the needs of the cotton plant. If it were admitted to the union, it would surely be a slave state, or perhaps several slave states. The question of admitting Texas for the United States. First came before Jackson. He saw that the admission of Texas would be strongly opposed in the north,

so he put the whole matter to one side and would have nothing to do with it. Tyler acted very differently. Under his direction, a treaty was made with Texas. This treaty provided for the admission of Texas to the Union, but the Senate refused to ratify the treaty. The matter, therefore, became the most important question in the presidential election of 1844. 331

Election of 1844 President Tyler would have been glad of a second term, but neither of the great parties wanted him as a leader. The Democrats would have gladly nominated Van Buren had he not opposed the acquisition of Texas. Instead, they nominated James K. Polk of Tennessee, an outspoken favorer

of the admission of Texas. The Whigs nominated Henry Clay, who had not decided The Whigs nominated Henry Clay, who had no decided views on the Texas question. He said one thing one day, another thing another day. The result was that the opponents of slavery and of Texas formed a new party. They called it the Liberty Party and nominated a candidate for president. The Liberty Men did not gain many votes, but they gained enough votes to make Clay's election impossible, and Polk was chosen president.

332. Acquisition of Texas. 1845. Tyler now pressed the admission of Texas upon Congress. The two houses passed a joint resolution. This resolution provided for the admission of Texas and for the formation from the territory included in Texas of four states in addition to the states of Texas and with the consent of that state. Before Texas was actually admitted, Tyler had ceased to be president, but Pope carried out his policy, and on July 4, 1845, Texas became one of the United States. 333. Beginning of the Mexican War, 1846. The Mexicans had never acknowledged the independence of Texas. They now protested against its admission to the United States. Disputes also arose as to the

southern boundary of Texas. As no agreement could be reached on this point, President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to march to the Rio Grande and occupy the disputed territory. Taylor did as he was ordered and the Mexicans attacked him. Polk reported these facts to Congress and Congress authorized the president to push on the fighting on the ground that quote, war exists and exists by the act of Mexico herself. 334 Taylor's campaigns. The Mexican War easily divides itself into three parts. One, Taylor's forward movement across the Rio Grande. Two, Scott's Campaign, which ended in the capture of the city of Mexico. And three, the seizure of California.

Taylor's object was to maintain the line of the Rio Grande, and then to advance into Mexico and injure the Mexicans as much as possible. The battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, May 8th, 9th, 1846, were fought before the actual Declaration of War. These victories made Taylor master of the Rio Grande. In September, he crossed the Rio Grande. So far, all had gone well. But in the winter, many of Taylor's soldiers were withdrawn to take part in Scott's campaign.

This seemed to be the Mexicans' time. They attacked Taylor with four times as many men as he had in his army. This battle was fought at Buena Vista, February, 1847. Taylor beat back the Mexicans with terrible slaughter. This was the last battle of Taylor's campaign. 335. Scott's Invasion of Mexico. The plan of Scott's campaign was that he should land at Veracruz,

marched to the city of Mexico, 200 miles away, captured that city, and forced the Mexicans to make peace. Everything fell out precisely as it was planned. With the help of the Navy, Scott captured Veracruz. He only had about one quarter as many men as the Mexican, but he overthrew them at Cerro Gordo, where the road to the city of Mexico crosses the coast mountains. April 1847. With the greatest care and skill, he pressed on and at length came within sight of the city of Mexico. The capital of the Mexican Republic stood in the midst of

marshes and could only be reached by narrow causeways, which joined it to solid land. August 20th, 1847, Scott beat the Mexicans in three pitched battles, and on September 14th, he entered the city with his army, now numbering only 6,000 men fit for active service. 336. Seizure of California California was the name given to the Mexican possessions on the Pacific coast north of Mexico itself. There were now many American settlers there, especially at Monterey. Hearing of the outbreak of the Mexican War, they set up a republic of their own. Their flag had a figure of a grizzly bear painted on it, and hence their republic is often spoke of as the bear republic. Commodore Stockton, with a small fleet, was on the Pacific coast. He and John C. Fremont assisted the bear Republicans until soldiers under Colonel Kearney reached them from the United States by way of Santa Fe. Treaty of Peace, 1848. The direct cause of the Mexican War was Mexico's unwillingness to give up Texas without a struggle.

But the Mexicans had treated many Americans very unjustly and owed them large sums of money. A treaty of peace was made in 1848. Mexico agreed to abandon her claims to Texas, California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado. The United States agreed to withdraw its arms. for Mexico, to pay Mexico $15 million, and to pay the claims of American citizens on Mexico. These claims proved to amount to $3.5 million. In the end, therefore, the United States paid $18 and one-half million for this enormous and exceedingly valuable addition to its territory. When the time came to run the boundary line, the American and Mexican commissioners could not agree.

So the United States paid $10 million more and received an additional strip of land between the Rio Grande and the Colorado rivers. This gave the United States its present southern boundary. This agreement was made in 1853 by James Gadsden for the United States, and the land bought is usually called the Gadsden Purchase. 338. The Oregon Question It was not only in the southwest that boundary, were disputed. In the northwest, also, there was a long controversy, which was settled while Polk was president. Oregon was the name given to the whole region between Spanish and Mexican, California, and the Russian Alaska. The United States and Great Britain each claimed to have the best right to

Oregon. As they could not agree as to their claims, they decided to occupy the region jointly. As time went on, American settlers and missionaries began to go over the mountains to Oregon, In 1847, 7,000 Americans were living in the Northwest. 339. The Oregon Treaty, 1846. The matter was now taken up in earnest. All Oregon or none. 5,4.40 or flight became popular cries. The United States gave notice of the ending of the joint occupation.

The British government suggested that Oregon should be divided between the two nations. In 1818, the boundary between the United States and British North America had been fixed as the 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. It was now proposed to continue this line to the Pacific. The British government, however, insisted that the western end of the line should follow the channel between Vancouver's island and the mainland, so as to make that island entirely British. The Mexican War was now coming on. It would hardly do to have two wars at one time, so the United States gave way, and a treaty was signed in 1846. Instead of all Oregon, the United States received about one half, but it was a splendid region and included not merely the present state of Oregon, but all the territory west of the Rocky Mountains between the 42nd and the 49th parallels of latitude. End of Chapter 32

Chapter 33 The Compromise of 1850 340 The Willemot Proviso 1846 What should be done with Oregon and with the immense territory received from Mexico Should it be free soil

or should it be slave soil? To understand the history of the dispute which arose out of this question we must go back a bit and study the Wilmot Proviso. Even before the Mexican war was fairly begun, this question came before Congress. Everyone admitted that Texas must be a slave state. Most people agreed that Oregon would be free soil,

for it was far too north for Negroes to thrive. But what should be done with California and New Mexico? David Wilmot of Pennsylvania thought they should be free soil. He was a member of the House of Representatives. In 1846, he moved to add to a bill giving the president money to purchase land from Mexico, a proviso that none of the territory to be acquired at the national expense should be open to slavery. This proviso was finally defeated, but the matter was one on which people held very strong opinions, and the question became the most important issue in the election of 1848.

341. Taylor elected president, 1848. Three candidates contested the election of 1848. First, there was Louis Cass of Michigan, the Democratic candidate. He was in favor of squatter sovereignty, that is, allowing the people of each territory to have slavery or not as they chose. The Whig candidate was General Taylor, the victor of Buena Vista. The Whigs put forth no statement of principles. The third candidate was Martin Van Buren, already once president. although a democrat he did not favor the extension of slavery he was nominated by democrats who did not believe in squatter sovereignty and by a new party which called itself the free-soil party

the abolitionists or liberty party also nominated a candidate but he withdrew in favor of van buren the whigs had nominated millard philmore of new york for vice-president he attracted to the whig ticket a good many votes in New York. Van Buren also drew a good many votes from the Democrats. In this way, New York was carried for Taylor and Fillmore. This decided the election and the Whig candidates were chosen. 3.42. California. Before the Treaty of Peace with Mexico was ratified, even before it was signed, gold was discovered in California. Reports of the discovery soon reached the towns on the Western sea coast. At once, men left whatever they were doing and hastened to the hills to dig for gold. Months later, rumors of this discovery began to reach the eastern part of the United States. At first, people paid little attention to them, but when President Polk said that gold had been

found, people began to think it must be true. Soon hundreds of gold seekers started for California. Then thousands became eager to go. These first comers were called the 49ers, because most Most of them came in the year 1849. By the end of that year, there were 80,000 immigrants in California. 343. California seeks admission to the union. There were 80,000 white people in California, and they had almost no government of any kind. So in November 1849, they held a convention, drew up a constitution, and demanded admission to the union as a state. The peculiar thing about this Constitution was that it forbade slavery in California.

Many of the 49ers were Southerners, but even they did not want slavery. The reason was that they wished to dig in the earth and win gold. They would not allow slaveholders to work their mining claims with slave labor, for free white laborers had never been able to work alongside of Negro slaves, so they did not want slavery in California. a divided country. This action of the people of California at once brought the question of slavery before the people. Many Southerners were eager to found a slave confederacy apart from the Union.

Many abolitionists were eager to found a free republic in the north. Many Northerners, who loved the Union, thought that slavery should be confined to the states where it existed. They thought that slavery should not be permitted in the territories, which belong to the people of the United States as a whole. They argued that if the territories could be kept free, the people of those territories, when they came to form state constitutions, would forbid slavery as the people of California had just done. They were probably right, and for this very reason, the Southerners wished to have slavery in the territories. So strong was the feeling over these points that it seemed as if the union would split into pieces. 345. President Taylor's Policy General Taylor was now president.

He was alarmed by the growing excitement. He determined to settle the matter at once before people could get any more excited. So he sent agents to California and to New Mexico to urge the people to demand admission to the union at once. When Congress met in 1850, he stated that California demanded admission as a free state. The Southerners were angry, for they had thought that California would surely be a slayed state. 346. Clay's compromise plan.

Henry Clay now stepped forward to bring about a union of hearts. His plan was to end all disputes between northerners and Southerners by having the people of each section give way to the people of the other section. For example, the Southerners

were to permit the admission of California as a free state and to consent to the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. In return, the northerners were to give way to the southerners on all other points. They were to allow slavery in the District of Columbia. They were to consent to the organization of New Mexico and Utah as territories without any provision for or against slavery. Texas claimed that a part of the proposed territory of New Mexico belonged to her, so Clay

suggested that the United States should pay Texas for this land. Finally, Clay proposed that the Congress should pass a severe fugitive slave act. It is easily seen that Clay's plan as a whole was distinctly favorable to the South. Few persons favored the passage of the whole scheme, but when votes were taken on each part separately, they all passed. In the midst of the excitement over this compromise, President Taylor died, and Millard Fillmore, the vice president, became president. 347 the Fugitive Slave Act The Constitution provides that persons held to service in one state, escaping into another state, shall be delivered up upon claim of the person to whom such service may be due. Congress in 1793 had passed an act to carry out this provision of the Constitution.

But this law had seldom been enforced because its enforcement had been left to the states, and public opinion in the North, was opposed to the return of fugitive slaves. The law of 1850 gave the enforcement of the Act to the United States officials. The agents of slave owners claimed many persons as fugitives, but few were returned to the South. The important result of these attempts to enforce the law was to strengthen Northern and public opinion against slavery. It led to redoubled efforts to help runaway slaves through the northern states to Canada. A regular system was established. This, was called the Underground Railway. In short, instead of bringing about a union of hearts, the compromise of 1850 increased the eel filling between the people of the two sections of the country. 348. Uncle Tom's Cabin. It was at this time that Mrs. Harriet B. Stowe

wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin. In this story, she set forth the pleasant side of slavery, the lightheartedness and kind-heartedness of the Negroes. In it, she also set forth the unpleasant side of slavery, the whipping of human beings, the sailing of human beings, the hunting of human beings. Of course, there was never such a slave as Uncle Tom. The story is simply a wonderful picture of slavery as it appeared to a brilliant woman of the North. Hundreds of thousands of copies of this book were sold in the South as well as in the North. Plays founded on the book were acted on the stage. Southern people, when reading Uncle Tom, thought little of the unpleasant things in it, and they liked the pleasant things in it.

Northern people laughed at the pretty pictures of plantation life. They were moved to tears by the tales of cruelty. Uncle Tom's cabin and the fugitive slave law convinced the people of the North that bounds must be set to the extension of slavery. End of Chapter 33. In chapters 34 and 35 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org.

This reading by Allison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 34. The struggle for Kansas 349. Pierce elected president,

1852. It was now campaign time for a new election. The Whigs had been successful with two old soldiers, so they thought they would try again with another soldier, and nominated General Winfield Scott, the conqueror of Mexico. The Democrats also nominated a soldier, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, who had been in northern Mexico with Taylor. The Democrats and Wigs both said they would stand by the compromise of 1850, but many voters thought that there would be less danger of excitement with a Democrat in the White House and voted for Pierce for that reason.

They soon found that they were terribly mistaken in their belief. 3.50. Douglas's Nebraska bill. President Pierce began his term of office quietly enough, but in 1854, Senator Douglas of Illinois brought in a bill to organize the territory of Nebraska. It will be remembered that in 1820, Missouri had been admitted to the union as a slave state. In 1848, Iowa had been admitted as a pre-state. north of Iowa was free territory of Minnesota. Westward from Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota was an immense region without any government of any kind.

It all lay north of the compromise line of 1820 and had been forever devoted to freedom by that compromise. But Douglas said that the compromise of 1820 had been repealed by the compromise of 1850, so he proposed that the settlers of Nebraska should say whether that territory should be free-soried, or slave soil, precisely as if the compromise of 1820 had never been passed. Instantly, there was a tremendous uproar.

351. The Kansas Nebraska Act, 1854. Douglas now changed his bill so as to provide for the formation of two territories. One of these, he named Kansas. It had nearly the same boundaries as the present state of Kansas, except that it extended westward to the Rocky Mountains. The other territory was named Nebraska. It included all the land north of Kansas and between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains. The anti-slavery leaders in the north attacked the bill with great fury.

Chase of Ohio said that it was a violation of faith. Sumner of Massachusetts rejoiced in the fight, for he said men must now take sides for freedom or for slavery. Some independent Democrats published an appeal. They asked their fellow citizens to take their. their maps and see what an immense region Douglas had proposed to open to slavery. They denied that the Missouri compromise had been repealed. Nevertheless, the bill passed Congress and was signed by President Pierce. 352. Abraham Lincoln. Born in Kentucky, Abraham Lincoln went with his parents to Indiana and then to Illinois. As a boy, he was very poor and had to work hard, but he lost no

opportunity to read and study. At the plow or in the long evenings at home by the firelight, he was ever thinking and studying. Growing to manhood, he became a lawyer and served one term in Congress. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act aroused his indignation as nothing had ever aroused it before. He denied that any man had the right to govern another man, be he white or be he black, without that man's consent. He thought that blood would surely be sure. He should, shed before the slavery question would be settled in Kansas, and the first shedding of blood would be the beginning of the end of the Union. 353. Settlement of Kansas

In the debate on the Kansas-Nabrasca bill, Senator Seward of New York said to the Southerners, Come on then, we will engage in competition for the soil of Kansas, and God give the victory to the side that is strong in numbers as it is in right. Seward spoke truly. victory came to those opposed to the extension of slavery, but it was a long time and coming. As soon as the act was passed, the armed sons of the south crossed the frontier of Missouri and founded the town of Acheson. Then came large bands of armed settlers from the north and the east. They founded the towns of Lawrence and Topeka. An election was held. Hundreds of men poured over the boundary of Missouri, outvoted the free-soil settlers in Kansas, and then went home.

The territorial legislature, chosen in this way, adopted the laws of Missouri, slave code, and all, as the laws of Kansas. It seemed as if Kansas were lost to freedom. 354. The Topeka Convention The Free State Voters now held a convention at Topeka. They drew up a constitution and applied to Congress for admission to the Union as a free state of Kansas. The free state men and the slave state men each elected a delegate. Congress. The House of Representatives now took the matter up and appointed a committee of investigation. The committee reported in favor of the free statement, and the House voted to

admit Kansas as a free state. But the Senate would not consent to anything of the kind. The contest in Kansas went on and became more bitter every month. 355. The Republican Party The most important result of the Kansas-Nebraska fight was the formation of the Republican party. It was made up of men from all the other parties who agreed in opposing Douglas's Kansas Nebraska policy. Slowly

they began to think of themselves as a party and to adopt the name of the old party of Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. Republican. 356. Buchanan elected president 1856. The Whigs and the

no-nothings nominated Millard Fillmore for president and said nothing about slavery. The Democrat nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania for president and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for vice president. They declared their approval of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and favored a strict construction of the Constitution. The Republicans nominated John C. Fremont.

They protested against the extension of slavery and declared for a policy of internal improvements at the expense of the nation. The Democrats won, but the Republicans carried all the northern states, say four. 357. The Dred Scott decision, 1857. The Supreme Court of the United States now gave a decision in the Dred Scott case that put an end to all hope of compromise on the slavery question. Dred Scott had been born a slave. The majority of the judges declared that a person once a slave could never become a citizen of the United States and bring suit in the United States courts.

They also declared that the Missouri compromise was unlawful. Slave owners had a clear right to carry their property, including slaves, into the territories, and Congress could not stop them. 358. The Lincoln and Douglas debates 1858 The question of the re-election of Douglas to the Senate now came before the people of Illinois. Abraham Lincoln stepped forward to contest the election with him. A house divided against itself cannot stand, said Lincoln. This government cannot endure half slave and half free.

It will become all one thing or all the other. He challenged Douglas to debate the issues with him before the people, and Douglas accepted the challenge. Seven joint debates were held in the presence of immense crowds. Lincoln forced Douglas to defend the doctrine of popular sovereignty. This Douglas did by declaring that the legislatures of the territories could make laws hostile to slavery. This idea, of course, was opposed to the Dred Scott decision.

Douglas won the election and was returned to the Senate, but Lincoln had made a national reputation. 3.59. Bleeding Kansas. Meantime, civil war had broken out in Kansas. Slavery men attacked Lawrence, killed a few free state settlers, and burned several buildings. Led by John Brown, an immigrant from New York, Free State men attacked a party of slave state men and killed five of them.

By 1857, the free state voters had become so numerous that it was no longer possible to outvote them by bringing men from Missouri, and they chose a free state legislature. But the fraudulent slave state legislature had already provided for holding a constitutional convention at Lecompton. This convention was controlled by the slave state men and adopted a constitution providing for slavery. President Buchanan sent this Constitution to Congress and asked to have Kansas admitted as a slave state. But Douglas could not bear to see the wishes of the settlers of Kansas outraged. He opposed the proposition vigorously and it was defeated. It was not until 1861 that Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state.

360 John Brown's Raid 1859 While in Kansas, John Brown had conceived, a bold plan. It was to seize a strong place in the mountains of the south and there protect any slaves who should run away from their masters. In this way, he expected to break slavery in pieces within two years. With only 19 men, he seized Harper's Ferry in Virginia and secured the United States arsenal at that place. But he and most of his men were immediately captured. He was executed by the Virginian authorities as a traitor and murderer. The Republican leaders denounced his act as the gravest of crimes,

but the southern leaders were convinced that now the time had come to succeed from the Union and establish a Southern Confederacy. End of Chapter 34 Part 12 Secession 1860 to 1861 Chapter 35 The United States in 1860

361. Growth of the country. The United States was now three times as large as it was at Jefferson's election. It contained over 3 million square miles of land. About one-third of this great area was settled. In the 60 years of the century, the population had increased even faster than the area had increased. In 1800, there were 5.5 million people living in the United States. In 1860, there were over 30,000. million people within its borders. Of these, nearly five millions were white immigrants. More than half of these immigrants had come in the last ten years, and they had practically all of them settled in the free states of the north. Of the whole population of 31 millions, only 12 millions lived in the slave states, and of these, more than four millions were Negro slaves. 362. Change of political power. The control of Congress. had now passed into the hands of the free states of the north. The majority of the representatives had long been from the free states. Now more senators came from the north than from the south.

This was due to the admission of new states. Texas, 1845, was the last slave state to be admitted to the union. Two years later, the admission of Wisconsin gave the free states as many votes in the Senate as the slave states had. In 1850, the admission of California gave the free states a majority of two votes in the Senate. This majority was increased to four by the admission of Minnesota in 1858 and to six by the admission of Oregon in 1859. The control of Congress had slipped forever from the grasp of the slave states. 363. The cities. The tremendous increase in manufacturing, in farming, and in trading brought about a great increase in foreign commerce. This in turn led to the building up of great cities in the north and the west. These were New York and

Chicago, and they grew rapidly because they formed the two ends of the line of communication between the east and the west by the Mohawk Valley. New York now contained over 800,000 inhabitants. It had more people within its limits than lived in the whole state of South Carolina. The most rapid growth was seen in the case of Chicago. In 1840, there were only 5,000 people in that city. It now contained 109,000 inhabitants. Cincinnati and St. Louis, each with 160,000,

were still the largest cities of the West. And St. Louis was the largest city in any slave state. New Orleans, with as many people as St. Louis, was the only large city in the south. 364. The States. As it was

with the cities, so it was with the states. The north had grown beyond the south. In 1790, Virginia had as many inhabitants as the states of New York and Pennsylvania put together. In 1860, Virginia had only about one quarter as many inhabitants as these two states. Indeed, in 1860, New York had nearly four million inhabitants, or nearly as many inhabitants as the whole United States in 1791. But the growth of the states of the Northwest had been even more remarkable. Ohio had a million more people than Virginia and stood third in population among the states of the Union. Illinois was the fourth state in Indiana the sixth. Even more

interesting are the facts brought about by a study of the map showing the density of population or the number of people to the square mile in the several states. It appears that in 1860, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, each had over 45 inhabitants to the square mile, while not a single southern state had as many as 45 inhabitants to the square mile. This shows us at once that although the southern states were larger and extent than the northern states, they were much less powerful. 365. City life In the old days, the large towns were just like the small towns, except that they were larger.

Life in them was just about the same as in the smaller places. Now, however, there was a great difference. In the first place, the city could afford to have a great many things the smaller town could not pay for. In the second place, it must have certain things or its people would die of disease or be killed as they walked the streets. For these reasons, the streets of the northern cities were paved and lighted and were guarded by police. Then two great sewers carried away the refuse of the city, and enormous iron pipes brought fresh water to everyone within its limits. Horse cars and omnibuses carried its inhabitants from one part of the city to another, and the railroads brought them foods from the surrounding

country. 366. Transportation. Between 1849 and 1858, 21,000 miles of railroad were built in the United States. In 1860, there were more than 30,000 miles of railroad in actual operation. In 1850, one could not go from New York to Albany without leaving the railroad and going on board a steamboat. In 1860, one continuous line of rails ran from New York City to the Mississippi River. Traveling was still uncomfortable, according to our ideas. The cars were rudely made and jolted horribly. One train ran only a comparatively short distance, then the traveler had to alight, get something to eat, and see his baggage placed on another train. Still, with all its discomforts, traveling in the worst of cars was better than traveling in the old stagecoaches. Many more steamboats were used, especially on the Great Lakes and the Western Rivers.

367. Education The last 30 years had also been years of progress in learning. Many colleges were founded, especially in the Northwest. There was still no institution which deserved the name of university, but more attention was being paid to the sciences and to the education of men for the professions of law and medicine. The newspapers also took on their modern form. The New York Herald, founded in 1835, was the first real newspaper. But the New York Tribune, edited by Horace Greeley, had more influence than any other paper in the country.

Greeley was odd in many ways, but he was one of the ablest men of the time. He called for a liberal policy in the distribution of the public lands and was forever saying, Go west, young man, go west. The magazines were now very much better than in former years, and America's foremost writers were doing some of their best work. 368. Progress of Invention The Electric Telegraph was now in common use, and enabled the newspapers to tell the people what was going on as they had never done before.

Perhaps the invention that did as much as any one thing to make life easier was the sewing machine. Elias Howell was the first man to make a really practicable sewing machine. Other inventors improved upon it and also made machines to sew other things than cloth as leather. Agricultural machinery was now in common use. The Horse Reaper had been much improved and countless machines had been invented to make agricultural labor more easy and economical. Hundreds of homely articles as friction matches and rubber souls came into use these years. In short, the 30 years from Jackson's inauguration to the secession of the southern states

were years of great progress. But this progress was confined almost wholly to the north. In the south, living in 1860 was about the same as it had been in 1830 or even in 1800. As a southern orator said of the South, the Russian world of modern civilization pass her by. End of chapter 35. Chapters 36 and 37 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording.

All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. History of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 36. Secession, 1860 to 1861. 369. The Republican nomination, 1860. Four names were especially mentioned in connection with the Republican nomination for president. These were Seward, Chase, Cameron, and Lincoln. Seward was one of the best known of them all in the debates on the compromise of 1850. he had declared that there was a higher law than the Constitution,

namely the law of nature in man's heart. In another speech, he had termed the slavery contest the irrepressible conflict. These phrases endeared him to the anti-slavery men, but they made it impossible for many moderate Republicans to follow him. Senator Chase of Ohio had also been very outspoken in his condemnation of slavery. Senator Cameron of Pennsylvania was an able political, leader, but all of these men were too conspicuous to make a good candidate. They had made many enemies. Lincoln had spoken freely, but he had never been prominent in national politics. He was more

likely to attract the votes of moderate men than either of the other candidates. After a fierce contest, he was nominated. The Republican platform stated that there was no intention to interfere with slavery in the states where it existed, but it declared the party's opposition to the extension of slavery. The platform favored internal improvements at the national expense. It also approved the protective system. 370, the Democratic nominations. The Democratic Convention met at Charleston, South Carolina. It was soon evident that the Northern Democrats and the Southern Democrats could not agree. The Northerners were willing to accept the Dred Scott decision and to carry it out, but the Southerners demanded that this platform should pledge the party actively to protect slaves.

in the territories. To this, the Northerners would not agree, so the convention broke up to meet again at Baltimore. But there the delegates could come to no agreement. In the end, two candidates were named. The Northerners nominated Douglas on a platform advocating popular sovereignty. The Southerners nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. In their platform, they advocated state's rights and the protection of slavery in the territories by the federal government. 371. The Constitutional Union Party. Besides these three candidates, cautious and timid men of all parties, united to form the Constitutional Union Party, they nominated Governor John Bell of Tennessee for president. In their platform, they declared for the maintenance of the Constitution and the Union, regardless of slavery. 372. Lincoln Elected President, 1860. With four candidates in the field and a Democratic Party hopelessly divided, there could be little doubt of Lincoln's election. He carried every northern state except Missouri and New Jersey.

He received 180 electoral votes. Reckin Ridge carried every southern state except the border states of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and received 72 electoral votes. Bell carried the three border southern states, and Douglas carried Missouri and New Jersey. there was no doubt as to lincoln's election he had received a great majority of the electoral votes but his opponents had received more popular votes than he had received he was therefore elected by a minority of the voters three seventy three the north and the south lincoln had been elected by a minority of the people he had been elected by people of one section other presidents had been chosen by minorities but lincoln was the first man to be chosen president by the people of one section. The Republicans, moreover, had not elected a majority of the members of the House of Representatives, and the Senate was still in the hands of the Democrats. For two years, at least, the Republicans could not carry out their ideas. They could not repeal the Kansas

Nebraska Act. They could not admit Kansas to the Union as a free state. They could not carry out one bit of their policy. In their platform, they had declared that they had no intention to interfere with slavery in the states. Lincoln had said over and over again that Congress had no right to meddle with slavery in the states. The southern leaders knew all these things, but they made up their minds that now the time had come to secede from the Union and to establish a Southern Confederacy. For the first time, all the southernmost states were united. No matter what Lincoln and the Republicans might say, the slaveholders believed that slavery was in danger. In advising, to say, it was a In secession, many of them thought that by this means they could force the Northerners to accept their terms as the price of a restored union.

Never were political leaders more mistaken. 374. Threats of secession, November 1860. The Constitution permits each state to choose presidential electors as it sees fit. At the outset, these electors had generally been chosen by the state legislatures. But in the course of time, all the states, save one, had come to choose them by popular vote. The one state that held to the old way was South Carolina. Its legislature still chose the state's presidential electors. In 1860, the South Carolina legislature did this duty and then remained in session to see which way the election would go.

When Lincoln's election was certain, it called a state convention to consider the question of seceding from the United States. In other southern states, there was some opposition to secession. In Georgia especially, Alexander H. Stevens led the opposition. He said that secession was the height of madness. Nevertheless, he moved a resolution for a convention. Indeed, all the southernmost states followed the example of South Carolina and summoned conventions. 375 The Crittenden Compromise Plan

Many men hoped that even Even now, secession might be stopped by some compromise. President Buchanan suggested an amendment to the Constitution, securing slavery in the states and territories. It was unlikely that the Republicans would agree to this suggestion. The most hopeful plan was brought forward in Congress by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. He proposed that amendments to the Constitution should be adopted. One, to carry out the principle of the Missouri compromise.

to provide that states should be free or slave as their people should determine and three to pay the slave owners the value of runaway slaves this plan was carefully considered by congress and was finally rejected only two days before lincoln's inauguration three seventy six secession of seven states eighteen sixty to sixty one the south keralina convention met in secession hall charleston on december 17, 1860. Three days later, it adopted a declaration, quote, that the union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the United States of America is hereby dissolved, end quote. Six other states soon joined South Carolina. These were Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 377. The Confederate States of America. The next step was for these states to join together to form a confederation. This work was done by a convention of delegates chosen by the conventions of the seven seceding states. These delegates met at Montgomery,

Alabama. Their new constitution closely resembled the constitution of the United States, but great care was taken to make it perfectly clear that each member of the Confederacy was a sovereign state. Exceeding care was also taken that slavery should be protected in every way. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen, provisional president and Alexander H. Stevens provisional vice president. 378. Views of Davis and Stevens. Davis declared that Lincoln had made a distinct declaration of war upon our southern institutions. His election was upon the basis of sectional hostility. If, quote, war must come, it must be on northern and not on southern soil. We will carry war.

where food for the sword and torch awaits our armies in the densely populated cities of the north. For his part, Stephen said that the new government's foundations are laid. Its cornerstone rests upon the great truth that the Negro is not equal to the white man. 379. Hesitation in the north. At first it seemed as if Davis was right when he said the northerners would not fight. General Scott, commanding the army, suggested that the area, sisters should be allowed to depart in peace, and Seward seemed to think the same way. The abolitionists welcomed the secession of the slave states. Horace Greeley, for instance,

wrote that if those states chose to form an independent nation, they had a clear moral right so to do. For his part, President Buchanan thought that no state could constitutionally secede, but if a state should secede, he saw no way to compel it to come back to the union. So he sat patiently by and did nothing. End of chapter 36. Part 13. The War for the Union, 1861 to 1865. Chapter 37, The Rising of the People's, 1861. 380, Lincoln's inauguration.

On March 4th, 1861, President Lincoln made his first inaugural address. In it, he declared, quote, the union is much older than the Constitution. No state upon its own motion can lawfully get out of the Union, in view of the Constitution and the laws the Union is unbroken. I shall take care that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all states. As to slavery, he had, quote, no purpose to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it exists,

end quote. He even saw no objection to adopt an amendment to the Constitution to prohibit the federal government from interfering with slavery in the states, but he was resolved to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. 381. Fall of Fort Sumter, April, 1861. The strength of Lincoln's resolve was soon tested. When South Carolina seceded, Major Anderson, commanding the United States forces at Charleston, withdrew from the land,

to Fort Sumter, built on a shoal in the harbor. He had with him only 80 fighting men and was sorely in need of food and ammunition. Buchanan sent a steamer, the Star of the West, to Charleston with supplies and soldiers, but the Confederates fired on her, and she steamed away without landing the soldiers or the supplies. Lincoln waited a month, hoping that the secessionists would come back to the union of their own accord. He then decided to send supplies to Major Anderson and told the governor of South Carolina of his decision. Immediately, April 12, the Confederates opened fire on Fort Sumter. On April 14th, Anderson surrendered.

The next day, President Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 volunteers. 382. The Rising of the North There was no longer a question of letting the airing sisters depart in peace. The Southerners had fired on old glory. There was no longer a dispute over the extension of slavery. The question was now whether the union should perish or should live. Douglas at once came out for the union, and so did the former presidents, Buchanan, and Franklin Pierce. In the Mississippi Valley, hundreds of thousands of men either sympathized with the slaveholders

or cared nothing about the slavery dispute. But the moment the Confederates attacked the Union, they rose in defense of their country and their flag. 383. More seceders. The Southerners flot to the standards of the Confederacy, and four more states joined the ranks of secession. These were Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia.

In Virginia, the people were sharply divided on the question of secession. Finally, Virginia seceded, but the Western Virginians, in their turn, seceded from Virginia and two years later were admitted to the Union as the state of West Virginia. Four border states had seceded, but four other border states were still within the Union. These were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. 384. The border states. The people of Maryland and of Kentucky were evenly divided on the question of secession. They even tried to set up as neutral states, but their neutrality would have been so greatly to the advantage of

of the secedars that this would not be allowed. Lincoln's firm moderation and the patriotism of many wise leaders in Kentucky saved that state to the Union. But Maryland was so important to the defense of Washington that more energetic means had to be used. In Missouri, a large and active party wished to join the Confederacy. But two union men, Frank P. Blair and Nathaniel Lyon, held the most important portions of the state for the Union. It was not until a year later, however, that Missouri was safe on the northern side.

385. To the Defense of Washington. The National Capitol was really a southern town. For most of the permanent residents were Southerners, and the offices were filled with southern men. In the Army and Navy, too, were very many Southerners. Most of them, as Robert E. Lee, felt that their duty to their state was greater than their duty to their flag. many southern officers felt differently. Among these were two men whose names should be held in grateful remembrance, Captain David G. Farragut and Colonel George H. Thomas. The first soldiers to arrive in Washington were from Pennsylvania, but they came unarmed. Soon they were followed

by the 6th Massachusetts. In passing through Baltimore, this regiment was attacked. Several men were killed. Others were wounded. This was on April 19th, 18th, 18th. The Anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord. It was the first bloodshed of the war. End of Chapter 37. Chapters 38 and 39 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain.

For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States. States by Edward Channing. Chapter 38. Bull run to Murphysboro, 1861 to 1862. 386. Nature of the conflict. The overthrow of the Confederate states proved to be very difficult. The Allegheny Mountains cut the south into two great fields of war. Deep and rapid rivers flowed from the mountains into the Atlantic or into the Mississippi. Each of these rivers was a natural line of defense. The first line was the Potomac in the Ohio, but when the Confederates were driven from

this line, they soon found another equally good a little farther south. Then again, the south was only partly settled. Good roads were rare, but there were many poor roads. The maps gave only the good roads. By these, the northern soldiers had to march, while the southern armies were often guided through paths unknown to the northerners, and thus were able to march shorter distances between two battlefields or between two important points. 387. The Bull Run Campaign, July 1861. Northern soldiers crossed the Potomac into Virginia and found the Confederates posted at Bull Run near Menasses Junction.

Other northern soldiers pressed into the Shenandoah Valley from Harper's Ferry. They, too, found a Confederate Army in front of them. The plan of the Union campaign is now clear. General McDowell was to attack the Confederates at Bull Run, while General Patterson attacked the Confederates in the valley. It kept them so busy that they could not go to the help of their comrades at Bull Run. It fell out otherwise, for Patterson retreated and left the Confederate General Johnston, free to go to the aid of the sorely pressed Confederates at Bull Run. McDowell attacked vigorously and broke the Confederate line, but he could not maintain his position. The Union troops

at first retreated slowly. Then they became frightened and fled, in all haste back to Washington. The first campaign ended in disaster. 388. The Army of the Potomac. While the Bull Run campaign was going on in eastern Virginia, Union soldiers had been winning victories in Western Virginia.

These were led by General George B. McClellan. He now came to Washington and took command of the troops operating front of the capital. During the autumn, winter and spring, he drilled his men with great skill and care. In March 1862, the Army of the Potomac left its camps a splendidly drilled body of soldiers. 389. The Army of Northern Virginia. Meantime, the government of the Confederacy had gathered great masses of soldiers.

There were not nearly as many white men, a fighting age in the South, as there were in the North. But what men there were could be placed in the fighting line, because the Negroes' slaves could produce the food needed by the armies and do the hard labor of making forts. The capital of the Confederacy was now established at Richmond on the James River in Virginia. The army defending this capital was called the Army of Northern Virginia. It was commanded by Joseph E. Johnston, but its ablest officers were Robert E. Lee and Thomas J. Jackson. Stonewall Jackson 390. Plan of the Peninsular Campaign

The country between the Potomac and the James was cut up by rivers as the Rappahannock, the Mataponi, and the Pamunki, and part of it was a wilderness. McClellan planned to carry his troops by water to the peninsula between the James and the York of Pamunkey Rivers. He would then have a clear road to Richmond with no great rivers to dispute the enemy. Johnston would be obliged to leave his camp at Bull Run and march southward to the defun. of Richmond. The great objection to the plan was that Johnston might attack Washington instead of going to face McClellan. General Jackson also was in the Shenandoah Valley. He might march down the valley, cross the Potomac, and seize Washington. So the government kept 75,000 of McClellan's men for the defense of the federal capital. 391. The Monitor and the Merrimack. On March 8th, a queer-looking

craft steamed out from Norfolk, Virginia, and attacked the Union Fleet at anchor near Fortress Monroe. She destroyed two wooden frigates, the Cumberland and the Congress, and began the destruction of the Minnesota. She then steamed back to Norfolk. This formidable vessel was the old frigate Merrimack. Upon her decks, the Confederate had built an iron house. From these iron sides, the balls of the Union frigates rolled harmlessly away, but that night, an even stranger-looking ship appeared at Fortress Monroe. This was the monitor, a floating fort, built of iron. She was designed by John Erickson, a Swedish immigrant. When the Merrimack came back to finish the destruction of the Minnesota, the monitor steamed directly at her. These ironclads fought and fault. At last,

the Merrimack steamed away and never renewed the fight. The Peninsular Campaign, 1862. By the end of May, McClellan had gained a position within 10 miles of Richmond. Meanwhile, Jackson fought so vigorously in the Shenandoah Valley that the Washington government refused to send more men to McClellan, although Johnston had gone with his army to the defense of Richmond. On May 31st, the Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern Virginia fought a hard battle at Fair Oaks. Johnston was wounded and Lee took the chief command. He summoned Jackson from the valley and attacked McClellan day after day, June 26 to July 2, 1862.

These terrible battles of the seven days forced McClellan to change his base to the James, where he would be near the fleet. At Malvern Hill, Lee and Jackson once more attacked him and were beaten off with fearful loss. 393. Second Bull Run Campaign The Army of the Potomac was still uncomfortably near Richmond. It occurred to Lee that if he should strike a hard blow at the army in front of Washington, Lincoln would recall McClellan. Suddenly, without any warning, Jackson appeared at Manassas Junction.

McClellan was at once ordered to transport his army by water to the Potomac and place it under the orders of General John Pope, commanding the forces in front of Washington. McClellan did as he was ordered, but Lee did, moved faster than he could move. Before the army of the Potomac was thoroughly in Pope's grasp, Lee attacked the Union forces near Bull Run. He defeated them, drove them off the field, and back into the forts defending Washington. The Antietam Campaign, 1862. Lee now crossed the Potomac into Maryland, but he found more resistance than he had looked for. McLellan was again given chief command, gathering his forces firmly together. He kept between the

between Lee and Washington and threatened Lee's communications with Virginia. The Confederates drew back. McClellan found them strongly posted near the Antietam and attacked them. The Union soldiers fought splendidly, but military writers say that McClellan's attacks were not well-planned. At all events, the Army of the Potomac lost more than 12,000 men to less than 10,000 on the Confederate side, and Lee made good his retreat to Virginia. McClellan was now removed from command, and Ambrose E. Burnside became chief of the Army of the Potomac. 395. Fredericksburg, December 1862.

Burnside found Lee strongly posted on Marys Heights, which rise sharply behind the little town of Fredericksburg on the southern bank of the Rappahannock River. Burnside attacked in front. His soldiers had to cross the river and assault the hill in face of a murderous fire, and in vain he lost 13,000 men to only 4,000 of the Confederates. Fighting Joe Hooker now succeeded Burnside as the commander of the Army of the Potomac. We must now turn to the West and see what had been doing there in 1861 to 62. 396. Grant and Thomas In Illinois, there appeared to be a trained soldier of fierce energy and invincible will.

Ulysses Simpson Grant. He had been educated at West Point and had served in the Mexican War. In September 1861, he seized Cairo at the junction of the Ohio and the Mississippi. In January 1862, General George H. Thomas defeated a Confederate force at Mill Springs in the Upper Valley of the Cumberland River. In this way, Grant and Thomas secured the line of the Ohio in eastern Kentucky for the Union. Fort Henry and Donaldson, February 1862. In February 1862, General Grant and Commodore Foot attacked two forts which the Confederates had built to keep the federal gunboats from penetrating the western part of the Confederacy. Fort Henry yielded almost at once, but the Union forces besieged Fort Donaldson for a long time. Soon the Confederate defense became hopeless, and General Buckner asked for the terms of surrender.

unconditional surrender replied grant and buckner surrendered the lower tennessee and the lower cumberland were now open to the union forces three ninety eight importance of new orleans new orleans and the lower mississippi were of great importance to both sides for the possession of this region gave the southerners access to texas and through texas to mexico union fleets were blockading every important southern port but as long as commerce overland with Mexico could be maintained, the South could struggle on. The Mississippi, too, has so many mouths that it was difficult to keep vessels from running in and out. For these reasons, the federal government determined to seize New Orleans and the lower Mississippi. The command of the expedition was given to Farragut, who had passed his boyhood in Louisiana. He was given as good a fleet as could be provided, and a force of soldiers was sent to help him.

399 New Orleans captured April 1862 Farragut carried his fleet into the Mississippi but found his way upstream barred by two forts on the river's bank A great chain stretched across the river

below the forts and a fleet of river gunboats with an ironclad or two was in waiting above the forts chain, forts and gunboats all gave way before Farragut's forceful will At night he passed the forts amid a terrific cannonade. Once above them, New Orleans was at his mercy.

It surrendered, and with the forts was soon occupied by the Union Army. The Lower Mississippi was lost to the Confederacy. 400. Shiloh and Corinth. April and May, 1862. General Halleck now directed the operations of the Union armies in the West. He ordered Grant to take his men up the Tennessee to Pittsburgh Landing, and there, await the arrival of Buell with a strong force overland from Nashville. Grant encamped with his troops on the western bank of the Tennessee between Shiloh Church and Pittsburgh Landing. Albert Sidney Johnston, the Confederate commander in the West, attacked him suddenly and with

great fury. Soon, the Union Army was pushed back to the river. In his place, many a leader would have withdrawn, but Grant, with amazing courage, held on. In the afternoon, Buehell. Well's leading regiments reached the other side of the river. In the night, they were ferried across, and Grant's outlying commands were brought to the front. The next morning, Grant attacked in his turn, and slowly but surely pushed the Confederates off the field. Halleck then united Grant's, Buell's, and Pope's armies in captured Corinth. 401. Bragg in Tennessee and Kentucky.

General Braxton Bragg now took a large part of the Confederate Army, which had fought at Shiloh and Corinth, to Chattanooga. He then marched rapidly across Tennessee and Kentucky to the neighborhood of Louisville on the Ohio River. Buell was sent after him, and the two armies fought an indecisive battle at Perryville. Then Bragg retreated to Chattanooga. In a few months, he was again on the march.

Ros Cranes had now succeeded Buell. He attacked Bragg at Murfreesboro. For a long time, the contest was equal. In the end, however, the Confederates were beaten, and retired from the field. End of chapter 38. Chapters 39 and 40 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording.

All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 39. The Emancipation Proclamation. 402. The Blockade On the fall of Fort Sumter, President Lincoln ordered a blockade of the Confederate seaports.

There were few manufacturing industries in the South. Cotton and tobacco were the great staples of export. If her ports were blockaded, the South could neither bring in arms and military supplies from Europe nor send cotton and tobacco to Europe to be sold for money. so her power of resisting the Union armies would be greatly lessened. The Union government bought all kinds of vessels, even harbor ferry boats, armed them, and stationed them off the blockaded harbors. In a surprisingly short time, the blockade was established. The Union forces also began to occupy the southern sea coast, and thus the region that had to be blockaded steadily grew less.

403. Effects of the Blockade as months and years went by and the blockade became stricter and stricter the sufferings of the southern people became even greater as they could not send their products to europe in exchange for goods they had to pay gold and silver for whatever the blockade runners brought in soon there was no more gold and silver in the confederacy and paper money took its place then the supplies of manufactured goods as clothing and paper of things not produced in the south as as coffee and salt, gave out. Toward the end of the war, there were absolutely no medicines for the southern soldiers and guns were so scarce that it was proposed to arm one regiment with pikes. Nothing did more to break down the southern resistance than the blockade. 404, the Confederacy, Great Britain and France. From the beginning of the contest, the Confederate leaders believed that the British and the French would interfere to aid them.

Cotton is king, they said. Unless there were a regular supply of cotton, the mills of England and of France must stop. Thousands of meal hands, men, women, and children would soon be starving. The French and British governments would raise the blockade. Perhaps they would even force the United States to acknowledge the independence of the Confederate states. There was a good deal of truth in this belief, for the British and the French governments dreaded the growing power of the American Republic, and would gladly have seen it broken to pieces.

But events fell out far otherwise than the southern leaders had calculated. Before the supply of American cotton in England was used up, new supplies began to come in from India and from Egypt. The Union armies occupied portions of the Cotton Belt early in 1862, and American Cotton was again exported. But more than all else, the English meal operatives, and all their hardships, would not ask their governors, would not ask their government to interfere. They saw clearly enough that the North was fighting

for the rights of free labor. At times it seems, however, as if Great Britain or France would interfere. 405. The Trent Affair, 1861. As soon as the blockade was established, the British and French governments gave the Confederates the same rights in their ports as the United States had. the Southerners then sent two agents, Mason and Slydel, to Europe to ask the foreign governments to recognize the independence of the Confederate States. Captain Wilkes of the United States ship San Jacinto took these agents from the British steamer, Trent. But Lincoln at once said that Wilkes had done to the British the very thing which we had fought the war of 1812 to prevent the British from doing to us. We must stick to American principles, said the president. and restore the prisoners. They were given up, but the British government, without waiting

to see what Lincoln would do, had gone actively to work to prepare for war. This seemed so little friendly that the people of the United States were greatly irritated. 406. Lincoln and slavery It will be remembered that the Republican Party had denied again and again that it had any intention to interfere with slavery in the States. As long as peace lasted, the federal government could not interfere with slavery in the states. But when war broke out, the president, as commander-in-chief, could do anything to distress and weaken the enemy. If freeing the slaves in the seceded states would injure the secessionists, he had a perfect right to do it.

But Lincoln knew that public opinion in the north would not approve of this action. He would follow northern sentiment in this matter and not force it. 407. Contrabands of War The war had scarcely begun before slaves escaped into the Union lines. One day, a Confederate officer came to Fortress Monroe and demanded his runaway slaves under the Fugitive Slave Act. General Butler refused to give them up on the ground that they were contraband of war. By that phrase, he meant that their restoration would be illegal,

as their services would be useful to the enemy. President Lincoln approved this decision of General Butler, and escaping slaves soon came to be called contraband. 408 First Steps Towards Emancipation, 1862 Lincoln and the Republican Party thought that Congress could not interfere with slavery in the states. It might, however, buy slaves and set them free, or help the states to do this. So Congress passed the law offering aid to any state which should abolish. slavery within its borders. Congress itself abolished slavery in the District of Columbia with

compensation to the owners. It abolished slavery in the territories without compensation. Lincoln had gladly helped to make these laws. Moreover, by August 1862, he had made up his mind that to free the slaves in the succeeded states would help to save the Union and would therefore be right as a war measure. For every Negro taken away from forced labor would weaken the producing powers of the South, and so make the conquest of the South easier.

409. The Emancipation Proclamation, 1863. On September 23, 1862, Lincoln issued a proclamation stating that on the first day of the new year, he would declare free all slaves in any portion of the United States, then in rebellion.

On January 1, 1st, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This proclamation could only be forced in those portions of the seceded states which were held by the Union armies. It did not free slaves in loyal states and did not abolish the institution of slavery anywhere. Slavery was abolished by the states of West Virginia, Missouri, and Maryland between 1862 and 1864. Finally, in 1865, it was abolished throughout the United States by the adoption of the 13th Amendment. 410. Northern Opposition to the War Many persons in the North thought that the Southerners

had a perfect right to secede if they wished. Some of these persons sympathized so strongly with the Southerners that they gave them important information and did all they could to prevent the success of the Union forces. It was hard to prove anything against these Southern sympathizers, but it was dangerous to leave them at liberty. so Lincoln ordered many of them to be arrested and locked up. Now the Constitution provides that every citizen shall have a speedy trial. This is brought about by issuing a writ of habeas corpus,

compelling the jailer to bring his prisoner into court and show calls why he should not be set at liberty. Lincoln now suspended the operation of the writ of habeas corpus. This action angered many persons who were quite willing that the Southerners should be compelled to obey the law, but did not like to have their neighbors arrested and locked up without trial. 411. The draft riots. At the outset, both armies were made up of volunteers.

Soon, there were not enough volunteers. Both governments then drafted men for their armies. That is, they picked out by lot certain men and compelled them to become soldiers. The draft was bitterly resisted in some parts of the north, especially in New York City. End of Chapter 39. Chapter 40. The year, 1863.

412. Position of the Army's, January, 1863. The Army of the Potomac, now under Hooker, and the Army of Northern Virginia, were face-to-face at Fredericksburg on the Rappahonic. In the West, Roskron's, was at Murfreesburg. and Bragg on the way back to Chattanooga. In the Mississippi Valley, Grant and Sherman had already begun the Vicksburg campaign,

but as yet they had no success. 413. Beginnings of the Vicksburg Campaign. Vicksburg stood on the top of a high bluff directly on the river. Batteries erected at the northern end of the town commanded the river, which at that point ran directly toward the bluff. The best way to attack this formidable place was to proceed over land from Corinth. This Grant tried to do, but the Confederates forced him back. 4.14. Fall of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. Grant now carried his whole army down the Mississippi.

Four months, he tried plan after plan, and every time he failed. Finally, he marched his army down on the western side of the river, crossed the river below Vicksburg, and approached the fortress from the south and east. In this movement, he was greatly aided by the Union fleet under Porter, which protected the army while crossing the river. Pemberton, the Confederate commander, at once came out from Vicksburg, but Grant drove him back and began the siege of the town from the land side. The Confederates made a gallant defense, but slowly and surely they were starved into submission. On July 4th, 8th,000, In 1863, Pemberton surrendered the fortress and 37,000 men. 4.15. Opening of the Mississippi. Port Hudson, between Vicksburg and New Orleans,

was now the only important Confederate position on the Mississippi. On July 8th, it surrendered. A few days later, the freight steamer, Imperia, from St. Louis, reached New Orleans. The Mississippi at last flowed unvexed to the sea. The Confederacy was cut in twain. 416. Lee's second invasion, 1863. Fighting Joe Hooker was now in command of the Army of the Potomac. Outwitting Lee, he gained the rear of the Confederate lines on Mary's height, but Lee fiercely attacked him at Chancellor'sville and drove him back across the Rappahonic. Then, Lee again crossed the Potomac and invaded the North.

This time he penetrated to the heart of Pennsylvania. Hooker moved on parallel lines, always keeping between Lee and the city of Washington. At length, in the midst of the campaign, Hooker asked to be re-delivered, and George G. Meade became the fifth and last chief of the Army of the Potomac. 417. Gettysburg, July 1, 1863. Mead now moved the Union Army toward Lee's line of communication with Virginia. Lee at once drew back. Both armies moved towards Gettysburg where the roads leading southward came together. In this way, the two armies came into contact on July 1, 1863.

The Southerners were in stronger force at the moment and drove the Union soldiers back through the town to the high land called Cemetery Ridge. This was a remarkably strong position, with Culp's Hill at one end of the line and the round tops at the other end. Meade determined to fight the battle at that spot and hurried up all his forces. 418, Gettysburg, July 2, 1863. At first, matters seemed to go badly with the Union Army. Its left flank extended forward from little roundtop into the fields at the foot of the ridge. The Confederates drove back this part of the Union line, but they could not see.

seized the little round top. On this day, also the Confederates gained a foothold on Colp's Hill. 419. Gettysburg, July 3, 1863. Early on this morning, the Union soldiers drove the Confederates away from Colps Hill and held the whole ridge. Now again, as at Malvern Hill, Lee had fought the Army of the Potomac to a standstill, but he would not admit failure. Led by pick-it-up Virginia, 13,000 men charged across the valley between the two armies directly at the Union Center. Some of them even penetrated the Union lines, but there the line stopped. Slowly it began to waver. Then back the Confederates went, all who escaped. The Battle of Gettysburg was won. Lee faced the Army of the Potomac for another day and then retreated. In this tremendous conflict,

the Confederates lost 22,000, 500 men killed and wounded, and 5,000 taken prisoners by the Northerners. A total loss of 28,000 out of 80,000 in the battle. The Union Army numbered 93,000 men and lost 23,000 killed and wounded. Vicksburg and Gettysburg cost the South 65,000 fighting men,

a loss that could not be made good. We must now turn to eastern Tennessee. 420, Chickamauga, September 1863. For six months after Murfreesboro, Roskron's and Bragg remained in their camps. In the summer of 1863, Roskron's, by a series of skillful marchings, forced Bragg to abandon Chattanooga.

But Bragg was now greatly strengthened by soldiers from the Mississippi and by Long Street's division from Lee's Arches. Army in Virginia. He turned on Roskrunds and attacked him at Chickamauga Creek. The right wing of the Union Army was driven from the field, but Thomas, quote, the rock of Chikamagua with his men stood fast. Bragg attacked him again and again and failed every time, although he had double Thomas's numbers. Roskron's, believing the battle to be lost, had ridden off to Chattanooga, but Sheridan aided Thomas as well as he could. The third day, Thomas and Bragg kept the positions, and then the Union soldiers retired,

unpursued to Chattanooga. The command of the whole army at Chattanooga was now given to Thomas, and Grant was placed in control of all the Western armies. 421, Chattanooga, November 1863. The Union soldiers at Chattanooga were in great danger, for the Confederates were all about them, and they could get no food. But help was at hand. Hooker, with 15,000 men from the Army of the Potomac, arrived and opened a road by which food could reach Chattanooga.

Then Grant came with Sherman's corpse from Vicksburg. He at once sent Sherman to a sail bragg's right flank and ordered Hooker to attack his left flank. Sherman and his men advanced until he was stopped by a deep ravine. At the other end of the line, Hooker fought right up the side of Lookout Mountain, until the battle raged above the clouds. In the center were Thomas's men. Eager to avenge the slaughter of Chickamauga,

they carried first the Confederate line of defenses. Then, without orders, they rushed up the hillside over the inner lines. They drove the Southerners from their guns and seized their works. Bragg retreated as well as he could. Long Street was besieging Knoxville. He escaped through the mountains to Lee's army in Virginia. End of Chapter 40. Chapters 41 and 42.

Of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 41. The End of the War.

1864 to 1865. 422. Grant in command of all the armies. Vicksburg and Chattanooga campaigns marked out Grant for the chief command. Hitherto, the Union forces had acted on no well-thought-out plan. Now Grant was appointed Lieutenant General

and placed in command of all the armies of the United States, March 1864. He decided to carry on the war in Virginia in person. western operations he entrusted to sherman with thomas in command of the army of the cumberland sheridan came with grant to virginia and led the cavalry of the army of the potomac we will first follow sherman and thomas and the western armies four twenty three the atlanta campaign eighteen sixty four sherman had one hundred thousand veterans led by thomas mcpherson and schofield josepherson and josephold joseph johnston who succeeded Bragg, had fewer men, but he occupied strongly fortified positions. Yet, week by week, Sherman forced him back, till, after two months of steady fighting, Johnston found himself in the vicinity of Atlanta. This was the most important manufacturing center in the South. The Confederates must keep Atlanta

if they possibly could. Johnston plainly could not stop Sherman, so Hood was appointed in his place, in the expectation that he would fight. Hood fought his business. best. Again and again, he attacked Sherman, only to be beaten off with heavy loss. He then abandoned Atlanta to save his army. From May to September, Sherman lost 22,000 men, but the Confederates lost 35,000 men, and Atlanta, too. 424. Plans of Campaign Hood now led his army northward to Tennessee, but Sherman, instead of following him, sent only Thomas and Schofield. Sherman knew that the Confederacy was a mere shell.

Its heart had been destroyed. What would be the result of a Grand March through Georgia to the sea coast and then northward through the Carolinas to Virginia? Would not this unopposed march show the people of the north, of the South, and of Europe that further resistance was useless? Sherman thought that it would, and that once in Virginia he could help Grant crush Lee. Grant agreed with Sherman and told him to carry out his plans, but first we must see what happened to Thomas and Hood. 425 Thomas and Hood 1864

Never dreaming that Sherman was not in pursuit, Hood marched rapidly northward until he had crossed the Tennessee. He then spent three weeks in resting his tired soldiers and in gathering supplies. This delay gave Thomas time to draw in recruits. Last, Hood attacked Schofield at Franklin on November 30, 1864. Schofield retreated to Nashville, where Thomas was with the bulk of his army, and Hood followed. Thomas took all the time he needed to complete his preparations. Grant felt anxious at his delay and ordered him to fight, but Thomas would not fight until he was ready. At length on December 15th, he struck the blow, and in two days of fighting, destroyed Hood's whole army.

This was the last great battle in the West. 426. Marching through Georgia. Destroying the meals and factories of Atlanta, Sherman set out for the seashore. He had 60,000 men with him. They were all veterans and marched along as if on a holiday excursion. Spreading out over a line of 60 miles, they gathered everything eatable within reach. Every now and then, they would stop and destroy a railroad. This they did by taking up the rails, heating them up in the middle, on fires of burning sleepers, and then twisting them around the nearest trees.

In this way, they cut a gap 60 miles long in the railroad communication between the half-starved army of northern Virginia and the storehouses of southern Georgia. On December 10, 1864, Sherman reached the sea. Ten days later, he captured Savannah and presented it to the nation as a Christmas gift. Sherman and Thomas between them had struck a fearful blow at the Confederacy. How had it fared with Grant? Grant in Virginia, 1864. Grant had with him in Virginia, the Army of the Potomac, under Mead, the Ninth Corps under Burnside,

and a great cavalry force under Sheridan. In addition, General Butler was on the James River with some 30,000 men. Lee had under his orders about one-half as many soldiers as had Grant. In every other respect, the advantage was on his side. Grant's plan of campaign was to move by his left from the Rappahannock southeastwardly. He expected to push Lee southward and hoped to destroy his army. Butler, on his part, was to move up the James. By this plan, Grant could always be near navigable water

and could in this way easily supply his army with food and military stores. The great objection to this scheme of invasion was that it gave Lee's shorter lines of march to all important points. This fact and their superior knowledge of the country gave the Confederates an advantage, which largely made up for their lack in numbers. 428, The Wilderness, May 1864. On May 4th and 5th, the Union Army crossed the Rapidan and marched southward through the wilderness. It soon found itself veering near the scene of the disastrous battle of Chancellorsville. The woods were thick and full of underbrush.

Clearings were few, and the roads were fewer still. On ground like this, Lee attacked the Union Army. Everything was in favor of the attacker, for it was impossible to foresee his blood. or to get men quickly to any threatened spot. Nevertheless, Grant fought four days. Then he skillfully removed the army and marched by his left to Spotsylvania Courthouse. 429. Spotsylvania, May 1864. Lee reached Spotsylvania first and fortified his position.

For days, fearful combats went on. One point in the Confederate line, called the Salient, was taken and retaken over and over again. The loss of life was awful, and Grant could not push Lee back. So on May 20th he again set out on his march by the left and directed his army to the North Anna. But Lee was again before him and held such a strong position that it was useless to attack him.

4.30. To the James, June 1864. Grant again withdrew his army and resumed his southward march. But when he reached Cold Harbor, Lee was again strongly fortified. Both armies were now on the ground of the Peninsular campaign. For two weeks, Grant attacked again and again. Then on June 11th, he took up his march for the last time. On June 15th, the Union soldiers reached the banks of the James River below the junction of the Appomattox. But, owing to some misunderstanding, Petersburg had not been seized,

so Lee established himself there and the campaign, took on the form of a siege. In these campaigns from the Rapidon to the James, Grant lost and killed, wounded and missing, 60,000 men. Lee's loss was much less. How much less is not known. 431, Petersburg, June to December, 1864. Petersburg guarded the roads leading from Richmond to the south. It was, in reality, a part of the defenses of Richmond, for, if these roads passed out of Confederate control, the Confederate capital would have to be abandoned. It was necessary for Lee to keep Petersburg. Grant, on the other hand, wished to gain the roads south of Petersburg.

He lengthened his line, but each extension was met by a similar extension of the Confederate line. This process could not go on forever. The Confederacy was getting worn out. No more men could be sent to Lee. Sooner or later, his line would become so weak that Grant could breakthrough. Then Petersburg and Richmond must be abandoned. Two years before, when Richmond was threatened by McClellan, Lee had secured the removal of the Army of the Potomac by a sudden movement toward Washington. He now detached Jubile Early with a formidable force and sent him through the Shenandoah Valley to Washington. 432. Sheridan's Valley Campaigns 1864. The conditions now were very unlike the conditions of 1862.

Now, Grant was in command instead of McClellan or Pope. He controlled the movements of all the armies without interference from Washington. And he had many more men than Lee. Without letting go his hold on Petersburg, Grant sent two army corps by water to Washington. Early was an able and active soldier, but he delayed his attack on Washington until soldiers came from the James. He then withdrew to the Shenandoah Valley. Grant now gave Sheridan 40,000 infantry and 15,000 Calvary, and sent him to the valley with orders to drive early out

and to destroy all supplies in the valley, which could be used by another southern army. Splendidly, Sheridan did his work. At one time, when he was away, the Confederate surprised the Union Army. But, hearing the roar of the battle, Sheridan rode rapidly to the front. As he wrote along, the fugitives turned back. The Confederates, surprised in their turn, were swept from the field and sent whirling up the valley in wild confusion, October 19, 1864.

Then Sheridan destroyed everything that could be of service to another invading army and rejoined Grant at Petersburg. In the November following this great feat of arms, Lincoln was re-elected president. 433 The Blockade and the Cruisers, 1863 to 64. The blockade had now become stricter than ever, for by August 1864, Farragut had carried his fleet into Mobile Bay and had closed it to commerce. Sherman had taken Savannah. Early in 1865, Charleston was abandoned, for Sherman had it at his mercy, and Terry captured Wilmington. The South was now absolutely dependent.

on its own resources, and the end could not be far off. On the open sea, with England's aid, a few vessels flew the Confederate flag. The best known of these vessels was the Alabama. She was built in England, armed with English guns, and largely manned by Englishmen. On June 19, 1864, the United States ship, Here Sarge, sank off Sherbourg, France. Englishmen were also building two Ironclide battleships, for the Confederates, but the American minister at London, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, said that if they were allowed to sail, it would be war. The English government thereupon bought the vessels. 434, Sherman's March Through the Carolinas, 1865. Early in 1865, Sherman set out on the worst part of his great march. He now directed his steps northward from Savannah toward Virginia. The Confederates prepared to meet him, but Sherman set out before they expected him,

and thus gained a clear path for the first part of his journey. Joseph E. Johnston now took command of the forces opposed to Sherman and did everything he could to stop him. At one moment, it seemed as if he might succeed. He almost crushed the forward end of Sherman's army before the rest of the soldiers could be brought to its rescue. But Sherman's veterans were two old soldiers to be easily defeated, They first beat back the enemy in front, and when another force appeared in the rear, they jumped to the other side of their field breastworks and defeated that force also.

Knight then put an end to the combat, and by morning the Union force was too strong to be attacked. Pressing on, Sherman reached Goldsboro in North Carolina. There he was joined by Terry from Wilmington and by Schofield from Tennessee. Sherman now was strong enough to beat any Confederate Army. He moved to Raleigh and completely cut Lee's communications with South Carolina and Georgia in April 1865. 435 Appomattox April 1865 The end of the Confederacy was now plainly in sight.

Lee's men were starving. They were constantly deserting either to go to the aid of their perishing families or to obtain food from the Union Army. As soon as the roads were fit for marching, Grant set his 120,000 men once more in motion. His object was to gain the rear of Lee's army and to force him to abandon Petersburg. A last despairing attack on the Union Center

only increased Grant's vigor. On April 1st, Sheridan, with his cavalry and as an infantry corps, seized five forks in the rear of Petersburg, and could not be driven away. Petersburg and Richmond were abandoned. Lee tried to escape to the mountains, but now the Union soldiers marched faster than the starving southerners.

Sheridan, outstripping them, placed his men across their path at Appomattox Courthouse. There was nothing left save surrender. The soldiers of the Army of Northern Virginia, now only 37,000 strong, laid down their arms. April 9, 1865.

soon johnston surrendered and the remaining small isolated bands of confederates were run down and captured four thirty six lincoln murdered april fourteenth eighteen sixty five the national armies were victorious president lincoln never grander or wiser than in the moment of victory stood alone between the southern people and the northern extremists clamoring for vengeance on the night of april fourteenth he was murdered by the murder by a sympathizer with slave and secession. No one old enough to remember the morning of April 15, 1865 will ever forget the horror aroused in the north by this unholy murder. In the beginning, Lincoln had been a party leader. In the end, the simple grandeur of his nature

had won for him a place in the hearts of the American people that no other man has ever gained. He was indeed the greatest, because the most typical of Americans. President Andrew Johnson, a war Democrat from Tennessee, became president. The vanquished secessionists were soon to taste the bitter dregs of the cup of defeat. End of Chapter 41. Part 14. Reconstruction and Reunion, 1865 to 1888. Chapter 42, President Johnson and Reconstruction, 1861 to 1868.

437. Lincoln's Reconstruction Policy The great question now before the country was what should be done with the southern states and people, and what should be done with the freedmen. On these questions, people were not

agreed. Some people thought the states were indestructible, that they could not secede or get out of the union. Others thought the southern states had been conquered and should be treated as part of the national domain. Lincoln thought that it was useless to go into these questions. The southern states were out of the proper practical relations with the union.

That was clear enough. The thing to do, therefore, was to restore proper practical relations as quickly and quietly as possible. In December 1863, Lincoln had offered a pardon to all persons, with some exceptions, who should take the oath of allegiance to the United States and should promise to support the Constitution and the Emancipation Proclamation. Whenever one-tenth of the voters in any of the Confederate states should do these things and should set up a Republican form of government, Lincoln promised to recognize that government as the state government. But the admission to Congress of senators and representatives from such a reconstructed state would rest with Congress. Several states were reconstructed on this plan, but public opinion was opposed to this quiet reorganization of the seceded states. The people trusted Lincoln, however, and had he lived, he might have induced them to accept this plan. 438. President Johnson's Reconstruction Plan.

Johnson was an able man and a patriot, but he had none of Lincoln's wise patience. He had none of Lincoln's tact and humor in dealing with men. On the contrary, he always lost his temper when opposed. Although he was a Southerner, he hated slavery and slave owners. On the other hand, he had a Southerner's contempt for the Negroes. He practically adopted Lincoln's reconstruction policy and tried to bring about the reorganization of the seceded states by presidential action. 439. The 13th Amendment, 1865. President Lincoln's

emancipation proclamation had freed the slaves in those states and parts of states which were in rebellion against the national government. It had not freed the slaves in the loyal states. It had not destroyed slavery as an institution. Any state could reestablish slavery whenever it chose. Slavery could be prohibited only by an amendment to the Constitution. So, the 13th Amendment was adopted, December 1865. This amendment declares that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime,

shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction. In this way, slavery came to an end throughout the United States. 440 Congress and the President 1865 to 66 Unhappily many of the old slave states had passed laws to compel the Negroes

to work. They had introduced a system of forced labor which was about the same thing as slavery. In December 1865 the new Congress met the Republicans were in the majority they refused to admit the senators and representatives from the

reorganized southern states and at one set to work to pass laws for the protection of the Negroes. In March, 1865, while the war was still going on, and while Lincoln was alive, Congress had established the Freedmen's Bureau to look after the interest of the Negroes. Congress now, February, 1866, passed a bill to continue the Bureau and to give it much more power. Johnson promptly vetoed the bill. In the following July, Congress passed another bill to continue the Friedman's Bureau. In this bill, the officers of the Bureau were given greatly enlarged powers. The education

of the blacks was provided for, and the Army might be used to compel obedience to the law. Johnson vetoed this bill also. 441. The 14th Amendment. While this contest over the Freedmen's Bureau was going on, Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill to protect the freedmen. This bill provided that cases concerning the civil rights of the freedmen should be heard in the United States courts instead of in the state courts. Johnson thought that Congress had no power to do this. He vetoed the bill

and Congress passed it over his veto. Congress then drew up the 14th Amendment. This forbade the states to abridge the rights of the citizens, white or black. It further provided that the representation of any state in Congress should be diminished whenever it denied the franchise to anyone

except for taking part of it. in the rebellion. Finally, it guaranteed the debt of the United States and declared all debts incurred in support of rebellion, null and void. Every southern state, except Tennessee, refused to accept this amendment. 442. The Reconstruction Act, 1867. The Congressional Elections of November 1866 were greatly in favor of the Republicans. The Republican members of Congress felt that this showed that the North was with them and their policy as to Reconstruction. Congress met in December

1866 and at once set to work to carry out this policy. First of all, it passed the Tenure of Office Act to prevent Johnson dismissing Republicans from office. Then it passed the Reconstruction Act. Johnson vetoed both of these measures and Congress passed them both over his veto. The Reconstruction Act was later amended

and strengthened. It will be well to describe here the process of reconstruction in its final form. First of all, the seceded states, with the exception of Tennessee, were formed into military districts. Each district was ruled by a military officer who had soldiers to carry out his directions. Tennessee was not included in this arrangement because it had accepted the 14th Amendment, but all the other states, which had been reconstructed by Lincoln or by Johnson, were to be reconstructed over again. The franchise was given to all men, white or black, who had lived in any state for one year, accepting criminals and persons who had taken part in rebellion. This exception

took the franchise away from the old rulers of the South. These new voters could form a state constitution and elect a legislature which should ratify the 14th Amendment. When all this had been done, senators and representatives from the reconstructed state might be admitted to Congress. 443 Impeachment of Johnson 1868 President Johnson had vetoed all these bills He declared that the Congress was a Congress of only a part of the states

Because representatives from the states reconstructed according to his ideas were not admitted He had used language towards his opponents that was fairly described as indecent and unbecoming the chief officer of a great nation especially he had refused to be bounded by the Tenure of Office Act. Ever since the formation of the government, the President had removed officers when they saw fit.

The Tenure of Office Act required the consent of the Senate to removals as well as to appointments. Among the members of Lincoln's Cabinet who were still in office was Edwin M. Stanton. Johnson removed him, and this brought on the crisis. The House impeached the President, and the Senate, provided over by Chief Justice Chase, hurried the impeachment. The Constitution requires the votes of two-thirds of the senators to convict. Seven Republicans voted with the Democrats against conviction, and the president was acquitted by one vote.

444. The French in Mexico. Napoleon III, Emperor of French, seized the occasion of the Civil War to set the Monroe Doctrine at defiance. and to refound a French colonial empire in America. At one time, indeed, he seemed to be on the point of interfering to compel the Union government to withdraw its armies from the Confederate states. Then Napoleon had an idea that perhaps Texas might secede from the Confederacy and set up for itself under French protection.

This failing, he began the establishment of an empire in Mexico with the Austrian prince Maximilian as emperor. The ending of the Civil War made it possible for the United States to interfere. Grant and Sheridan would gladly have marched troops into Mexico and turned out the French, but Seward said that the French would have to leave before long anyway. He hastened their going by telling the French government that the sooner they left, the better. They were withdrawn in 1868. Maximilian insisted on staying.

He was captured by the Mexicans and shot. The Mexican Republic was reestablished. 445. The Purchase of Alaska, 1867. In 1867, President Johnson sent to the Senate for ratification a treaty with Russia for the purchase of Russia's American possessions. These were called Alaska and included an immense tract of land in the extreme northwest. The price to be paid was $7 million. The history of this purchase is still little known. The Senate was completely taken by surprise, but ratified the treaty anyway.

Until recent years, the only important product of Alaska has been the skins of the fur seals. To preserve the seals herds from extinction, the United States made rules limiting the number of seals to be killed in any one year. The Canadians were not bound by these rules, and the herds have been nearly destroyed. In recent years, large deposits of gold have been found in Alaska, and in neighboring countries, portions of Canada, but the Canadian deposits are hard to reach without first going through Alaska. This fact has made it more difficult to agree with Great Britain as to the boundary between Alaska and Canada. 446. Grant Elected President 1868. The excitement over reconstruction and the bitter contest between the Republicans and Congress and the President had brought about great confusion in politics.

The Democrats nominated General F. P. Blair, a gallant soldier, for Vice President. For President, they nominated Horatio Seymour of New York. He was a peace Democrat. As governor of New York during the war, he had refused to support the national government. The Republicans nominated General Grant. He received 300,000 more votes than Seymour. Of the 294 electoral votes, Grant received 215. Chapter 42. Chapters 43 and 44 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording.

All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A short history of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 43. From Grant to Cleveland 1869 to 1889 447

The 15th Amendment In February 1869 Just before Grant's inauguration Congress proposed still another amendment Providing that neither the United States nor any state could abridge the rights of citizens of the United States on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

The state legislatures hastened to accept this amendment and it was declared in force in March 1870. 448. End of Reconstruction. Three states only were still unreconstructed. These were Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi. In 1869, Congress added to the conditions on which they could be readmitted to the Union the acceptance of the 15th Amendment. Early in 1870, they all complied with the conditions and were readmitted. The Union was, the Union was now again complete. Since 1860, four states had been added to the Union. These were Kansas, West Virginia, Nevada, and Nebraska. There were now 37 states in all. 449, the Southerners and the Negroes. The first result of the Congressional Plan of Reconstruction

was to give the control of the southern states to the freedmen and their white allies. Some of these white friends of the freedmen were men of character and ability, but most of them were adventurers who came from the north to make their fortunes. They were called the carpetbaggers because they usually carried their luggage in their hands. The few southern whites who befriended the Negroes were called Scalowags by their white neighbors. Secret society sprang into being the most famous was the Ku Klux Klan. The object of these societies was to terrorize the freedmen and their white friends and to prevent their voting. This led to the passage of the Force Acts.

These laws provided severe penalties for crimes of intimidation. They also provided that these cases should be tried in the United States courts. Federal soldiers stationed in the South could be used to compel obedience to the law. 4.50, Alabama Claims During the Civil War, Vessels built in British shipyards, or refitted and supplied with coal at British ports, had preyed upon American commerce. The most famous of these vessels was the Alabama. The claims for losses caused by these vessels which the United States presented to Great Britain were therefore called

the Alabama claims. There were also disputes with Great Britain over the fisheries and over the western end of the Oregon boundary. In 1871, the United States and Great Britain made an arrangement called the Treaty of Washington. By this treaty, all these points of dispute were referred to arbitration. The Oregon boundary was decided in favor of the United States, but the fishery dispute was decided in favor of Great Britain. The Alabama claims were settled by five arbitrators who sat in Geneva, Switzerland. They decided that Great Britain had not used due diligence to prevent the abuse of her ports by the Confederates. They condemned her to pay 15 and one-half million dollars damages to the United States. 4.51. The Chicago Fire, 1871. Early one morning in October

1871, a Chicago woman went to the barn to milk her cow. She carried a lighted kerosene lamp, for it was still dark. The cow kicked over the lamp. The barn was soon ablaze. A furious gale carried the burning sparks from one house to another. And so the fire went on spreading all that day and night and the next day. Nearly $200 million worth of property was destroyed. The homes of nearly 100,000 persons were burned down. In a surprisingly short time, the burnt district was rebuilt, and Chicago grew more rapidly than ever before. 4.52. Corruption and Politics New York City had no $200 million fire, but a ring of city officers stole more than $150 million of the city's money. In other cities also, there was great corruption, nor were the state governments free from bribery and thieving.

Many officers in the national government were believed to be mixed up in schemes to defraud people. The truth of the matter was that the Civil War had left behind it the habit of spending money freely, A desire to grow suddenly rich possessed the people. Men did not look closely to see where their money came from. 4.53. Election of 1872. In fact, this condition of the public service made many persons doubtful of the wisdom of re-electing President Grant. There was not the slightest doubt as to Grant's personal honesty. There were grave doubts as to his judgment in making appointments.

Reconstruction, too, did not seem to be received. restoring peace and prosperity to the South. For these reasons, many voters left the Republican Party. They called themselves liberal Republicans and nominated Horace Greeley for president. He had been one of the most outspoken opponents of slavery. The Democrats could find no better candidate, so they, too, nominated Greeley. But many Democrats could not bring themselves to vote for him. They left their party for the moment and nominated a third candidate. The result of all this confusion was the re-election of Grant, but the Democrats elected a majority of the House of Representatives. 454. The Cuban Rebellion, 1867 to 77. When the other Spanish-American colonies won their independence, Cuba remained true to Spain, but by 1867, the Cubans could no longer bear the hardships of Spanish rule. They rebelled, and for 10 years fought for freedom.

The Spaniards burned whole villages because they thought the inhabitants favored the rebels. They even threatened to kill all Cuban men found away from their homes. This cruelty aroused the sympathy of the Americans. Expeditions sailed from the United States to help the Cubans, although the government did everything it could to prevent their departure. One of these vessels carrying aid to the Cubans was named the Virginius. The Spaniards captured her, carried her to Santiago, and killed 46 of her crew.

There came near being a war with Spain over this affair, but the Spaniards apologized and saluted the American flag. In 1877, President Grant made up his mind that the war had lasted long enough. He adopted a severe tone towards Spain. The Spanish government made terms with the rebels, and the rebellion came to an end. 455. Scandals in Political Life In 1872, the House of Representatives made a searching inquiry into the charges of bribery

in connection with the building of the Pacific Railroads. Oakes Ames of Massachusetts was the head of a company called the Credit Mobiliar. This company had been formed to build the Union Pacific Railway. Fearing that Congress would pass laws that might hurt the enterprise, Ames gave stock in the company to members of Congress, but nothing definite could be proved against any members and the matter dropped. Soon after the beginning of Grant's second term, many evil things came to light.

One of these was the whiskey ring, which defrauded the government of large sums of money with the aid of the government officials. Grant wished to have a thorough investigation and said, Let no guilty man escape. The worst of all, perhaps, was that of WW Beltnap, Secretary of War, but he escaped punishment by resigning. 56. Anarchy in the South. Meantime, Reconstruction was not working well in the South. This was especially true of Louisiana, Arkansas, and South Carolina. In Louisiana, and in Arkansas also,

there were two sets of governors and legislatures, and civil war on a small scale was going on. In South Carolina, the carpetbaggers and the Negroes had gained control. They stole right and left. In other southern states, there were continued outrages on the Negroes. President Grant was greatly troubled. Let us have peace was his heartfelt wish, but he felt it necessary to keep federal soldiers in the South,

although he knew that public opinion in the North was turning against their employment. It was under these circumstances that the election of 1876 was held. 457. Election of 1876. The Republican candidate was Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio. He was a gallant soldier of the Civil War and was a man of the highest personal character. His Democratic opponent was Samuel J. Tilden of New York, a shrewd lawyer who

had won distinction as governor of the Empire State. When the electoral returns were brought in, there appeared two sets of returns from each of the three southern states, and the vote of Oregon was doubtful. The Senate was Republican, and the House was Democrat. As the The two houses could not agree as to how these returns should be counted, they referred the whole matter to an electoral commission. This commission was made up of five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. Eight of them were Republicans, and seven were Democrats. They decided by eight seven that Hayes was elected, and he was inaugurated president on March 4, 1877. 4.58, withdrawal of the soldiers from the South.

The people of the north were weary of the ceaseless political agitation in the South. The old southern leaders had regained control of nearly all the southern states. They could not be turned out except by a new civil war, and the northern people were not willing to go to war again. The only other thing that could be done was to withdraw the federal soldiers and let the southern people work out their own salvation as well as they could. President Hayes recalled the troops, and all the southern states at once passed into the control,

of the Democrats. 459. Strikes and riots. 1877. The extravagance and speculation of the Civil War and the years following its close ended in a great panic in 1873. After the panic came the hard times. Production fell off. The demand for labor diminished.

Wages were everywhere reduced. Strikes became frequent and riots followed the strikes. At Pittsburgh in western Pennsylvania, the rioters seized the railroad. They burned hundreds of railroad cars and locomotives. They destroyed the railroad buildings. At last, the riot came to an end, but not until millions of dollars worth of property had been destroyed. 460. Election of 1880 At the beginning of his administration, Hayes had declared that he would not be a candidate for re-election.

Who should be the Republican standard bearer? grant's friends proposed to nominate him for a third term the politicians who advocated a third term for grant were opposed to the candidacy of james g blaine they were called the stalwart republicans in the convention they voted steadily and solidly for grant finally their opponents with the cry of anything to beat grant suddenly turned to an entirely new man whose name had been little mentioned this was james a garfield of a Ohio. He had won distinction in the Civil War and had served with credit in Congress. For Vice President, the Republicans nominated Chester A. Arthur, a New York banker. The Democrats, on their part, nominated one of the most brilliant and popular soldiers of the Army of the Potomac, General Winfield Scott Hancock. The campaign was very hotly contested. In the end, Garfield won. 461. Garfield murdered. Civil Service Reform. President Garfield took oath of office on March 4, 1881. On July 2nd, he was shot in the back by a disappointed office seeker. Week after week, he endured terrible agony. At length, on September 19th, the martyred president died. Now, at last, the evils of the spoils system were brought to the attention of the American people.

President Arthur became president and entered heartily into the projects of reform. A beginning was soon made, but it was found to be a very difficult thing to bring about any lasting reform. The Constitution gives the President the appointment of officers, subject to the confirmation of the Senate. No act of Congress can diminish the constitutional powers of the President except so far as he consents, and one President cannot bind succeeding presidents. Any scheme of reform also costs money, which must be voted annually by Congress. It follows, therefore, that the consent of every president and of both houses of every Congress is necessary to make the reform of the civil service permanent.

Nevertheless, the reform has made steady progress until now, by far, the greater part of the civil service is organized on the merit system. 462. Election of 1884. In 1884, the Republicans nominated James G. Blaine of Maine for president. He was a man of magnetic address and had made many friends, but he had also made many enemies. Especially many Republican voters distrusted him. They felt that he had used his position for private gain, although nothing was proved against him. These Republicans were called mugwamps. They bolted the nomination and supported the Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland,

As mayor of Buffalo, Cleveland had done very well. He had then been elected governor of New York by a very large majority. The campaign of 1884 was conducted on the lines of personal abuse that recall the campaigns of 1800 and 1828. Cleveland carried four large northern states and the solid south and was elected. 463. Cleveland's administration, 1885 to 89. The great contest of Cleveland's first term was a fierce struggle over the tariff. The government's need of money during the Civil War had compelled Congress to raise large sums by means of internal revenue taxes. These taxes, in turn, had brought about a great increase in the tariff rates on goods imported from foreign countries. The internal revenue taxes had been almost entirely removed, but the war tariffs substantially remained in force. In 1887, Cleveland laid the whole question before Congress.

For a time, it seemed probable that something would be done, but the opposition in Congress was very active and very strong. It fell out, therefore, and nothing important was done. The real significance of Cleveland's first administration lay in the fact that the Southerners were once again admitted to share in the government of the nation. It marked, therefore, the reunion of the American people. of chapter 43 part 15 national development 1889 to 1900 chapter 44 confusion and politics

464 benjamin harrison elected president 1888 in 1888 the democrats put forward cleveland as their candidate for president the republicans nominated benjamin harrison of indiana like hayes and garfield he had won renowned in the Civil War and was a man of the highest honor and proved ability. The prominence of the old southern leaders in the Democratic administration and the neglect of the business interests of the North compelled many Northern Republicans who had voted for Cleveland to return to the Republican Party. The result was the election of Harrison and of a Republican majority in the House of Representatives. 465. The McKinley Tariff, 1890. One of the questions most discussed in the campaign of 1888 was the reform of the tariff.

There seemed to have been two sets of tariff reformers. One set of reformers proposed to reform the tariff by doing a way with as much of it as possible. The other set of reformers proposed to readjust the tariff duties so as to make the protective system more consistent and more perfect. Led by William McKinley, the Republican set to work to reform the tariff in this latter sense. This they did by generally raising the duties on protected goods. The McKinley Tariff Act also offered reciprocity to countries which would favor American goods. This offer was in effect to lower certain duties on goods imported from Argentina, for instance, if the Argentine government would admit certain American goods to Argentina on better terms

than similar goods imported from other countries. 466. The Sherman Silver Law 1890 In the Civil War Gold and Silver had disappeared from circulation but after the close of the war a gradual return was made to specie payments

In the colonial days the demand was for silver as compared with the demand for gold outran the supply The consequence was that silver was constantly becoming worth more in comparison with gold In the 19th century the supply of silver has greatly outstripped the demand, with the result that silver has greatly declined in value as compared with gold.

In 1871, the government decided to use silver for small coins only and not to allow silver to be offered in payment of a larger sum than $5. This was called the demonetization of silver. In 1878, a small but earnest band of advocates of the free coinage of silver secured the passage of an act of Congress for the coinage of two million silver dollars each month. The silver, in each one of these dollars, was only worth in gold from 90 to 60 cents. In 1890, Senator John Sherman of Ohio brought in a bill to increase the coinage of these silver dollars, which, in 1894, were worth only 49 cents on the dollar in gold.

467. Election of 1892 One result of this great increase in the silver coinage was to alarm businessmen throughout the country. Businesses constantly declined. Everyone who could lessened his expenses as much as possible. Mill owners and railroad managers discharged their workers or reduced their wages. Harrison and Cleveland were again the Republican and Democratic candidates for the presidency. As is always the case, the party in power was held to be responsible for the hard times. Enough voters turned to Cleveland to elect him, and he was inaugurated president for the second time. March 4, 1893. 468. Silver and the tariff.

In the summer of 1893, there was a great scarcity of money. Thousands of people withdrew all the money they could from the banks and locked it up in places of security, but Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Law and put an end to the complaint. impulsory purchase of silver and the coinage of silver dollars. This tended to restore confidence. The Democrats once more overhauled the tariff. Under the lead of Representative Wilson of West Virginia, they passed the Tariff Act, lowering some duties and placing many articles on the free list. 469. The Chicago Exhibition, 1893. The 400th anniversary of the Colombian Discovery of America occurred in October 1892. Preparations were made for holding a great commemorative exhibition at Chicago, but it took so long to get everything ready that the exhibition was not held until the summer of 1893.

Beautiful buildings were erected of a cheap but satisfactory material. They were designed with the greatest taste and were filled with splendid exhibits that showed the skill and resources of Americans, and also with the products of foreign countries. Hundreds of thousands of persons from all parts of the country visited the exhibition with pleasure and great profit. No more beautiful or successful exhibition has ever been held. 470, Election of 1896. In 1896, the Republicans held their convention at St. Louis

and nominated William McKinley of Ohio for president. They declared in favor of the gold standard, unless some arrangement with other nations for a standard of gold and silver could be made. They also declared for protection to home industries. The Democrats held their convention at Chicago. The men who had stood by Cleveland found themselves in a helpless minority. William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska was nominated for president on a platform advocating the free coinage of silver and many changes in the laws in the direction of socialism. The populists and the silver Republicans also adopted Brian as their candidate.

Now at last, the question of the gold standard or the silver standard was fairly before the voters. They responded by electing McKinley and a Republican House of Representatives. 471. The Dingley Tariff, 1897. The Republicans, once more in control of the government, set to work to reform the in favor of high protection. Representative Dingley of Maine was chairman of the committee of the House that drew up the new bill, and the act as finally passed goes by his name. It raised the duties on some classes of goods and taxed many things that hitherto had come in free. Especially were duties increased on certain raw materials for manufacturers with a view to encourage the production

of such materials in the United States. The reciprocity features. of the McKinley tariff were also restored. End of chapter 44. Chapter 45 of a short history of the United States. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia.

A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing. Chapter 45. Spanish War 1898 472. The Cuban Rebellion 1894-98 The Cubans laid down their arms in 1877 because they relied on the promises

of better government made by the Spaniards but these promises were never carried out year after year the Cuban people bore with their oppression but at last their patience was worn out In 1894, they again rebelled. The Spaniards sent over an army to subdue them. Soon, tales of cruelty on the part of the Spaniards reached the United States. Finally, the Spanish governor, General Weiler,

adopted the cruel measure of driving the old men, the women, and the children from the country villages and huddling them together in the seabird towns. Without money, without food, with scant shelter, these poor people endured every hardship. They died by thousands. The American people sent relief, but little could be done to help them. The Cubans also fitted out expeditions in American ports to carry arms and supplies to the rebels.

The government did everything in its power to stop these expeditions, but the coastline of the United States is so long that it was impossible to stop them all, especially as large numbers of the American people heartily sympathized with the Cubans. Constant disputes with Spain over the Cuban, human question naturally came up and gave rise to irritation in the United States and in Spain. 473. The Declaration of War, 1898. On January 5, 1898, the American battleship Maine anchored in Havana Harbor. On February 15th, she was destroyed by an explosion and sank with 253 of her crew. A most competent court of inquiry was appointed. It reported that.

the main had been blown up from the outside. The report of the court of inquiry was communicated to the Spanish government in the hope that some kind of apology and reparation might be made. But all the Spanish government did was to propose that the matter should be referred to arbitration. The condition of the Cubans was now dreadful. Several senators and representatives visited Cuba. They reported that the condition of the Cubans was shocking. The president laid the whole matter before Congress for its determination. On April 19, 1898, Congress recognized the independence of the Cuban people and demanded the withdrawal of the Spaniards from the island. Congress also authorized the President to compel Spain's withdrawal and stated that the United States did not

intend to annex Cuba, but to leave the government of the island to its inhabitants. Before these terms could be formally laid before the Spanish government, it ordered the American Minister to leave Spain. 474. The Destruction of the Spanish Pacific Fleet. Admiral Dewey, commanding the American squadron on the Asiatic Station, had concentrated all his vessels at Hong Kong in the belief that war was at hand. Of course, he could not stay at Hong Kong after the Declaration of War. The only thing he could do was to destroy the Spanish fleet and use Spanish ports as a naval base. The Spanish fleet was in Manila

bay. Thither sailed Dewey. In the darkness of the early morning of May 1st, Dewey passed the Spanish forts at the entrance of the bay. The fleet was at an anchor near the naval arsenal, a few miles from the city of Manila. As soon as it was light, Dewey opened fire on the Spaniards. Soon, one Spanish ship caught fire, then another, and another. Dewey drew out of range for a time, while his men rested and ate their breakfasts. He then steamed, again and completed the destruction of the enemy's fleet. Not an American ship was seriously injured. Not one American sailor was killed. This victory gave the Americans the control of the Pacific Ocean and the Asiatic waters. As far as Spain was concerned, it relieved the Pacific

seacoast of the United States of all fear of attack. It made it possible to send soldiers and supplies to Manila without fear of attack while on the way. And it was necessary to send soldiers because Dewey, while he was supreme on the water and could easily compel the surrender of Manila, could not properly police the town after its capture. 475 The Atlantic Sea Coast and the Blockade No sooner did war seem probable than the people on the Atlantic Sea Coast were seized with an unreasoning fear of the Spanish fleets. For the Spaniards had a few new fast ships.

The mouths of the principal harbors were blocked with mines and torpores. The government bought merchant vessels of all kinds and established a patrol along the coast. It also blockaded the more important Cuban seaports, but the Cuban coast was so long that it was impossible to blockade at all. As it was, great suffering was inflicted on the principal Spanish armies in Cuba. 476. The Atlantic Fleets Before long, a Spanish fleet of four new, fast armored cruisers and three large sea goreyses.

three large sea-going torpedo boat destroyers appeared in the West Indies. The Spanish Admiral did not seem to know exactly where to go, but after sailing around the Caribbean Sea for a time, he anchored in Santiago Harbor on the southern coast of Cuba. In the American Navy, there were only two fast armored cruisers, the New York and the Brooklyn. These with five battleships, the Oregon, Iowa, Indiana, Massachusetts, and Texas, and a number of of smaller vessels were placed under the command of Admiral Sampson and sent to Santiago. Another fleet of sea-going monitors and unarmored cruisers maintained the Cuban blockade. 477. The Oregon's Great Voyage

When the Maine was destroyed, the Oregon was at Puget Sound on the northwest coast. She was at once ordered to sail to the Atlantic coast at her utmost speed. steadily the great battleships fed southward along the Pacific coast of North America, Central America, and South America. She passed through Magellan Strait and made her way up the eastern coast of South America. As she approached the West Indies, it was feared that she might meet the whole Spanish fleet, but she never cited them. She reached Florida in splendid condition, and at once joined Samson's Squadron. 478. The Blockade of the Spanish Fleet. santiago harbor seemed to have been designed as a place of refuge for a hard-pressed fleet its narrow winding entrance was guarded by huge mountains strongly fortified the channel between these mountains was filled with mines and torpedoes the american fleet could not go in the spanish fleet must not be allowed to come out unseen

Lieutenant Hobson was ordered to take the collier, Merrimack, into the narrow entrance and sink her across the channel at the narrowest part. He made the most careful preparations, but the Merrimack was disabled and drifted by the narrowest part of the channel before she sank. The Spanish admiral was so impressed by the heroism of this attempt that he sent a boat off to the American squadron to assure them that Hobson and his six brave companions were safe. Destruction of the Spanish Fleet As the American vessels could not enter Santiago Harbor to sink the Spanish ships at their anchors, it became necessary to send an army to Santiago. But the Spaniards did not wait for the soldiers to capture the city. On Sunday morning, July 3rd, the Spanish fleet suddenly appeared steaming out of the harbor.

The Massachusetts was away at the time, getting a supply of coal, and the New York was steaming away to take Admiral Sampson to a convent. with General Shafter. But there were enough vessels left. On came the Spaniards. The American ships rushed towards them. The Spaniards turned westward and tried to escape along the coast. Soon one of them was set on fire by the American shells. She was run on shore to prevent her sinking. Then another followed her. And then a third. The torpedo boat destroyers were sunk off the entrance to the harbor, but one ship now remained afloat. speedily. She, too, was overtaken and surrendered. In a few hours the whole Spanish fleet was destroyed.

Hundreds of Spanish seamen were killed, wounded, or drowned, and 1,600 Spanish sailors captured. The American loss was one man killed and two wounded. The American ships were practically ready to destroy another Spanish fleet, had one been within reach. At Manila Bay and off Santiago, the American fleets were superior to the internet. enemies fleets, but the astounding results of their actions were due mainly to the splendid manner in which the American ships had been cared for, and, above all, to the magnificent training and courage of the men behind the guns. Years of peace had not in any way dimmed the splendid qualities of the American sea fighters. 480. The American Army Meantime, the American soldiers on shore at Santiago were doing their work under great discouragement,

but with a valor and stubbornness that will always compel admiration. While the Navy was silently and efficiently increased to be a well-ordered force, the Army was not so well-managed at first. Soldiers there were in plenty. From all parts of the Union, from the South and from the North, from the West and from the East, from the cattle ranches of the plains and the classrooms of the great universities, patriots offered their lives at their country's call.

But there was great lack of order in the United. the management of the army. Sickness broke out among the soldiers. Volunteer regimens were supplied with old-fashioned rifles. It seemed to be difficult to move one regiment from one place to another without dire confusion. When the Spanish fleet was shut up in Santiago Harbor, a force of 15,000 soldiers under General Shafter was sent to capture Santiago itself and make the harbor unsafe for the ships. 481. The Santiago expedition. On June 22nd and 23rd, the expedition landed not far to the east of the entrance to Santiago Harbor. Steep and high mountains guard this part of the coast, but no attempt was made

to prevent the landing of the Americans. Dismounted cavalrymen of the regular army and Roosevelt's rough riders, also on foot, at once pushed on towards Santiago. At La Guasimas, the Spaniards tried to stop them, but the regulars and the rough riders drove them away, and the army pushed on. By July 28th, it had reached a point within a few miles of the city. The Spaniards occupied two very strong positions at San Juan and Cane. On July 1st, they were driven from them. The regulars and the volunteers showed the greatest courage and heroism. They crossed long open spaces in the face of a terrible fire from the Spaniards who were armed with moderate rifles. The rains now set in, and the sufferings of the troops became terrible.

On July 3rd, the Spanish fleet sailed out of the harbor to meet its doom from the guns of the American warships. Reinforcements were sent to Shafter, and heavy guns were dragged over the mountain roads and placed in positions commanding the enemy's lines. The Spaniard surrendered, and on July 17, the Americans entered the captured city. 482. The Puerto Rico Campaign The only other important colonies still remaining to Spain in America was Puerto Rico. General Nelson A. Miles led a strong force to its conquest. Instead of landing on the northern coast near San Juan, the only strongly fortified position on the sea coast,

General Miles landed his men on the southern coast near Ponta. The inhabitants received the Americans with the heart. heartiest welcome. This was on August 1st. The American Army then set out to cross the island, but before they had gone very far, news came of the ending of the hostilities. 483. Fall of Manila When the news of Dewey's victory reached the United States, soldiers were sent to his aid, but this took time, for it was a very long way from San Francisco to the Philippines, and vessels suited for transports were not easily procured.

on the Pacific coast. General Wesley Merritt was given command of the land forces. Meantime, for months Dewey with his fleet blockaded Manila from the water side, while Philippine insurgents blockaded it from the land side. Foreign vessels, especially German vessels, jealously watched the operations of the American fleet and severely taxed Dewey's patience. On August 17th, Merritt felt strong enough to attack the city. It was at once, surrender to him. 484. End of the war. The destruction of the Spanish Atlantic Fleet and the fall of Santiago convinced the Spaniards

that further resistance was useless, so it was agreed that the fighting should be stopped. This was in July, 1898, but the actual treaty of peace was not made until the following December. The conditions were that Spain should abandon Cuba, should cede to the United States, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and some smaller islands and should receive from the United States $20 million. For many years, American missionaries, merchants, and planters had been interested in the Hawaiian islands. The war showed the importance of these islands to the United States as a military and naval station, and they were annexed. 485. Prosperity The years 1898 to 1900 have been a period of unfounded prosperity for the American people,

people. Foreign trade has increased enormously, and the manufacturers of the United States are finding a ready market in other countries. A rebellion has been going on in the Philippines, but it seems to be slowly dying out. February, 1900. End of Chapter 45. The Constitution of the United States of America. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox Recordings are in the public domain. For more information or devise Please visit Libravox.org. This reading by Alison Hester of Athens, Georgia. A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing,

The Constitution of the United States of America. We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America.

Article 1, Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of 25 years and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.

representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union according to their respective numbers which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons including those bound to service for a term of years and excluding indians not taxed three-fifths of all other persons the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the congress of the united states. States, and within every subsequent term of 10 years, in such manner as they shall, by law, direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 30,000, but each state shall have at least one representative. And until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three. Massachusetts, eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 1. Connecticut 5, New York, 6, New Jersey, 4, Pennsylvania 8, Delaware 1, Maryland 6, Virginia 10, North Carolina 5, South Carolina 5, and Georgia, 3. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue rits of election to fill such vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof for six years, and each senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year,

so that one-third may be chosen every second year. And if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of 30 years and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.

The vice president of the United States shall be the president of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro-temporer, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise the office of president of the United States. the Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.

When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside, and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States, but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. Section 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof, but the Congress may at any time by

law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once and every year, and such meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day. Section 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business. But a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior,

and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, accepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy. And the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present be entered on the journal. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services to be ascertained by law

and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same. And for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No senator or representative shall,

during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof, shall, have been increased during such time, and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives, but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and

the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States. If he approve, he shall sign it. But if not, he shall return it with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered. And if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become long. but in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays and the names of the person voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively if any bill shall not be returned by the president within ten days sundays accepted after it shall have been presented to him the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it unless the congress by their adjournment prevent its return in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and the House of Representatives may be necessary, except on a question of adjournment, shall be presented to the President of the United States, and, before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him,

shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and the House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section 8 The Congress shall have the power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. But all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. To borrow money on the credit of the United States, to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states,

and with the Indian tribes, to establish a uniform rule of naturalization and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States. To coin money, regulate the value thereof and a foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States,

to establish post offices and post roads, to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries, to constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court, to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and offenses against the law of nations, to declare war, grant letters of mark and reprisal,

and make rules concerning captures on land and water, to raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years. To provide and maintain a Navy. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia

and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United Nations. States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district, not exceeding 10 miles square, as may by session of particular states and the acceptance of Congress become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings,

and to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States or in any department or officer thereof. Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year 1,808, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding $10 for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless, when in cases of rebellion or invalions, or in the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one

state over those of another, nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law, and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them. shall, without the consent of the Congress, except of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from a king, prince, or foreign state. Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation. Grant letters of mark and reprisal, coin, emit bills of credit, make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payments of debts. Pass any bill of attainder. law or law impairing the obligation of contracts or grant any title of nobility.

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws, and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any state on imports or exports shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States, and all such laws shall be subject. to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign

power, or engage in war unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger, as will not admit of delay. Article 2, Section 1. the executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the vice president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows, each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct,

a number of electors equal to the number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress. But no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States shall be appointed an elector. The electorate shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state themselves, and they shall make a list of all the persons voted for and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to

the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and the House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the president. If such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if there be more than one who have such a majority and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for president. and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President,

but in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by the States, the representation from each state having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the vice president. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot, the vice president. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural-born citizen or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution shall be eligible to the office of president. Neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 35 years and been 14 years a resident within the United States.

In case of the removal of the president from office or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice president, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the president and the vice president, declaring what officer shall then act as president, and such officers shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or a president shall be elected. the president shall at stated times receive for his services a compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected and he shall not receive within that period any other emoliant from the United States or any of them before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation i do solemnly swear or affirm that i will faithfully execute the office of the president of the United States and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. Section 2. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States. He may require the opinion in writing of the principal officer

in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices. And he shall have the power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power by and with the advice and consent of the Senate to make treaties provided two-thirds of the senators present concur. And he shall nominate. And by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law,

but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate by granting commissions which shall accept, at the end of their next session. Section 3. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the State of the Union,

and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. He may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper. He shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers. He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section 4. The President and Vice President and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes or misdemeanors.

Article 3, Section 1. the judicial power of the united states shall be vested in one supreme court and in such inferior courts as the congress may from time to time ordain and establish the judges both of the supreme and inferior courts shall hold their offices during good behavior and shall at stated times receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office section two the judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution the laws of the United States and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority, to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, to controversies to which the United States shall be a party, to controversies between two or more states, between a state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different states,

between citizens of the same state, claiming lands undergrants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases, before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to the law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crime shall have been committed. But when not committed within any state, the trial shall be

at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section 3. Trees against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession and open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the person attained. Article 4. Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may, by general

laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section 2. The citizens of each state shall be in title to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another state, shall on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor,

but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union, but no new states shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the the states concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have the power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations, respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States, and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular state. Section 4. The United States

shall guarantee to every state in this union a Republican form of government and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the legislature or of the executive, when the legislature cannot be convened, against domestic violence. Article 5. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be very much, valid to all intents and purposes as part of this constitution when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states or by conventions in three-fourths thereof as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the congress provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article and that no states

without its consent shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. Article 6. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. This Constitution and the laws of the United States, which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, states shall be the supreme law of the land, and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary, notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state

legislatures and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States, and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution, but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. Article 7. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this constitution between the states, so ratifying the same. The amendments. First Amendment. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Second Amendment. A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Third Amendment, No soldiers shall, in times of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Fourth Amendment The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable calls, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.

Fifth Amendment. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces or in the militia when an actual service in time of war or public danger. Nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. Sixth Amendment. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and

public trial by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation, to be confronted with the witnesses against him, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 7th Amendment. In suits at common law, where the value and controversy shall exceed $20, the right of a trial by jury shall be preserved,

and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, then according to the rules of the common law. Eighth Amendment, excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment, inflicted. Ninth Amendment. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Tenth Amendment. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively or to the people. 11th Amendment. The judicial power of the United States

shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 12th Amendment The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for president and vice president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. They shall name in their ballots the person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as vice president,

and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president and of all persons voted for as vice president, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives,

open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. the person having the greatest number of votes for president shall be the president if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed and if no person have such majority then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as president The House of Representatives shall choose immediately by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote, a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President,

whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the vice president shall act as president, as in the case of death or other constitutional disability of the president. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice president shall be the vice president. If such a number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list,

the Senate shall choose the vice president. A quorum for the purpose shall consist of two, thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of president shall be eligible to that of the Vice President of the United States. 13th Amendment, Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject

to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 14th Amendment. Section 1. All persons born are naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of the citizens of the United States. Nor shall any state deprive. any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of

persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for president and vice president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being 21 years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens. 21 years of age in such state. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress or elector of president and vice president or hold any office, civil, or military under the United States or under any state who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress or as an officer of the United

States or as a member of any state legislature or as an executive or judicial officer of of any state to support the Constitution of the United States shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such a disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United

States or any claim for the loss of emancipation of any slave. But all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have the power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this article. 15th Amendment. Section 1. The right citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. End of the Constitution of the United States. And end of a short history of the United States by Edward Chan. training.