Classic Audiobook Collection - Economics by Aristotle ~ Full Audiobook [philosophy]

Episode Date: June 30, 2023

Economics by Aristotle audiobook. Genre: philosophy In Economics, a short but influential treatise traditionally attributed to Aristotle, the listener enters the practical world of oikonomia - the art of running a household and managing property with intelligence, restraint, and purpose. Moving from the intimate sphere of family life to the wider concerns of cities and states, the work asks what it means to govern resources well: how to secure necessities, organize labor, oversee land and livestock, and balance spending against long-term stability. Along the way, it sketches roles and responsibilities within the household, explores the moral pressures that accompany wealth, and considers how habits, character, and good judgment shape prosperity more reliably than luck. Rather than offering abstract theory alone, Economics reads like a handbook of prudent management, mixing ethical reflection with concrete observations about farming, trade, storage, and administration. Whether approached as a window into ancient Greek daily life or as an early meditation on the relationship between virtue and material well-being, this compact work invites modern listeners to reconsider how private discipline and public order depend on the same quiet skills: planning, moderation, and wise stewardship. For ad-free listening try our premium subscription Chapters (Approximate) (00:00:00) Chapter 01 (00:15:10) Chapter 02 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Economics by Aristotle, translated by Edward Forster. Chapter 1 The sciences of politics and economics differ not only as widely as a household and a city, the subject matter with which they severally deal, but also in the fact that the science of politics involves a number of rulers, whereas the sphere of economics is a monarchy. Now, certain of the arts fall into subject, divisions, and it does not pertain to the same art to manufacture and to use the article manufactured,

for instance, a liar, or pipes, but the function of political science is both to constitute a city in the beginning, and also, when it has come into being, to make a right use of it. It is clear, therefore, that it must be the function of economic science, too, both to found a household, and also to make use of it. Now, a city is an aggregate made up of households and land and property, possessing in itself the means to a happy life. This is clear from the fact that if men cannot attain this end, the community is dissolved.

Further, it is for this end that they associate together, and that, for the sake of which any particular thing exists, and has come into being, is its essence. it is evident therefore that economics is prior in origin to politics for its function is prior since a household is part of a city we must therefore examine economics and see what its function is chapter two the component parts of a household are man and property but since the nature of any given thing is most quickly seen by taking its smallest parts this would apply also to a household So, according to Hesiod, it would be necessary that there should be, first and foremost, a house, then a wife. For the former is the first condition of subsistence, the latter is the proper possession of all free men. We should have, therefore, as a part of economics, to make proper rules for the association of husband and wife,

and this involves providing what sort of a woman she ought to be. In regard to property, the first care is that which comes naturally. Now, in the course of nature, the art of agriculture is prior, and next come those arts which extract the products of the earth, mining, and the like. Agriculture ranks first because of its justice, for it does not take anything away from men, either with their consent, as do retail trading and the mercenary arts, or against their will, as do the warlike arts. Further, agriculture is natural, for by nature all derive their sustenance from their mother, and so men derive it from the earth. In addition to this, it also

conduces greatly to bravery, for it does not make men's bodies unserviceable, as do the illiberal arts, but it renders them able to lead an open-air life, and work hard. Furthermore, it makes them adventurous against the foe, for husbandmen are the only citizens whose property lies outside the fortifications. Chapter 3 As regards the human part of the household, the first care is concerning a wife, for a common life is above all things natural to the female and to the male, for we have elsewhere laid down the principle that nature aims at producing many such forms of association, just as also it produces the various kinds of animals. But it is impossible for the female to accomplish this

without the male, or the male without the female, so that their common life has necessarily arisen. Now, in the other animals, this intercourse is not based on reason, but depends on the amount of natural instinct which they possess, and is entirely for the purpose of procreation. But in the civilized and more intelligent animals, the bond of unity is more perfect, for in them, we see more mutual help and goodwill and cooperation. Above all, in the case of man, because the female and the male cooperate to ensure not merely existence, but a good life, and the production of children is not only a way of serving nature, but also of securing a real advantage.

For the trouble which parents bestow upon their helpless children when they are themselves vigorous is repaid to them in old age when they are helpless by their children, who are then in their full vigor. At the same time also, nature thus periodically provides for the perpetuation of mankind as a species, since she cannot do so individually. Thus the nature, both of the man and of the woman, has been preordained by the will of heaven to live a common life, for they are distinguished in that the powers which they possess are not applicable to purposes in all cases identical, but in some respects their functions are opposed to one another, though they all tend to the same end. For nature has made the one sex stronger, the other weaker, that the latter, through fear,

may be the more cautious, while the former, by its courage, is better able to ward off attacks, and that the one may acquire possessions outside the house, the other, preserve, those within. In the performance of work, she made one sex able to lead a sedentary life, and not strong enough to endure exposure, the other, less adapted for quiet pursuits, but well constituted for outdoor activities, and, in relation to offspring, she has made both share in the procreation of children, but each render its peculiar service towards them, the woman by nurturing, the man, by educating them. Chapter 4

First then, there are certain laws to be observed towards a wife, including the avoidance of doing her any wrong, for thus a man is less likely himself to be wronged. This is inculcated by the general law, as the Pythagorean say, that one least of all should injure a wife as being a suppliant and seated at the hearth. Now wrong inflicted by a husband is the formation of connections outside his own house. As regards sexual intercourse, a man ought not to accustom himself not to need it at all, nor to be unable to rest when it is lacking, but so as to be content, with or without it, the saying of Hesiod is a good one.

A man should marry a maiden, that habits discreet he may teach her. For, dissimilarity of habits tends more than anything to destroy affection. As regards adornment, husband, and wife ought not to approach one another with false affection in their person any more than in their manners. For if the society of husband and wife requires such embellishment, it is no better than play-acting on the tragic stage. Chapter 5. Of possessions, that which is the best, and the worthiest subject of economics, comes first, and is most essential, I mean, man. It is necessary, therefore, first, to provide oneself with good slaves. Now, slaves are of two kinds.

the overseer and the worker, and since we see that methods of education produce a certain character in the young, it is necessary when one has procured slaves to bring up carefully those to whom the higher duties are to be entrusted. The intercourse of a master with his slaves should be such as not either to allow them to be insolent or to irritate them. To the higher class of slaves, he ought to give some share of honor, and to the workers' abundance of nourishment, and since the drinking of wine makes even free men insolent, and many nations, even a free man, abstain therefrom, the Carthaginians, for instance, when they are on military service, it is clear that wine ought never to be given to slaves, or at any rate, very seldom.

Three things make up the life of a slave, work, punishment, and food. To give them food, but no punishment, and not. no work makes them insolent, and that they should have work and punishment, but no food, is tyrannical and destroys their efficiency. It remains, therefore, to give them work and sufficient food, for it is impossible to rule over slaves without offering rewards, and a slave's reward is his food. And, just as all other men become worse when they get no advantage by being better, and there are no rewards for virtue and punishments for vice, so also also, is it with slaves. Therefore, we must take careful notice and bestow or withhold everything,

whether food or clothing, or leisure, or punishments, according to merit, in word and deed, following the practice adopted by physicians in the matter of medicine, remembering at the same time that food is not medicine, because it must be given continually. The slave, who is best suited for his work, is the kind that is neither too cowardly, nor too courageous slaves who have either of these characteristics are injurious to their owners those who are too cowardly lack endurance while the high-spirited are not easy to control all ought to have a definite end in view for it is just and beneficial to offer slaves their freedom as a prize for they are willing to work when a prize is set before them and a limit of time is defined one ought to bind slaves to one's service by the plight pledges of wife and children, and not to have many persons of the same race in a household, as is the case in a city. One ought to provide sacrifices and pleasures more for the sake of

slaves than for free men, for, in the case of the former, there are present more of the reasons why such things have been instituted. Chapter 6. The economist ought to possess four qualities in relation to wealth. He ought to be able to acquire it and to guard it. Otherwise, there is no advantage in acquiring it, but it is a case of drawing water with a sieve, or the proverbial jar with a hole in it. Further, he ought to be able to order his possessions a right, and make a proper use of them, for it is for these purposes that we require wealth. The various kinds of property ought to be distinguished, and those which are productive, ought to be more numerous, than the unproductive, and the sources of income ought to be so distributed that they may not

run a risk with all their possessions at the same time. For the preservation of wealth, it is best to follow both the Persian and the Laconian methods. The attic system of economy is also useful, for they sell their produce and buy what they want, and thus there is not the need of a storehouse in the smaller establishments. The Persian system was that everything should be organized, and that the master should superintend everything personally, as Dio said of Dionysius, for no one looks after the property of others as well as he looks after his own, so that as far as possible a man ought to attend to everything himself. The things of the Persian and the Libyan may not come amiss,

the former of whom, when asked, what was the best thing to fat in a horse, replied, his master's eye, while the Libyan, when asked, what was the best manure answered, the landowner's footprints. Some things should be attended to by the master, others by his wife, according to the sphere allotted to each, in the economy of the household. Inspections need only be made occasionally in small establishments, but should be frequent, where overseers are employed. For perfect imitation is impossible unless a good example is set, especially when trust is delegated to others, for unless the master is careful, it is impossible for his overseers to be careful.

And, since it is good for the formation of character and useful in the interests of economy, masters ought to rise earlier than their slaves, and retire to rest later, and a house should never be left unguarded any more than a city. And when anything needs doing, it ought not to be left undone, whether it be day or night. There are occasions when a master should rise, while it is still not. night, for this helps to make a man healthy and wealthy and wise. On small estates, the attic system of disposing of the produce is a useful one, but on large estates, where a distinction is made between yearly and monthly expenditure, and likewise between the

daily and the occasional use of household appliances, such matters must be entrusted to overseers. Furthermore, a periodical inspection should be made in order to ascertain what is still existing and what is lacking. The house must be arranged, both with a view to one's possessions, and for the health and well-being of its inhabitants. By possessions, I mean the consideration of what is suitable for produce and clothing, and, in the case of produce, what is suitable for dry, and what for moist produce, and, amongst other possessions, what is suitable for property, whether animate or inanimate, for slaves and freemen, women and men, strangers, and citizens. With a view to well-being and health, the house ought to be airy in summer and sunny and winter.

This would be best secured if it faces north, and is not as wide as it is long. In large establishments, a man, who is no use for other purposes, seems to be usefully employed as a doorkeeper to safeguard what is brought into and out of the house. house. For the ready use of household appliances, the Laconian method is a good one, for everything ought to have its own proper place, and so be ready for use, and not required to be searched for. And of Book 1. Recording in memory of Mitchell Edwards. Book 2 of Economics by Aristotle, translated by Edward Forster. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Recording by Jeffrey Edwards

Chapter 1 He who intends to practice economy aright ought to be fully acquainted with the places in which his labor lies, and to be naturally endowed with good parts, and deliberately industrious and upright, for if he is lacking in any of these respects, he will make many mistakes in the business which he takes in hand. Now, there are four kinds of a business of a business.

economy, that of the king, royal economy, that of the provincial governor, satrapic economy, that of the city, political economy, and that of the individual, personal economy. This is a broad method of division, and we shall find that the other forms of economy fall within it. Of these, the royal is the most important and the simplest, the political is the most varied, and the easiest, the personal, the least important, and the most varied. They must necessarily have most of their characteristics in common, but it is the points which are peculiar to each kind that we must consider. Let us therefore examine royal economy first. It is universal in its scope, but has four special departments, the coinage, exports, imports, and expenditure. To take each of these separately,

In regard to the coinage, I mean the question as to what coin should be struck, and when it should be of a high and when of a low value. In the matter of exports and imports, what commodities it will be advantageous to receive from the satraps under the royal rule, and dispose of and when. In regard to expenditure, what expenses ought to be curtailed and when, and whether one should pay what is expended in coin, or in commodities which have an equivalent value. Let us next take, say, traffic economy. Here we find six kinds of revenue, from land, from the peculiar products of the district, from merchandise, from taxes, from cattle,

and from all other sources. Of these, the first and most important, is that which comes from land, which some call tax on land produce, others tithe. Next in importance is the revenue from peculiar products, from gold or silver or copper, or anything else which is found in a particular locality. Thirdly, comes that derived from merchandise. Fourthly, the revenue from the cultivation of the soil, and from market dues.

Fifthly, that which comes from cattle, which is called tax on animal produce or tithe. And, sixthly, that which is derived from other sources, which is called the pole tax or tax on handicraft. Thirdly, let us examine the economy of the city. Here, the most important source of revenue is from the peculiar products of the country. Next comes that derived from merchandise and customs, and lastly, that which comes from the ordinary taxes. Fourthly, and lastly, let us take personal economy. Here we find wide divergences, because economy is not necessarily always practiced with one aim in view. It is the least important kind of economy because the incomes and expenses are small.

Here, the main source of revenue is the land. Next, other kinds of property, and thirdly, investments of money. Further, there is a consideration which is common to all branches of economy, and which calls for the most careful attention, especially in personal economy, namely that the expenditure must not exceed the income. Now that we have mentioned the divisions of the subject, we must next consider whether if the satrapy or city with which we are dealing can produce all,

or the most important revenues which we have just distinguished, some rather than others ought to be employed. Next we must consider which sources of revenue do not exist at all, but can be introduced, or are at present small, but can be augmented, and which of the expenses at present incurred, and to what amount can be entirely dispensed with without doing any harm. We have now mentioned the various kinds of economy and their constituent parts. We have further made a collection of all the methods that we conceived to be worth mentioning, which men of former days have employed, or cunningly devised in order to provide

themselves with money, for we conceived that this information also might be useful, for a man will be able to apply some of these instances to such business as he himself takes in hand. Chapter 2. Coupsalos, the Corinthian, having vowed to Zeus that if he made himself master of the city, he would dedicate to him all the property of the Corinthians, ordered them to drop a list of their possessions. When they had done so, he took a tenth part from each citizen and told them to trade with the remainder. As each year came round, he did the same thing again, with a result that in ten years he had all that he had consecrated to the god, while the Corinthians had acquired other property.

Lugdamus, the Naxian, having driven certain men into exile, when no one was willing to buy their possessions except at a low price, sold them to the exiles themselves, and offerings belonging to them, which were lying half-finished in certain workshops, he sold to the exiles, and, anyone else who wished to buy them, allowing the name of the purchaser to be inscribed upon them. The Byzantines, being in need of money, sold the sacred enclosures belonging to the state.

Those which were fertile they sold on lease, and those which were unproductive in perpetuity. They treated in the same way the enclosures which belonged to associations and clans, and all which were situated on private estates, for the owners of the rest of the property bought them at a high price. To the associations they sold. sold other lands, withalicate, the public lands round the gymnasium, or the marketplace, or the harbor, and the places where markets were held at which various commodities were sold. And they gave the rights over the sea fisheries, and the sale of salt, and the stands, were jugglers and zoothsayers and druggists, and other such persons plied their trades.

But they ordered them to pay over a third of their profits, and they sold the right of changing money to a single bank, and no one else might either give money in exchange to anyone, or receive it in exchange from anyone, under penalty of forfeiting the money. And whereas there was a law amongst them that no one should have political rights, who was not born of parents, who were both citizens, being in want of money, they passed a decree that a man who was sprung from a citizen on one side only should become a citizen if he paid down 30 minor. And, as they were suffering for want of food and lack of money, they made the ships from the Black Sea put in. But as time went on, the merchants protested, and so they paid them interest at 10%,

and ordered those who purchased anything to pay the 10% in addition to the price. And, whereas certain resident aliens had lent money on mortgage property. Because these had not the right to hold property, they passed a decree that anyone who wished could obtain a title to the property by paying a third of the loan to the state. Hippius, the Athenian, put up for sale the parts of the upper rooms, which projected into the public streets, and the steps and fences in front of the houses, and the doors which opened outwards. The owners of the property, therefore, bought them, and a large sum was thus collected. He also declared the coinage, then current in Athens, to be base, and, fixing a price for it,

ordered it to be brought to him. but when they meant to consider the striking of a new type of coin, he gave them back the same money again. And if anyone was about to equip a trirem or a division of cavalry, or to provide a tragic chorus or incur expense on any other such state service, he fixed a moderate fine and allowed him, if he liked, to pay this and be enrolled amongst those who had performed state services. He also ordered that a measure of barley and another of wheat and an unlawful, and an unlawful, Able should be brought to the priestess of Athena on the Acropolis, on behalf of anyone who died, and that the same offering should be made by anyone to whom a child was born.

The Athenians, who dwell in Pottadilla, being in need of money to carry on war, ordered all the citizens to draw up a list of their property, each man enrolling not his whole property collectively in his own deem, but each piece of property separately in the place where it was situated, in order that the poor might give in an assessment Anyone who possessed no property was to assess his own person at two minor. On the basis of this assessment, they contributed each in full to the state the amount and joined. Sosipolis of Antisa, when the city was in want of money,

since the citizens were wont to celebrate the feast of Dionysus with great splendor, and every year went to great expense in providing, amongst other things, very costly victims, persuaded them when the festival was not. near at hand to vow to Dionysus that they would give double offerings the next year, and collect and sell the dedications for the current year. Thus, a substantial sum was collected for the needs of the moment. The people of Lamsacos, expecting a large fleet of triremes to come against them, ordered the dealers to sell a medimus of barley meal, of which the market price was four drachm, at six drachm, and a cuss of oil, the price of which was three drachm,

at Fordrachmi and a half, and likewise wine and the other commodities. The individual seller thus received the usual price, while the city gained the surplus and so was well provided with money. The people of Heraclea, when they were sending 40 ships against the tyrants on the Bosporus, not being well provided with money, bought up from the merchants all their corn and oil and wine and the rest of their stores, fixing a date in the future, at which, they were to make the payment. Now, it suited the merchants better to sell their cargoes wholesale rather than retail. So the people of Heraclea, giving the soldiers two months pay,

took the provisions with them on board merchant vessels and put an official in charge of each of the ships. When they reached the enemy's territory, the soldiers bought up all the provisions from them. Thus, money was collected before the generals had to pay the soldiers again, and so the same money was distributed time after time until they returned home. When the Samians begged for money for their return home, the Lacedaemonians passed a decree that they would fast for one day, themselves and their households and their beasts of burden, and would give to the Samians the amount that each of them usually expended.

The Calcedonians, having a large number of foreign mercenaries in their city, owed them pay which they could not give them. They therefore proclaimed that if any citizen or resident alien had any right of seizure against any state or individual and wished to exercise it, they should give in their names. When many did so, they seized the ships, which sailed into the Black Sea, on a plausible pretext, and appointed a time at which they promised to give an account of their captures. When a large sum of money had been collected, they dismissed the soldiers and submitted themselves to trial for their reprisals, and the state out of its revenues made restitution to those who had been unjustly plundered. When the people of Sizicus were at variance, and the popular party had gained the upper hand, and the wealthy citizens had been imprisoned, they passed a decree,

since they owed money to their soldiers, that they would not put their prisoners to death, but would exact money from them and send them into exile. The Keyans, who have a law that a public register of debts should be kept, being in want of money, decreed that debtors should pay their debts to the state, and that the state should disperse the interest from its revenues to the creditors until they should reach their former state of prosperity. Mousalus, tyrant of Kerea, when the king of Persia sent and ordered him to pay his tribute, collected together the richest men in the country, and told them that the king was demanding the tribute, he himself could not provide it, and certain men, who had been subborn to do so, immediately

promised to contribute, and named the amount that each would give. Upon this, the wealthier men, partly through shame and partly from fear, promised, and actually contributed far larger sums. On another occasion, when he was in need of money, he called together the Mulassians, and told them that their city, which was his capital, was unfortified, and that the king of Persia was marching against him. He therefore ordered the Mulasians each to contribute as much money as possible, saying that by what they paid now, they would save the rest of their possessions. When a large contribution had been made, he kept the money and told them that at the moment the God would not allow them to build the wall. Condulus, a governor under Mosulus, whenever during

his passage through the country, anyone brought him a sheep, or a pig, or a calf, used to make a record of the donor and the date and order him to take it back home and keep it until he returned. When he thought that sufficient time had elapsed, he used to ask for the animal which was being kept for him, and reckoned up and demanded the produce tax on it as well. And any trees which projected over or fell into the royal roads he used to sell his profits. And if any soldier died, he demanded a drachma as a toll for the corpse passing the game, and so he not only received money from this source, but also the officers could not deceive him as to the date of the soldier's death. Also, noticing that the Lishians were fond of wearing their hair

long, he pretended that a dispatch had come from the king of Persia, ordering him to send hair to make false fringes, and that he was therefore commanded by Mosulus to cut off their hair. He therefore said that if they would pay him a fixed pole tax, he would send for hair to Greece. They gladly gave him what he asked, and a large sum of money was collected from a great number of them. Aristotle, the Rhodian, who was governor of Fossia, was in want of money. Perceiving, therefore, that there were two parties amongst the Foccians,

he made secret overtures to one party, saying that the other faction was offering him money on condition that he would turn the scale in their favor, but that for his own part he would rather, receive money from them and give the direction of affairs into their hands. When they heard this, those who were present immediately gave him the money, supplying him with all he asked for. He then went to the other party and showed them what he had received from their opponents, whereupon they also professed their willingness to give him an equal sum. So he took the money from both parties and reconciled them one with another. Also, noticing that there was much

litigation among the citizens, and that there were grievances of long-standing among them owing to war, he established a court of law and proclaimed that unless they submitted their cases to judgment within a period which he appointed, there would be no further settlement of their former claims. Then, getting control of the deposits paid in a number of suits, and the cases which were subject to appeal with damages, and receiving money from both parties by other means, he collected a large sum, The Chasomenians, when they were suffering from famine and were in want of money, decreed the private individuals who had any olive oil should lend it to the state, which would pay them interest. Now, olives are abundant in this country.

When the owners had lent them the oil, they hired ships and sent it to the marts, from which their corn came, giving the value of the oil as a pledge. And, when they owed pay to their soldiers to the amount of twenty-yearers, talents, and could not provide it, they paid the generals four talents a year as interest. But, finding that they did not reduce the principle, and that they were continually spending money to no purpose, they struck an iron coinage to represent a sum of 20 talents of silver, and then distributing it among the richest citizens, in proportion to their wealth, they received in exchange an equivalent sum in silver. Thus, the individual citizens had money to

disperse for their daily needs, and the state, was freed from debt. They then paid them interest out of their revenues and continually divided it up and distributed it in proper proportions and called in the iron coinage. The salubrians were once in need of money, and so, as they had a law which forbade the export of corn to another state, which was suffering from famine, and they had a supply of last season's corn, they passed a decree that private persons should hand over their corn to the state at a fixed price. Each, reserving a year's supply. They then allowed anyone who wished to export his supply, fixing a price which they thought would give them a profit. The people of Abidus, when their land

was untilled, owing to political dissensions, and the resident aliens were paying them nothing because they still owed them money, passed a decree that anyone who was willing should lend money to the farmers in order that they might till the soil, providing that they should enjoy the first fruits of the crop, and that the others should have what remained. The Ephesians, being in need of money, made a law that their women should not wear gold ornaments, but should lend to the state what they already possessed, and, fixing the amount which was to be paid, they allowed the name of anyone who presented that sum to be inscribed as that of the dedicator on certain of the pillars in the temple.

Dionysius of Syracuse, wishing to collect money, called together an assembly, and to declared that Demeter had appeared to him, and bade him bring the ornaments of the women to her temple. He had, therefore, he said, done so with the ornaments of the women of his own household, and he demanded that everyone else should do the same, lest vengeance from the goddess should fall upon them. Anyone who refused would, he said, be guilty of sacrilege. When all had brought what they possessed, through fear of the goddess and dread of Dionysius, After dedicating the ornaments to the goddess, he then appropriated them, saying that they were lent to him by her. And, when some time had elapsed and the women began wearing ornaments again,

he ordered that any woman who wished to wear jewelry of gold should dedicate a fixed sum in the temple. And when he was intending to build triremes, he knew that he would be in want of money. He therefore called together an assembly and said that a certain city was to be betrayed to him, and that he needed money for this purpose. He therefore asked the citizens to contribute two staters each, and they did so. He then let two or three days elaps, and pretending that he had failed in his attempt. After commending their generosity, he gave every man his contribution back again. By this action he won the hearts of the citizens, and so they again contributed, thinking that they would receive their money back again. But he took the money, and he took the money, and

kept it for building his ships. And when he was in need of money, he struck a coinage of tin, and, calling an assembly together, he spoke at great length in favor of the money which had been coined, and they, even against their will, decreed that everyone should regard any of it that he accepted as silver, and not as tin. On another occasion, being in want of money, he asked the citizens to give him contributions, but they declared that they had nothing to give, accordingly he brought out his own household goods and offered them for sale as though compelled to do so by poverty when the syracusians brought them he kept a record of what each had bought and when they had paid the price he ordered each of them to bring back the articles which he had bought and when the citizens owing to the taxes could not keep cattle he said that he had enough up to the present those therefore who kept cattle should now be free from attacks on them. But since many soon acquired a large number of cattle, thinking that they could

keep them without paying attacks on them, when he thought that a fitting moment had come, he gave orders that they should assess their value and then imposed attacks. Accordingly, the citizens, angry at having been deceived, slew their cattle and sold them, and when, to prevent this, he ordered them to kill only as many as were needed for daily use, they next devoted them for sacrifice to the gods. Dionysius then forbade them to sacrifice any female beast. On another occasion, when he was in need of money, he ordered all families of orphans to enroll themselves, and, when many had done so, he enjoyed their property until each member of such families came of age. And, after he had captured Regium, he called an assembly of the inhabitants

together, and informed them, that he would be quite justified in enslaving them, but under the circumstances, he would let them go free if he received the amount which he had spent on the war, and three minor ahead from all of them. The Regions, then brought to light the wealth, which before had been hidden, and the poor borrowed from the richer citizens, and from foreigners, and provided the sum which he demanded. When he had received it from them, he nevertheless sold them all as slaves, and seized all the treasures which had before been hidden, and were now brought to light. Also, having borrowed money from the citizens, under promise of repayment, when they demanded it back, he ordered them to bring him whatever money any of them possessed,

threatening them with death as the penalty if they failed to do so. When the money had been brought, he issued it again after stamping it afresh, so that each drachma had the value of two drachmee, and paid back the original debt, and the money which they brought him on this occasion. and when he sailed against Turania with a hundred ships he took much gold and silver and a considerable quantity of other ornaments of all kinds from the temple of Lukothia and knowing that the sailors too were keeping many things for themselves he made a proclamation that everyone should bring him the half of what he had and might retain the other half and he threatened with death anyone who failed to deliver up the half The sailors, supposing that if they gave up the half, they would be allowed undisturbed possession of the rest, did so, but Dionysius, when he had received it, ordered them to go back and bring him the other half. The Mendians used the proceeds of their harbour customs and their other dues for the administration of their city, but did not exact the taxes on land and houses, but they kept a register of property owners, and, whenever they needed money, those who owed taxes paid them. They thus profited during the time which

elapsed by having full use of the money without paying interest. When they were at war with the Olympians and needed money, seeing that they had slaves, they decreed that a female and a male slave should be left to each citizen, and the rest sold, so that private individuals might lend money to the state. Calistratus, when the harbor dues in Macedonia were usually sold at 20 talents, made them fetch double that price. For noticing that the richer men always bought them, because it was necessary that the sureties provided for the 20 talents should be possessed of one talent, he proclaimed that anyone who liked could purchase them, and that sureties should be provided for only a third, or any other proportion, which he could persuade them each to

guarantee. Timothyus, the Athenian, when he was at war with the Alinthians, and in need of money, struck a bronze coinage and distributed it to the soldiers. When they protested, he told them that the merchants and retailers would all sell their goods on the same terms as before. He then told the merchants, if they received any bronze money to use it again to buy the commodities sent in for sale from the country, and anything which was brought in as plunder, and said that if they brought him any bronze money which they had left over, they should receive silver for it. When he was making war in the neighborhood of Corsaira, and was in difficulties, and the soldiers were demanding their pay, and refusing to obey him, and threatening to go over to

the enemy, he called together an assembly and told them that no money could reach him owing to the stormy weather, for he had, he declared, such an abundance of supplies that he offered them as a free gift the three-month's rations which they had already received. They, supposing that Timotheus would never have made such a valuable concession unless he really expected the money, kept silence about the pay, and he, meanwhile, achieved the objects which he had in view. When he was besieging Seamus, he actually sold to the inhabitants, the fruits, and the produce of their lands, and so had abundance of money to pay his soldiers. And when there was a shortage of provisions in the camp, owing to the arrival of newcomers, he forbade the sale of corn ready ground, and of any

smaller measure than a medimnus, and of any liquid in a smaller quantity than a metrita. Accordingly, the commanders of divisions and companies bought up provisions wholesale, and distributed them to the soldiers, while the newcomers brought their own provisions with them, and, when they departed, sold anything that they had left. The result was that the soldiers had an abundance of provisions. Didalis, the Persian, having soldiers under his command, could supply their daily needs from the enemy's country, but having no money to give them, and being requested to pay them, when the time came at which it was due, he devised the following plan. He called together an assembly and told them that he had no lack of money, but that it was

in a certain place which he named. He therefore moved his camp, and started to march thither. Then, when he was near the place, he went in advance to it, and took from the temples there all the embossed silver plate which they contained. He then loaded his mules so that the silver plate was visible, and they looked as though they were carrying solid silver. The soldiers, when they saw it, thought that the loads were all solid silver, and were encouraged, thinking that they would receive their pay. But Didalis told them that he must go to Amisus, and have the silver minted. Now, the journey to Amasus was one of many days and exposed to the weather, so all this time he made use of the army, merely giving them their rations. He kept in his personal

service all the skilled artificers in the army and the retailers who carried on traffic in any commodity, and no one else was permitted to do any of these things. Cabrius, the Athenian, advised Taos, king of Egypt, when he was starting on a warlike expedition and was in need of money, to say to the priests that, owing to the expense, some of the temples and the majority of the priests must be dispensed with. When the priests heard this, each, wishing to retain their own temple, they privately offered him money, and, when Taos had accepted money from all of them, Cabrius advised him to order them to expend a tenth part of the amount which they formerly spent on their temple, and lend the rest to him, until the war against the king of Persia

should come to an end. And he advised him to fix the necessary amount, and demand a contribution from each household, and likewise from each individual, and that when corn was sold, the buyer and the seller should give an obel for each Artabe over and above the price, and that he should demand the payment of a tenth part of the profits derived from shipping and manufacturers, and any other form of industry, and he advised him, when he was leaving the country on an expedition, to order that any unmented silver or gold which anyone possessed should be brought to him, and when most people brought it, he advised him to make use of it, and to commend the lenders to the provincial governors, so that they might repay them out of the taxes.

Ifictus, the Athenian, when Cotus, had collected an army, provided him with money in the following way. He advised him to order the men under his command to sow land for him with three medimni of corn. The result of this was that a great quantity of corn was collected. Accordingly, he brought it down to the markets and sold it, and thus gained an abundance of money. Kattus, the Thracian, tried to borrow money from the Pyrenthians, so that he might collect an army, but the Pyreneans refused to give him any. He therefore begged them at any rate to grant him some men. from among their citizens to act as a garrison for certain strongholds,

in order that he might make full use of the soldiers who were at present on duty there. To this request, they promptly acceded, thinking that they would thus obtain possession of these strongholds, but Katus threw into prison those who were sent, and ordered the Pyreneans to recover them by sending him the money which he wished to borrow from them. Mentor, the Rhodian, having arrested Hermaeus, and seized his estates, allowed the overseers whom Hermaeus had appointed to retain their positions. But when they all felt secure and took steps to recover anything which had been hidden or deposited for safety elsewhere,

he arrested them and deprived them of all they had. Memnon, the Rhodian, after making himself master of Lamsakos, was in need of money. He therefore exacted a heavy tribute from the richest citizens, telling them that they could collect it from the rest of the citizens. but when the latter had contributed, he ordered them to lend him this sum as well, fixing a period within which he would pay them back. On another occasion, when he was in need of money, he demanded contributions from them, saying that they should be repaid out of the revenues.

They therefore contributed, thinking that they would soon receive their money back. But when the time was at hand for the payment of the revenues, he told them that he needed these revenues as well, but would repay them later with interest. He also excused himself from paying the rations and wages of those who were serving under him for six days in the year, declaring that on these days they had no watch to keep, no marching, and no expenses, meaning the admitted days.

Footnote. Mimnon's argument seems to have been that of the twelve months in the year, six were hollow months, i.e., had only 29 days, and that since thirty was the proper number of days in a month, he would be paying them for six days too much, if he gave them the same amount for a hollow as for a full month. End footnote.

As he was already giving the soldiers their rations on the second day of the new month, he thus passed over three days in the first month, and five by the following month, and so he gradually gained on them till he reached a total of 30 days. footnote the year consisting of twelve months of twenty nine and thirty days alternately in the first month he docked them of three days pay one day on the ground that it was a hollow month and two days by paying them in advance on the second day for the rest of the month in the second month which was not a hollow month he deprived them of two days pay by paying them in advance on the second day they thus lost five days in each period

of two months, i.e., a total of 30 days in the year. End footnote. Caridemos of Oros, who held certain places in Iolia, when Artabazos was marching against him, needed money to pay his soldiers. At first then, the citizens gave him contributions, but afterwards they declared that they had nothing left to give. Caridemos then ordered the inhabitants of the place, which he thought was richest to send away to another place, any coin, or other valuable treasure which they possessed, and he promised

to give them an escort. At the same time, it was clear that he himself was also removing his valuables. When they had obeyed him, he led them a little way outside the city, and, after examining what they had, took all that he needed, and sent them back again. He also made a proclamation in the cities over which he ruled, that no one was to keep any arms in his house, the penalty for so doing being a fine which he specified. He then took no further action and paid no attention to the matter. The citizens, thinking that he had not meant the proclamation to be taken seriously, continued to keep the arms, which they happened to possess. But Caridemos suddenly instituted a house-to-house search, and exacted the fine from those in whose houses he found any arms.

A certain phyloxanos, a Macedonian, who was Satrap of Caria, being in need of money, said that he intended to celebrate the Dionysia, and he nominated the richest of the Carians to defray the cost of the choruses, and gave directions as to what they had to supply. But seeing that they were annoyed, he sent them secretly and asked them what they were willing to give to be released from serving. They declared their readiness to give considerably more than they thought it would cost them, in order to be freed from the trouble and the neglect of their private affairs which it would entail. Pheloxenos accepted what they offered, and put others on the list,

until he received from them what he wanted, and what each could spare. Evaisus, the Syrian, being satrap of Egypt, discovering that the provincial governors were on the point of revolting from him, summoned them to the palace, and hanged them all, and ordered that their relatives should be told that they were in prison. Their relatives, therefore, severally, began to negotiate on their behalf, and tried to buy the release of the captives. Eviasus made an agreement in each case, and, after receiving the sums for which he had stipulated, restored them to their relatives, dead. Cleomenes, an Alexandrian, who was satrap of Egypt, when there was a severe famine everywhere

else, while Egypt was less seriously affected, forbade the export of corn, and, When the provincial governors declared that they would not be able to pay the tribute, because corn could not be exported, he cancelled the prohibition, but put a heavy tax on the corn. The result was that if he did not succeed in getting a large tax at the cost of a small exportation, at least the provincial governors lost their excuse. As he was sailing through the district in which the crocodile is regarded as a deity, one of his slaves was carried off.

He therefore summoned the priests and told them that since he had been injured without provocation, he intended to take vengeance on the crocodiles and gave orders to hunt them. The priests, in order that their god might not be affronted, collected all the gold that they possessed and presented it to him, with the result that he desisted. When King Alexander commanded him to found a city near the pharaoh and to establish there the mart which was formerly held at Canopus, he said, to Canopus, and told the priests and the owners of property there that he had come to transfer them. The priests, and inhabitants, collected and gave him a sum of money to induce him to leave their mart undisturbed.

This he accepted, and for the moment, left them alone. But afterwards, when he had the material for building ready, he sailed to Canopus, and demanded an excessive amount of money from them, which he said represented the difference to him between having the mart near the pharaoh, and at Canopus. And when they said they would not be able to give him the money, he made them move their city. And when he had sent someone to make a purchase and discovered that his messenger had got what he wanted cheaply, but intended to charge him an excessive price, he told the friends of the purchaser that he had heard that he had made his purchases at an excessive price,

and therefore he should not pay any attention to him. At the same time, with a Assumed wrath he railed against his stupidity. When they heard this, they told Cleomenes that he ought not to believe those who spoke against the messenger until he came himself and rendered his account. When the purchaser arrived, they told him what Cleomones had said, and he, wishing to make a good impression on them, and on Cleomenes submitted the prices at which he had actually bought the goods. When corn was being sold in the country at 10 drachmi, he summoned the dealers and asked them

at what price they would do business with him. They named a lower price than that at which they were selling to the merchants. However, he ordered them to hand over their corn at the same price as they were selling to everyone else, and fixing the price of corn at 32 drachmi, he then sold it himself. He also called the priests together and told them that the expenditure on the temples in the country was excessive. Consequently, some of the temples, and the majority of the priests, must be abolished. The priests, individually and collectively, gave him the sacred treasures, thinking that he really intended to carry out his threat, and because each wished that his own temple should be undisturbed, and himself continue to be priest. Artimenez, the Rhodian, being put

by Alexander in charge of the roads around Babylon, raised money in the following way. An ancient law existed in Babylonia that anything which was brought into the country should pay a duty of 10%, but no one ever enforced it. Artemines, waiting till all the state traps and armies were expected and no small number of ambassadors and craftsmen summoned from abroad, bringing others with them and persons traveling on their own private affairs, and many gifts were being brought in, exacted the 10% duty, according to the existing law. On another occasion, when providing the slaves who were to serve in the army, he commanded that any owner who wished should register the value which he put upon them, and,

they were to pay, eight drachm me a year. If the slave ran away, the owner was to receive the price, which he had registered. Many slaves, being registered, he amassed a considerable sum of money, and whenever any slave ran away, he ordered the sea-trap of the country in which the camp was situated to recover the runaway or else to pay the price to the owner. Ophelus, the Alinthian, having appointed a superintendent over the province of Athribus, when the provincial governors of that district came to him, and expressed their willingness to pay of their own accord, a much larger sum, and begged him to dismiss the superintendent whom he had just appointed,

asked them if they would be able to pay what they promised. When they answered in the affirmative, he left the superintendent at his post and bade him exact the amount of tribute, which they themselves had assessed. Thus, he did not think it right either to degrade the official whom he had appointed or to impose a heavier tribute upon them than they themselves had fixed, but at the same time he himself received a far larger amount of money. Pathocles, the Athenian, recommended to the Athenians, that the state should take the lead from the mines at Loryum out of private hands at the market

price of two drachm, and that they should then themselves fix the price at six drachm, and so sell it. Cabrius, when crews had been enrolled for 120 ships, and Tauce, only needed 60, ordered the crews of the 60 ships which remained behind to supply those who sailed with two month's provisions, or else to sail themselves, they, wishing to attend to their own affairs, complied with his demand. Artimenez ordered the sea-traps to keep the storehouses filled along the royal roads, according to the custom of the country. But whenever an army, or any other body of men, unaccompanied by the king passed along, he used to send one of his own men and sell the contents of the storehouses. Cleomenes, when the first day of the month,

approaching, and he had to give his soldiers their rations, purposely put back into harbor, and when the new month was approaching, he put out again, and distributed the rations. He then left an interval from the beginning of the month until the first day of the next month. The soldiers, therefore, because they had recently received their rations, kept quiet, and Cleomones, by passing over a month, deprived them of a month's pay in each year. Stabelbius, General, of the Missions, when he owed his soldiers' pay, called the officers together, and told them that he had no need of private soldiers, but only of officers, and that, when he did need soldiers, he gave each officer a sum of money, and sent him out to collect mercenaries,

and that he would rather give the officers the pay, which ought to go to the soldiers. He therefore ordered them each to send away their own levies out of the country. The officers, thinking that it would be an opportunity to make money, dismissed the soldiers in accordance with his commands. But after a short interval, he collected the officers together and told them that just as a flute player was no use without a chorus, so two officers were useless without private soldiers. He therefore ordered them to leave the country. Dionysius, when he was making a round of the temples, whenever he saw a gold or silver table displayed, ordered that a libation should be poured out to good luck, and that the table should be carried off.

And whenever he saw amongst the statues, one which held out a wine cup, he would say, I accept your pledge, and order the statue to be carried away. And he used to strip the remnant of gold, and crowns of silver from the statues, saying that he would give them others lighter and more fragrant. He then clad them with white garments, and crowns. of white violets and of book two and end of economics by aristotle