Classic Audiobook Collection - History of Animals by Aristotle ~ Full Audiobook [science]

Starting point is 00:00:00 History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. Preface It was the desire of the late master of Balliol, Dr. Benjamin Joet, as formulated in his will, that the proceeds from the sale of his works, the copyright in which he bequeathed to Baleal College should be used to promote the study of Greek literature, especially by the publication of new translations and editions of Greek authors. In a codicel to his will, he expressed the hope that the translation of Aristotle's works, begun by his own translation of the politics, should be proceeded with as speedily as possible. The college resolved that the funds thus

Starting point is 00:00:57 accruing to them should, in memory of his services to the college and to Greek letters, be applied to the subvention of a series of translations of the works of Aristotle. Through the cooperation, financial and other of the delegates of the university press, it has now become possible to begin the realization of this design. By agreement between the college and the delegates of the press, the present editors were appointed to superintend the carrying out of the scheme. The series is published at the joint expense and risk of the college and the delegates of the press. The editors have secured the cooperation of various scholars in the task of translation.

Starting point is 00:01:48 The translations make no claim to finality, but aim at being such as a scholar might construct in preparation for a critical edition and commentary. Wherever new readings are proposed, the fact will be indicated, but notes, justificatory, of conjectural emendations, or defensive, of novel interpretations will, where admitted, be reduced to the smallest compass. The editors, while retaining a general right of revision and annotation, will leave the responsibility for each translation,

Starting point is 00:02:25 to its author, John Alexander Smith and William David Ross. This book has been compiled at various times and at long intervals during very many years. The translation, which owes much, to my father's helping hand in years long gone by, is based upon the text of Becca. But in subsequent revisions, I have included all that seemed to me most useful and appropriate from the texts or textual annotations of Schneider, Ober and Vimmer, Piccolos, and Ditmire. To the amendations proposed by these commentators, I have added some few of my own, which will be found brought together in a brief appendix.

Starting point is 00:03:23 Many of these suggestions of mine are admittedly venturesome, and but very few of them have been adopted in my translation. But they all relate to passages where the text, as it at present stands, is, in my opinion, faulty, and where conjecture may be a help towards further consideration and ultimate emendation. The so-called tenth book of the Historia Animalium has not been translated. It is spurious beyond question, and its contents have neither general nor particular interest. My editors have been liberal in allowing me greater scope of annotation than was contemplated in the outset for the volumes of this series. But nevertheless, I have felt consterned.

Starting point is 00:04:17 to admit much that I had written, especially on the zoological side of my commentary. To annotate, illustrate and criticize Aristotle's knowledge of natural history is a task without an end. Many friends and colleagues have given me abundantly of their knowledge and advice, and my editors have been assiduous in all manner of help and counsel. Darcy Wentworth Thompson Prefatory Note In the following notes I have taken little account of matters of geography,

Starting point is 00:04:57 but it seems worthwhile to call attention to the frequent reference in this book and in certain other Aristotelian writings, to the island of Lesbos and to places in and near it. Thus, for instance, we have mentioned made of Lesbos, Antisa, Argenusa, lectum, Mittalini, Pordasalene, Proconesis, Pira, and the Pyraan Euripus. And, I think it further not improbable, that Malaya should be Malia, the southeastern promontory of Lesbos. We know that Aristotle spent two years in Midalini when he was. was about 40 years old, that is to say, some three years after the death of Plato, just after

Starting point is 00:05:53 his sojourn with Hermias of Atarnius, just prior to his residence at the court of Philip, and some ten years before he returned to Athens to begin teaching in the Lyceum. Throughout the natural history, references to places in Greece are few, while they are comparatively frequent to places in Macedonia and to places on the coast of Asia Minor, all the way from the Bosphorus to the Carian coast. I think it can be shown that Aristotle's natural history studies were carried on, or mainly carried on, in his middle age, between his two periods of residence in Athens, that the calm, landlocked, lagoon at Pira, was one of his favorite. hunting grounds, and that his short stay in Yubia during the last days of his life has left

Starting point is 00:06:53 little, if any, impress on his zoological writings. Then it would appear that Aristotle's work in natural history was antecedent to his more strictly philosophical work, and it would follow that we might proceed legitimately to interpret the latter in the light of the former, and remembering that, Spusippus also as a naturalist, to whose writings on fish and shellfish, Athanias, bears abundant testimony, we might permit ourselves to surmise that inquiries into natural history were in no small degree to be reckoned with as a cause of the modification of Plato's doctrine, alike, though not identically at the hands of Aristotle and of the later academy.

Starting point is 00:07:41 And of preface and prefatory note. Book 1, Chapters 1 to 3 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Book 1, Chapter 1 Of the parts of animals, some are simple, to wit all such as divide into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh. Others are composite, such as divide into parts not uniform with themselves, as for instance, the hand does not divide into hands, nor the face into faces.

Starting point is 00:08:42 And of such as these, some are called not parts merely, but lindexam. or members. Such are those parts that, while entire in themselves, have within themselves, other diverse parts, as, for instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, the chest, for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts belonging to them. All those parts that do not subdivide into parts uniform with themselves are composed of parts that do so subdivide. For instance, hand is composed of flesh, sinews and bones. Of animals, some resemble one another in all their parts, while others have parts wherein they differ. Sometimes the parts are identical in form or species, as, for instance, one man's nose or eye

Starting point is 00:09:51 resembles another man's nose or eye, flesh, flesh, and bone, bone, and in like manner with a horse, and with all other animals, which we reckon to be of one and the same species. for, as the whole is to the whole, so each to each are the parts severally. In other cases, the parts are identical, save only for a difference in the way of excess or defect, as is the case in such animals as are of one and the same genus. By genus, I mean, for instance, bird, or fish. for each of these is subject to difference in respect of its genus, and there are many species of fishes and of birds. Within the limits of genera, most of the parts as a rule exhibit differences through contrast of the property or accident,

Starting point is 00:10:57 such as color and sheep, to which they are subject, in that some are more, and some in a less degree the subject of the same property or accident, and also in the way of multitude or fewness, magnitude or parvitude, in short, in the way of excess or defect. Thus, in some the texture of the flesh is soft, in others firm, some have a long bill, others a short one, some have abundance of feathers, others have abundance of feathers, others have only a small quantity. It happens further that some have parts, that others have not. For instance, some have spurs and others not. Some have crests and others not. But as a general rule, most parts and those that go to make up the bulk of the body are either identical with

Starting point is 00:11:58 one another or differ from one another, in the way of contrast and of excess and defecis and for the more and the last may be represented as excess or defect. Once again, we may have to deal with animals, whose parts are neither identical in form, nor yet identical, save for differences in the way of excess or defect. But they are the same only in the way of analogy, as, for instance, bone is only analogous to fish bone, nail to hoof, hand to claw, and scale to feather. For what the feather is in a bird, the scale is in a fish. The parts, then, which animals severally possess, are diverse from, or identical with one another in the fashion above described,

Starting point is 00:12:58 and they are so furthermore in the way of local disposition. For many animals have identical organs that differ in position. For instance, some have teats in the breast, others close to the thighs. Of the substances that are composed of parts, uniform, or homogeneous with themselves, some are soft and moist, others are dry and solid, the soft, the soft, and moist are such either absolutely, or so long as they are in their natural conditions, as, for instance, blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow, sperm, gall, milk in such as have it, flesh and the like, and also in a different way the superfluities, as phlegm and the excretions of the

Starting point is 00:13:57 belly and the bladder. The dry and solid are such as sinew, skin, vein, hair, bone, grizzle, nail, horn, a term, which, as applied to the part, involves an ambiguity, since the whole also, by virtue of its form, is designated horn. And such parts as present an analogy to these. Animals differ from one another in their modes of subsistence, in their actions, in their habits, and in their parts. Concerning these differences, we shall first speak in broad and general terms, and subsequently we shall treat of the same with close reference to each particular genus. Differences are manifested in modes of subsistence,

Starting point is 00:14:56 in habits, in actions performed. For instance, some animals live in water and others on land, and of those that live in water, some do so in one way, and some in another. That is to say, some live and feed in the water, taking and emit water, and cannot live if deprived, of water, as is the case with the great majority of fishes. Others get their food and spend their

Starting point is 00:15:25 days in the water, but do not take in water, but air, nor do they bring forth in the water. Many of these creatures are furnished with feet, as the otter, the beaver, and the crocodile. Some are furnished with wings, as the diver and the grebe. Some are destitute. Some are destitute, of feet, as the water snake. Some creatures get their living in the water and cannot exist outside it, but for all that do not take in either air or water, as, for instance, the sea nettle and the oyster. And of creatures that live in the water, some live in the sea, some in rivers, some in lakes, and some in marshes, as the frog and the newt. of animals that live on dry land, some take in air and emit it,

Starting point is 00:16:23 which phenomena are termed inhalation and exhalation, as, for instance, man, and all such land animals as are furnished with lungs. Others again do not inhale air, yet live and find their sustenance on dry land, as, for instance, the wasp, the bee, and all other insects, And by insects, I mean such creatures as have nicks or notches on their bodies, either on their bellies or on both backs and bellies. And of land animals, many, as has been said, derive their subsistence from the water. But of creatures that live in and inhale water,

Starting point is 00:17:10 not a single one derives its subsistence from dry land. Some animals at first live in water. and by and by, change their shape and live out of water, as is the case with riverworms, for out of these the gadfly develops. Furthermore, some animals are stationary, and some are erratic. Stationary animals are found in water, but no such creature is found on dry land. In the water are many creatures that live in close adhesion to an external object, as is the case with several kinds of oyster.

Starting point is 00:17:50 And, by the way, the sponge appears to be endowed with a certain sensibility, as a proof of which it is alleged that the difficulty in detaching it from its moorings is increased if the movement to detach it be not covertly applied. Other creatures adhere at one time to an object, and it detached themselves from it at other times, as is the case with a species of the so-called sea nettle. For some of these creatures seek their food in the nighttime, loose and unattached. Many creatures are unattached, but motionless, as is the case with oysters, and the so-called

Starting point is 00:18:37 holothuria. Some can swim, as, for instance, fishes, mollusks, and crustaceans, such as, as, as the crawfish. But some of these last move by walking, as the crab, for it is the nature of the creature, though it lives in water, to move by walking. Of land animals, some are furnished with wings, such as birds and bees,

Starting point is 00:19:06 and these are so furnished in different ways, one from another. Others are furnished with feet. Of the animals that are furnished with feet, Some walk, some creep, and some wriggle. But no creature is able only to move by flying, as the fish is able only to swim, for the animals with leathern wings can walk.

Starting point is 00:19:31 The bat has feet, and the seal has imperfect feet. Some birds have feet of little power, and are therefore called apodus. This little bird is powerful, on the wing, and, as a rule, the birds that resemble it are weak-footed and strong-winged, such as the swallow and the drapanius, or alpine swift. For all these birds resemble one another in their habits and in their plumage, and may easily be mistaken one for another.

Starting point is 00:20:12 The Apus is to be seen at all seasons, but the Drapanius only after rainy weather in summer. For this is the time when it is seen and captured, though as a general rule, it is a rare bird. Again, some animals move by walking on the ground as well as by swimming in water. Furthermore, the following differences are manifest in their modes of living and in their actions. Some are gregarious, some are solitary, whether they be furnished with feet or wings, or be fitted for a life in the water, and some partake of both characters, the solitary and the gregarious. And of the gregarious, some are disposed to combine for social purposes, others to live, each for its own self.

Starting point is 00:21:10 Gregarious creatures are, among birds, such as the pigeon, the crane, and the swan. And, by the way, no bird furnished with crooked talons is gregarious. Of creatures that live in water, many kinds of fishes are gregarious, such as the so-called migrants, the tunny, the palamis, and the bonito. Man, by the way, presents a mixture of the two characters, the gregarious and the solitary. Social creatures are such as have some one common object in view, and this property is not common to all creatures that are gregarious. Such social creatures are man, the bee, the wasp, the ant, and the crane. Again, of the social creatures, some submit to a ruler.

Starting point is 00:22:06 Others are subject to no governance, as, for instance, the crane and the several sorts of bee submit to a ruler, whereas ants and numerous other creatures are every one his own master. And again, both of gregarious and of solitary animals, some are attached to a fixed home, and others are erratic or nomad. Also, some are carnivorous, some grammonivorous, some omnivorous, whilst some feed on a peculiar diet, as, for instance, the bees and the spiders, for the bee lives on honey and certain other sweets, and the spider lives by catching flies, and some creatures live on fish. Again, some creatures catch their food, others treasure it up, whereas others do not so.

Starting point is 00:23:05 Some creatures provide themselves with a dwelling. Others go without one. Of the former kind are the mole, the mouse, the ant, the bee. Of the latter kind are many insects and quadrupanes. Further, in respect to locality of dwelling place, some creatures dwell underground, as the lizard and the snake. Others live on the surface of the ground, as the horse and the dog. Some make to themselves holes. Others do not so. Some are nocturnal as the owl and the bat. Others live in the daylight. Moreover, some creatures are tame and some are wild. Some are at all times tame as man and the mule. Others are at all times savage, as the leopard and the wolf, and some creatures can be rapidly tamed as the elephant. Again, we may regard animals in another light,

Starting point is 00:24:10 for whenever a race of animals is found domesticated, the same is always to be found in a wild condition, as we find to be the case with horses, kine, swine, men, sheep, goats, and dogs. Further, some animals emit sound, while others are mute, and some are endowed with voice. Of these latter, some have articulate speech, while others are inarticulate. Some are given to continual chirping and twist. Some are Some are prone to silence, some are musical, and some unmusical, but all animals, without exception, exercise their power of singing or chattering chiefly in connection with the intercourse of the sexes.

Starting point is 00:25:01 Again, some creatures live in the fields, as the cushion, some on the mountains, as the hoopoe, some frequent the abodes of men, as the pigeon. Some, again, are peculiarly salacious as the partridge, the barn-door cock, and their congeners. Others are inclined to chastity, as the whole tribe of crows, for birds of this kind indulge but rarely in sexual intercourse. Of marine animals again, some live in the open seas, some near the shore, some on rocks. Furthermore, some are combative under offense, others are provident for defense, of the former kind are such as act as aggressors upon others, or retaliate when subjected to ill usage,

Starting point is 00:25:58 and of the latter kind are such as merely have some means of guarding themselves against attack. Animals also differ from one another in regard to character in the following respect. Some are good-tempered, sluggish and little prone to ferocity, as the ox. Others are quick-tempered, ferocious and unteachable, as the wild boar. Some are intelligent and timid, as the stag and the hair. Others are mean and treacherous, as the snake. Others are noble and courageous and high-bred, as the lion. Others are thoroughbred and wild and treacherous as the wolf.

Starting point is 00:26:47 For, by the way, an animal is high-bred if it come from a noble stock, and an animal is thoroughbred if it does not deflect from its racial characteristics. Further, some are crafty and mischievous as the fox. Some are spirited and affectionate and fawning as the dog. Others are easy-tempered and easily domesticated, as the elephant. Others are cautious and watchful, as the goose. Others are jealous and self-conceited, as the peacock. But of all animals, man alone is capable of deliberation.

Starting point is 00:27:31 Many animals have memory and are capable of instruction, but no other creature except man can recall the past at will. with regard to the several genera of animals particulars as to their habits of life and modes of existence will be discussed morefully by and by Chapter 2. Common to all animals are the organs whereby they take food, and the organs whereinto they take it, and these are either identical with one another, or are diverse in the ways above specified, to wit either identical in form or varying in respect of excess or defect, or resembling one another analogically, or differing in position.

Starting point is 00:28:24 Furthermore, the great majority of animals have other organs besides these in common, whereby they discharge the residuum of their food. I say the great majority, for this statement does not apply to all. And, by the way, the organ whereby food is taken in is called the mouth, and the organ wherein two, it is taken the belly. The remainder of the elementary system has a great variety of names. Now, the residuum of food is twofold in kind, wet and dry, and such creatures as have organs receptive of wet residuals are invariably found with organs receptive of dry residual, but such as have organs receptive of dry residuum need not possess organs receptive of wet

Starting point is 00:29:21 residuum. In other words, an animal has a bowel or intestine if it have a bladder. But an animal may have a bowel and be without a bladder. And, by the way, I may here remark that the organ receptive of wet residuum is termed bladder, and the organ receptive of dry residuum, intestine or bowel. Chapter 3 Of animals otherwise, a great many have, besides the organs above mentioned, an organ for excretion of the sperm,

Starting point is 00:30:01 and of animals capable of generation, one secretes into another, and the other into itself. The latter is termed female, and the former male. but some animals have neither male nor female. Consequently, the organs connected with this function differ in form. For some animals have a womb, and others an organ analogous there too. The above-mentioned organs, then, are the most indispensable parts of animals, and, with some of them, all animals without exception,

Starting point is 00:30:37 and, with others, animals, for the most part, must needs, be provided. One sense, and one alone, is common to all animals, the sense of touch. Consequently, there is no special name for the organ in which it has its seat, for in some groups of animals the organ is identical. In others, it is only analogous. And of Chapter 3. Book 1, Chapters 4 to 10, of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 00:31:31 Chapter 4. Every animal is supplied with moisture, and if the animal be deprived of the same by natural causes or artificial means, death ensues. Further, every animal has an unres. Every animal has another part in which the moisture is contained. These parts are blood and vein, and in other animals there is something to correspond.

Starting point is 00:31:59 But in these latter, the parts are imperfect, being merely fiber and serum or lymph. Touch has its seat in a part uniform and homogeneous, as in the flesh, or something of the kind. and generally with animals supplied with blood in the parts charged with blood. In other animals, it has its seat in parts analogous to the parts charged with blood, but in all cases it is seated in parts that in their texture are homogeneous. The active faculties, on the contrary, are seated in the parts that are heterogeneous, as, for instance, the business of preparing the food is seated in the mouth, and the office of locomotion in the feet, the wings, or in organs to correspond. Again, some animals are supplied with blood, as man, the horse, and all such animals as are, when full-grown, either destitute of feet or two-footed or fore-footed.

Starting point is 00:33:14 Other animals are bloodless, such as the bee and the wasp, and of marine animals, the cuttlefish, the crawfish, and all such animals as have more than four feet. Chapter 5 Again, some animals are viviparous, others oviparous, others vermicprous, or grubbering. Some are viviparous, such as man. the horse, the seal, and all other animals that are hair-coated, and of marine animals, the cetaceans as the dolphin, and the so-called celiacia. Of these latter animals, some have a tubular air passage and no gills, as the dolphin and the whale, the dolphin with the air passage going through its back,

Starting point is 00:34:09 the whale with the air passage in its forehead, Others have uncovered gills as the Silequia, the sharks and rays. What we term an egg is a certain completed result of conception out of which the animal that is to be develops, and in such a way that in respect to its primitive germ, it comes from part only of the egg, while the rest serves for food as the germ develops. A grub, on the other hand, is a thing out of which in its entirety the animal in its entirety develops, by differentiation and growth of the embryo. Of viviparous animals, some hatch eggs in their own interior as creatures of the shark kind,

Starting point is 00:35:04 others engender in their interior a live fetus as man and the horse. When the result of conception is perfected, with some animals a living creature is brought forth, with others an egg is brought to light, with others a grub. Of the eggs, some have egg shells and are of two different colors within, such as bird's eggs. Others are soft-skinned and of uniform color as the eggs of animals of the shark kind. Of the grubs, some are from the furrow. capable of movement. Others are motionless. However, with regard to these phenomena, we shall speak

Starting point is 00:35:49 precisely hereafter when we come to treat of generation. Furthermore, some animals have feet, and some are destitute thereof. Of such as have feet, some animals have two, as is the case with men and birds, and with men and birds only. Some have four, as the lizard and the dog. Some have more, as the centipede and the bee, but alsoever that have feet have an even number of them. Of swimming creatures that are destitute of feet, some have winglets or fins as fishes,

Starting point is 00:36:30 and of these some have four fins, two above on the back, too below on the belly, as the gilt head and the bass. Some have two only to it, such as are exceedingly long and smooth, as the eel and the conger. Some have none at all, as the muraina, but use the sea just as snakes use dry ground. And, by the way, snakes swim in water in just the same way. Of the shark kind, some have no fins, such as those that are far. flat and long-tailed, as the ray and the stingray. But these fishes swim, actually, by the

Starting point is 00:37:19 undulatory motion of their flat bodies. The fishing frog, however, has fins, and so likewise have all such fishes as have not their flat surfaces thinned off to a sharp edge. Of those swimming creatures that appear to have feet, as is the case of, the case of, with the mollusks, these creatures swim by the aid of their feet and their fins as well, and they swim most rapidly backwards in the direction of the trunk, as is the case with the cuttlefish or sapiens and the calamari. And by the way, neither of these latter can walk as the pulp or octopus can. The hard-skinned or crustaceous animals, like the crawfish, swim by the instrumentality

Starting point is 00:38:15 of their tail parts, and they swim most rapidly, tail foremost, by the aid of the fins developed upon that member. The newt swims by means of its feet and tail, and its tail resembles that of the sheetfish, to compare little with great. of animals that can fly, some are furnished with feathered wings, as the eagle and the hawk. Some are furnished with memberness wings, as the bee and the cockchafer. Others are furnished with leathern wings, as the flying fox and the bat. All flying creatures possessed of blood have feathered wings or leathern wings. The bloodless creatures have membran

Starting point is 00:39:03 wings as insects. The creatures that have feathered wings or leathern wings have either two feet or no feet at all, for there are said to be certain flying serpents in Ethiopia that are destitute of feet. Creatures that have feathered wings are classed as a genus under the name of bird. The other two genera, the leathern-winged and membrane-winged, are as yet, without a generic title. Of creatures that can fly and are bloodless, some are coliopterus or sheath-winged, for they have their wings in a sheath or shard, like the cockchafer and the dung beetle. Others are sheathless, and of these latter some are dipterous, and some tetraptress.

Starting point is 00:39:59 Tetraptras, such as are comparatively large, or have their stings in the tail. Diphtras, such as are comparatively small, or have their stings in front. The kolioptera are, without exception, devoid of stings. The diphtra have the sting in front, as the fly, the horsefly, the gadfly, and the gnat. Bloodless animals, as a general rule, are inferior in point of size to blooded animals, though, by the way, there are found in the sea some few bloodless creatures of abnormal size, as in the case of certain mollusks. And of these bloodless genera, those are the largest that dwell in milder climates,

Starting point is 00:40:51 and those that inhabit the sea are larger than those living on dry land or in fresh water. All creatures that are capable of motion move with four or more points of motion. The blooded animals with four only, as, for instance, man with two hands and two feet, birds with two wings and two feet, quadrupeds and fishes severally with four, four feet and four fins. Creatures that have two winglets or fins, or that have none at all, like serpents, move all the same with not less than four points of motion, for there are four bends in their bodies as they move, or two bends together with their fins.

Starting point is 00:41:44 Bloodless and many-footed animals, whether furnished with wings or feet, move with more than four points of motion, as, for instance, the dayfly moves with four feet and four wings. And I may observe in passing, this creature is exceptional, not only in regard to the duration of its existence, whence it receives its name, but also because, though a quadruped, it has wings also. All animals move alike, four-footed and many-footed. In other words, they all move cross-cornerwise, and animals in general have two feet in advance. The crab alone has four.

Starting point is 00:42:31 Chapter 6 A very extensive genera of animals, into which other subdivisions fall, are the following. One of birds. One of fishes, and another of cetaceans. Now, all these creatures are blooded. There is another genus of the hard-shell kind, which is called oyster, another of the soft-shell kind, not as yet designated by a single term, such as the spiny crawfish and the various kinds of crabs and lobsters,

Starting point is 00:43:11 and another of mollusks, as the two kinds of calamari and the cuddle-fills. that of insects is different. All these latter creatures are bloodless, and such of them as have feet have a goodly number of them, and of the insects, some have wings as well as feet. Of the other animals the genera are not extensive, for in them one species does not comprehend many species, but in one case, as man, the species is simple, admitting of no differentiation while other cases admit of differentiation, but the forms lack particular designations. So, for instance, creatures that are quadrupedal and unprovided with wings are blooded without exception,

Starting point is 00:44:05 but some of them are viviparous and some oviparous. Such as our viviparous are hair-coated, and such as our oviparous are covered with a kind of tessellated hard suburb. And the tessalated bits of this substance are, as it were, similar in regard to position to a scale. An animal that is bled and capable of movement on dry land, but is naturally unprovided with feint, belongs to the serpent genus, and animals of this genus are coated with the tessellated horny substance. Serpents in general are oviparous.

Starting point is 00:44:46 adder, an exceptional case is viviparous, for not all viviparous animals are hair-coated, and some fishes also are viviparous. All animals, however, that are hair-coated are viviparous. For, by the way, one must regard as a kind of hair, such prickly hairs as hedgehogs and porcupines carry. For these spines perform the office of hair, and not of feet, as is the case with similar parts in sea urchins. In the genus that combines all viviparous quadrupeds are many species, but under no common appellation. They are only named, as it were, one by one, as we say,

Starting point is 00:45:36 man, lion, stag, horse, dog, and so. on. Though, by the way, there is a sort of genus that embraces all creatures that have bushy manes and bushy tails, such as the horse, the ass, the mule, the genet, and the animals that are called Hermione in Syria from their externally resembling mules, though they are not strictly of the same species, and that they are not so is proved by the fact that they mate with and breed from one another. For all these reasons, we must take animals species by species and discuss their peculiarities severally. These preceding statements then have been put forward, thus in a general way as a kind of foretaste of the number of subjects and of the properties

Starting point is 00:46:39 that we have to consider in order that we may first get a clear notion of distinctive character and common properties. By and by, we shall discuss these matters with greater minuteness. After this, we shall pass on to the discussion of causes, for to do this, when the investigation of the details is complete, is the proper and natural method, and that whereby the subjects and the premises of our argument will afterwards be rendered plain. In the first place, we must look to the constituent parts of animals, for it is in a way relative to these parts, first and foremost that animals in their entirety differ from one another, either in the fact that some have this or that, while they have not that or this,

Starting point is 00:47:36 or by peculiarities of position or of arrangement, or by the differences that have been previously mentioned, depending upon diversity of form, on excess or defect, in this or that particular, on analogy, or on contrasts of the accidental qualities. To begin with, we must take into consideration the parts of man, for just as each nation is wont to reckon by that monetary standard with which it is most familiar, so must we do in other matters. And, of course, man is the animal with which we are all of us the most familiar. Now, the parts are obvious enough to physical perception. However, with the view of observing, due order and sequence, and of combining rational notions with physical perception,

Starting point is 00:48:36 we shall proceed to enumerate the parts, firstly the organic, and afterwards the simple or non-composite. Chapter 7 The chief parts into which the body as a whole is subdivided are the hand, the neck, the trunk, extending from the neck to the privy parts, which is called the thorax, two arms and two legs. Of the parts of which the head is composed, the hair-covered portion is called the skull. The front portion of it is termed Bregma or Sinsipot, developed after birth. for it is the last of all the bones in the body to acquire solidity.

Starting point is 00:49:25 The hinder part is termed the oxaput, and the part intervening between the sinsiput and the oxiput is the cram. The brain lies underneath the sinsiput. The oxaput is hollow. The skull consists entirely of thin bone, rounded in shape, and contained within a wrapper of fleshless skin. The skull has sutures, one of circular form in the case of women. In the case of men, as a general rule, three meeting at a point.

Starting point is 00:50:02 Instances have been known of a man's skull devoid of suture altogether. In the skull, the middle line where the hair parts is called the crown or vertex. In some cases the parting is double, that is to say, some men are double-crowned, not in regard to the bony skull, but in consequence of the double fall or set of the hair. Chapter 8 The part that lies under the skull is called the face, but in the case of man only, for the term is not applied to a fish or to an ox. In the face, the part below the sinsepunt, and between the eyes is termed the forehead, hand. When men have large foreheads, they're slow to move. When they have small ones, they are fickle.

Starting point is 00:50:57 When they have broad ones, they are apt to be distraught. When they have foreheads rounded or bulging out, they are quick-tempered. Chapter 9 Underneath the forehead are two eyebrows. Straight eyebrows are a sign of softness of disposition, such as curve in towards the nose of harshness, such as curve out towards the temples of humor and dissimulation, such as are drawn in towards one another of jealousy. Under the eyebrows come the eyes. These are naturally two in number.

Starting point is 00:51:38 Each of them has an upper and a lower eyelid, and the hairs on the edges of these are termed eyelashes. The central part of the eye includes the moist part, whereby vision is affected, termed the pupil, and the part surrounding it, called the black. The part outside this is the white. A part common to the upper and lower island is a pair of nicks or corners, one in the direction of the nose, and the other in the direction of the temples. When these are long, they are a sign of bad disposition.

Starting point is 00:52:19 If the side toward the nostril be fleshy, and comb-like, they are a sign of dishonesty. All animals, as a general rule, are provided with eyes, excepting the ostrichoderms and other imperfect creatures. At all events, all viviparous animals have eyes, with the exception of the mole, and yet, yet, one might assert that though the mole has not eyes in the full sense, yet it has eyes in a kind of a way. For, in point of absolute fact, it cannot see and has no eyes visible externally. But when the outer skin is removed, it is found to have the place where eyes are usually situated, and the black parts of the eyes rightly situated, and all the place that is usually devoted on the outside eyes,

Starting point is 00:53:18 showing that the parts are stunted in development, and the skin allowed to grow over. Chapter 10 Of the eye, the white is pretty much the same in all creatures, but what is called the black differs in various animals. Some have the rim black, some distinctly blue, some grayish blue, some greenish, and this last color is the sign of an excellent disposition, and is particularly well-adapted for sharpness of vision. Man is the only, or nearly the only, creature that has eyes of

Starting point is 00:54:01 diverse colors. Animals, as a rule, have eyes of one color only. Some horses have blue eyes. Of eyes, some are large, some small, some medium-sized. Of these, the medium-sized are the best. Moreover, eyes sometimes protrude, sometimes recede, sometimes recede, sometimes are neither protruding nor receding. Of these, the receding eye is in all animals the most acute. But the last kind are the sign of the best disson.

Starting point is 00:54:37 position. Again, eyes are sometimes inclined to wink under observation, sometimes to remain open and staring, and sometimes are disposed neither to wink nor stare. The last kind are the sign of the best nature, and of the others the latter kind indicates impudence and the former indecision. End of Chapter 10. Book 1. Chapter 11 to 15 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 11.

Starting point is 00:55:34 Furthermore, there is a portion of the hand whereby an animal hears, a part incapable of breathing, the ear. I say incapable of breathing, for Alchmian is mistaken when he says that goats inspire through their ears. Of the ear, one part is unnamed, the other part is called the lobe, and it is entirely composed of grizzle and flesh. The ear is constructed internally like the trumpet shell, and the innermost bone is like the ear itself. and into it at the end the sound makes its way, as into the bottom of a jar. This receptacle does not communicate by any passage with the brain, but does so with the palate, and a vein extends from the brain towards it.

Starting point is 00:56:35 The eyes also are connected with the brain, and each of them lies at the end of a little vein. Of animals possessed of ears, man is the only one that cannot move this organ. Of creatures possessed of hearing, some have ears, whilst others have none, but merely have the passages for ears visible, as, for example, feathered animals, or animals coated with horny tessellites. viviparous animals, with the exception of the seal, the dolphin, and those others, which, after a similar fashion to these, are cetaceans, are all provided with ears, for, by the way, the shark kind are also viviparous. Now, the seal has the passages visible, whereby it hears, but the dolphin can hear, but has no ears. nor yet any passage is visible.

Starting point is 00:57:41 But man alone is unable to move his ears, and all other animals can move them, and the ears lie with man in the same horizontal plane with the eyes, and not in a plane above them, as is the case with some quadrupants. Of ears, some are fine, some are coarse,

Starting point is 00:58:05 and some are of medium texture. The last kind are best for hearing, but they serve in no way to indicate character. Some ears are large, some small, some medium-sized, again, some stand out far, some lie in close and tight, and some take up a medium position. Of these, such as are of medium-size and of medium-position, are indications of the best disposition, while the large and outstanding ones indicate a tendency to irrelevant talk or chattering. The part intercepted between the eye, the ear, and the crown,

Starting point is 00:58:53 is termed the temple. Again, there is a part of the countenance that serves as a passage for the breath, the nose, for a man inhales and exhales by this organ, and sneezing is affected by its means, which last is an outward rush of collected breath, and is the only mode of breath used as an omen, and regarded as supernatural. Both inhalation and exhalation go right on from the nose towards the chest, and with the nostrils alone, and separately it is impossible to inhale or exhale,

Starting point is 00:59:36 owing to the fact that the inspiration and respiration take place from the chest along the windpipe, and not by any portion connected with the hand. And indeed, it is possible for a creature to live without using this process of nasal respiration. Again, smelling takes place by means of the nose, smelling, or the sensible discrimination of odor, and the nostril admits of easy motion and is not like the ear intrinsically immovable. A part of it, composed of grizzle, constitutes a septum or partition, and part is an open passage. For the nostril consists of two separate channels.

Starting point is 01:00:27 The nostril, or nose of the elephant, is long and strong, and the animal uses it like a hand, for by means of this organ, it draws objects towards it, and takes hold of them, and introduces its food into its mouth, whether liquid or dry food, and it is the only living creature that does so. Furthermore, there are two jaws. The front part of them constitutes the chin, and the hinder part the cheek. All animals move the lower jaw, with the exception of, the river crocodile. This creature moves the upper jaw only. Next, after the nose come two lips

Starting point is 01:01:14 composed of flesh and vassal of motion. The mouth lies inside the jaws and lips. Parts of the mouth are the roof or palate and the pharynx. The part that is sensible of taste is the tongue. The sensation has its seat at the tip of the tongue. If the object to be tasted be placed on the flat surface of the organ, the taste is less sensibly experienced. The tongue is sensitive in all other ways wherein flesh in general is so. That is, it can appreciate hardness or warmth and cold in any part of it, just as it can appreciate taste. The tongue is sometimes broad, sometimes narrow, and sometimes of medium width. The last kind is the best and the clearest in its discrimination of taste. Moreover, the tongue is sometimes loosely hung and

Starting point is 01:02:17 sometimes fastened, as in the case of those who mumble and who lisp. The tongue consists of flesh, soft and spongy, and the so-called epiglottis is a part of this organ. That part of the mouth that splits into two bits is called the tonsils. That part that splits into many bits, the gums. Both the tonsils and the gums are composed of flesh. In the gums are teeth composed of bone. Inside the mouth is another part shaped like a bunch of grapes, a pillar streaked with veins. If this pillar gets relaxed and inflamed, it is a little bit of grapes.

Starting point is 01:03:01 is called uvula, or bunch of grapes, and it then has a tendency to bring about suffocation. Chapter 12 The neck is the part between the face and the trunk. Of this, the front part is the larynx, and the back part the gullet. The front part composed of grizzle, through which respiration and speech is affected, is termed the windpipe, the part that is fleshy is the esophagus, inside, just in front of the chine. The part to the back of the neck is the epaumous, or shoulder point. These then are the parts to be met with before you come to the thorax. To the trunk there is a front part and a back

Starting point is 01:03:52 part. Next, after the neck in the front part is the chest, with a pair of breasts. To each of the breasts is attached a teat or nipple, through which, in the case of females, the milk percolates, and the breast is of a spongy texture. Milk, by the way, is found at times in the male, but with the male the flesh of the breast is tough. With the female it is soft and porous. Chapter 13 Next, after the thorax, and in front,

Starting point is 01:04:29 comes the belly, and its root the navel. Underneath this route, the bilateral part is the flank, the undivided part below the navel, the abdomen, the extremity of which is the region of the pubis, and above the navel the hypochondrium. The cavity common to the hypochondrium, and the flank is the gut cavity. Serving as a brace girdle to the hinder, parts is the pelvis, and hence it gets its name, Osphus, for it is symmetrical, isophous in appearance. Of the fundament, the part for resting on is termed the rump, and the part whereon the thigh pivots is termed the socket, or acetabulum. The womb is a part peculiar to the female, and the penis is peculiar to the male.

Starting point is 01:05:32 This latter organ is external and situated at the extremity of the trunk. It is composed of two separate parts, of which the extreme part is fleshy, does not alter in size and is called the glands, and round about it is a skin devoid of any specific title, which integument, if it be cut asunder, never grows together again, any more than does the jaw or the eyelid. And the connection between the latter and the glands is called the freinum. The remaining part of the penis is composed of grizzle.

Starting point is 01:06:11 It is easily susceptible of enlargement, and it protrudes and recedes in the reverse directions to what is observable in the identical organ in counts. Underneath the penis are two testicles, and the integument of these is a skin that is termed the scrotum. Testicles are not identical with flesh, and are not altogether diverse from it, but by and by we shall treat in an exhaustive way regarding all such parts. Chapter 14

Starting point is 01:06:46 The privy part of the female is in character opposite to that of the male. In other words, the part under the pubis, is hollow or receding, and not like the male organ protruding. Further, there is an urethra outside the womb, which organ serves as a passage for the sperm of the male, and as an outlet for liquid excretion to both sexes. The part common to the neck and chest is the throat. The armpit is common to side, arm and shoulder,

Starting point is 01:07:24 and the groin is common to thigh and abdomen. The part inside the thigh and buttocks is the perineum, and the part outside the thigh and buttocks is the hypogluteus. The front parts of the trunk have now been enumerated. The part behind the chest is termed the back. Chapter 15 Parts of the back are a pair of shoulder blades, the backbone, and underneath, on a level with the belly, in the trunk, the loins.

Starting point is 01:08:02 Common to the upper and lower part of the trunk are the ribs. Eight on either side. For, as to the so-called seven-ribbed ligands, we have not received any trustworthy evidence. Man, then, has an upper and a lower part. a front and a back part, a right and a left side. Now, the right and the left side are pretty well alike in their parts, and identical throughout, except that the left side is the weaker of the two. But the back parts do not resemble the front ones, neither do the lower ones, the upper,

Starting point is 01:08:47 only that these upper and lower parts may be said to resemble one another thus far, that if the face be plump or meager, the abdomen is plump or meager to correspond, and that the legs correspond to the arms. And where the upper arm is short, the thigh is usually short also. And where the feet are small, the hands are small correspondingly. Of the limbs, one set, forming a pair is arms. To the arm belong the shoulder, upper arm, elbow, forearm and hand. To the hand belong the palm and the five fingers.

Starting point is 01:09:35 The part of the finger that bends is termed knuckle. The part that is inflexible is termed the phalanx. The big finger or thumb is single-jointed. The other fingers are double-jointed. The bending, both of the arm and of the finger, takes place from without inwards in all cases, and the arm bends at the elbow. The inner part of the hand is termed the palm, and is fleshy and divided by joints or lines.

Starting point is 01:10:11 In the case of long-lived people by one or two extending right across, in the case of the short-lived by two not so extended, The joint between hand and arm is termed the rest. The outside or back of the hand is sinewy and has no specific designation. There is another duplicate limb, the leg. Of this limb, the double-knobbed part is termed the thigh bone, the sliding part, the knee-cap, the double-boned part, the leg. The front part of this ladder is termed the shin.

Starting point is 01:10:52 and the part behind it the calf, wherein the flesh is sinewy and venus, in some cases drawn upwards towards the hollow behind the knee, as in the case of people with large hips, and in other cases drawn downwards. The lower extremity of the shin is the ankle, duplicate in either leg. The part of the limb that contains a multiplicity of bones is the foot. The hinder part of the foot is the heel. At the front of it the divided part consists of toes.

Starting point is 01:11:31 Five in number. The fleshy part underneath is the ball. The upper part or back of the foot is sinewy and has no particular appellation. Of the toe, one portion is the nail and another the joint, and the nail is in all cases at the extremity. toes are without exception single-jointed. Men that have the inside or sole of the foot clumsy and not arched, that is, that walk resting on the entire under-surface of their feet, are prone to roguery. The joint common to thigh and shin is the knee. These then are the parts common

Starting point is 01:12:17 to the male and the female sex. The relative position, of the parts as to up and down, or to front and back, or to right and left. All this, as regards externals, might safely be left to mere ordinary perception. But for all that, we must treat of them for the same reason as the one previously brought forward. That is to say, we must refer to them in order that a due and regular sequence may be observed in our exposition, and in order that, by the enumeration of these obvious facts,

Starting point is 01:12:54 due attention may be subsequently given to those parts in men and other animals that are diverse in any way from one another. In man, above all other animals, the terms upper and lower are used in harmony, with their natural positions, for in him, upper and lower, have the same meaning as when they are applied to the universe as a whole. In like manner, the terms in front, behind, right, and left, are used in accordance with their natural sense. But in regard to other animals, in some cases these distinctions do not exist, and in others they do so, but in a vague way.

Starting point is 01:13:38 For instance, the hand with all animals is up and above in respect to their bodies. But man alone, as, has been said, has, in maturity, this part uppermost in respect to the material universe. Next, after the head comes the neck, and then the chest and the back, the one in front and the other behind. Next, after these, come the belly, the loins, the sexual parts, and the haunches, then the thigh and shin, and lastly, the feet. The legs bend frontwards in the direction of actual progression,

Starting point is 01:14:22 and frontwards also lies that part of the foot which is the most effective of motion, and the flexure of that part. But the heel lies at the back, and the ankle bones lie laterally earwise. The arms are situated to right and left, and bend inward, so that the convexity is formed by bent arms and legs are practically face to face with one another in the case of man. As for the senses and for the organs of sensation, the eyes, the nostrils and the tongue, all alike are situated frontwards, the sense of hearing, and the organ of hearing,

Starting point is 01:15:06 the ear is situated sideways on the same horizontal plane with the line with the eyes. The eyes in man are in proportion to his size, nearer to one another, than in any other animal. Of the senses, man has the sense of touch more refined than any animal, and so also, but in less degree, the sense of taste. In the development of the other senses, he is surpassed by a great number of animals. And of chapter 15. Book 1, Chapter 16 and 17 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth-Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 01:16:07 Chapter 16 The parts then that are externally visible are arranged in the way above stated, and, as a rule, have their special designations, and from use and want are known familiarly to all. But this is not the case with the inner parts. For the fact is that the inner parts of man are, to a very great extent, unknown, and the consequence is that we must have recourse to an examination of the inner parts of other animals, whose nature in any way resembles that of man. In the first place then, the brain lies in the front part of the head,

Starting point is 01:16:53 and this holds alike with all animals possessed of a brain, and all blooded animals are possessed thereof, and, by the way, mollusks as well. But taking size for size of animal, the largest brain and the moistest is that, of man. Two membranes enclose it. The stronger one nearer the bone of the skull. The inner one round the brain itself is finer. The brain, in all cases, is bilateral. Behind this, right at the back, comes what is termed the cerebellum, differing in form from the brain, as we may both feel

Starting point is 01:17:41 and sea. The back of the head is with all animals empty and hollow, whatever be at size in the different animals. For some creatures have big hands, while the face below is small in proportion, as is the case with round-faced animals. Some have little hands and long jaws, as is the case, without exception, among animals of the main and tail species. The brain in all animals is bloodless, devoid of veins, and naturally cold to the touch. In the great majority of animals, it has a small hollow in its center. The brain call around it is reticulated with veins, and this brain call is that skin-like membrane, which closely surrounds the brain.

Starting point is 01:18:38 Above the brain is the thinnest and weakest bone of the brain. the head, which is termed Bregma, or Sinsipot. From the eye, there go three ducks to the brain, the largest and the medium-sized to the cerebellum, the least to the brain itself, and the least is the one situated nearest to the nostril. The two largest ones, then, run side by side and do not meet. The medium-sized ones meet, and this is particularly visible. in fishes, for they lie nearer than the large ones to the brain. The smallest pair are the most widely separate from one another, and do not meet.

Starting point is 01:19:23 Inside the neck is what is termed the esophagus, whose other name is derived from its length and narrowness, and the windpipe. The windpipe is situated in front of the esophagus in all animals that have a windpipe. and all animals have one that are furnished with lungs. The windpipe is made up of grizzle, is sparingly supplied with blood, and is streaked all round with numerous minute veins. It is situated in its upper part near the mouth,

Starting point is 01:19:59 below the aperture formed by the nostrils into the mouth, an aperture through which when men in drinking inhale any of the liquid, this liquid finds its way out through the nostrils. In betwixt the two openings comes the so-called epiglottas, an organ capable of being drawn over and covering the orifice of the windpipe, communicating with the mouth. The end of the tongue is attached to the epiglottos. In the other direction, the windpipe extends to the interval between the lungs,

Starting point is 01:20:36 and hereupon bifurcates into each of the two divisions of the lung. For the lung, in all animals, possessed of the organ has a tendency to be double. In viviparous animals, however, the duplication is not so plainly discernible, as in other species, and the duplication is least discernible in man. And in man, the organ is not split into many parts, as is the case with the case with some vivipera. Neither is it smooth, but its surface is uneven. In the case of the oviparra, such as birds and oviparous quadrupanes, the two parts of the organ are separated to a distance from one another, so that the creatures appear to be furnished with a pair of lungs, and, from the

Starting point is 01:21:28 windpipe, itself single, their branch off two separate parts extending to each of the two divisions of the lung. It is attached also to the great vein and to what is designated the aorta. When the windpipe is charged with air, the air passes on to the hollow parts of the lung. These parts have divisions composed of grizzle, which meet at an acute angle, from the divisions run passages through the entire lung, giving off smaller and smaller ramifications. The heart also is attached to the windpipe by connections of fat, grizzle, and sinew, and at the point of juncture there is a hollow. When the windpipe is charged with air, the entrance of the air into the heart, though imperceptible in some animals, is perceptible enough

Starting point is 01:22:26 in the larger ones. Such are the properties of the windpipe, and it takes in and throws out air only, and takes in nothing else, either dry or liquid, or else it causes you pain until you shall have coughed up whatever may have gone down. The esophagus communicates at the top with the mouth, close to the windpipe, and is attached to the backbone, and the windpipe by membranous ligaments, and at last finds its way through the midriff into the belly. It is composed of flesh-like substance, and is elastic both lengthways and breadthways. The stomach of man resembles that of a dog, for it is not much bigger than the bowel, but is somewhat like a bowel of more than usual width. Then comes the bowel, single,

Starting point is 01:23:24 convoluted, moderately wide. The lower part of the gut is like that of a pig, for it is broad, and the part from it to the buttocks is thick and short. The col, or great omentum, is attached to the middle of the stomach, and consists of a fatty membrane, as is the case with all other animals whose stomachs are single, and which have teeth in both jaws. The mesentary is over the bowels. This also is membranous and broad, and turns to fat.

Starting point is 01:23:58 It is attached to the great vein, and the aorta, and their run through it a number of veins closely packed together, extending towards the region of the bowels, beginning above and ending below. So much for the properties of the esophagus, the windpipe, and the stomach. Chapter 17 The heart has three cavities, and is situated above the lung at the division of the windpipe, and is provided with a fatty and thick membrane, where it fastens onto the great vein and the aorta.

Starting point is 01:24:38 It lies with its tapering portion upon the aorta, and this portion is similarly situated in relation to the chest in all animals that have a chest. In all animals alike, in those that have a chest and in those that have none, the apex of the heart points forwards, although this fact might possibly escape notice by a change of position under dissection. The rounded end of the heart is at the top.

Starting point is 01:25:09 The apex is, to a great extent, fleshy and close in texture, and in the cavities of the heart are sinews. As a rule, the heart is situated in the middle of the chest in animals that have a chest, and in man it is situated a little to the left-hand side. leaning a little way from the division of the breasts towards the left breast in the upper part of the chest. The heart is not large, and in its general shape it is not elongated. In fact, it is somewhat round in form. Only, be it remembered, it is sharp pointed at the bottom.

Starting point is 01:25:50 It has three cavities, as has been said. The right hand one, the largest of the three, the left hand. hand one, the least, and the middle one intermediate in size. All these cavities, even the two small ones, are connected by passages with the lung, and this fact is rendered quite plain in one of the cavities. And below, at the point of attachment in the largest cavity, there is a connection with the great vein, near which the mesentary lies, and in the middle one there is a connection with the aorta. Canals lead from the heart into the lung and branch off, just as the windpipe does,

Starting point is 01:26:36 running all over the lung parallel with the passages from the windpipe. The canals from the heart are uppermost, and there is no common passage, but the passages, through their having a common wall, receive the breath, and pass it on to the heart, and one of the passages conveys it to the right cavity, and the other to the left. With regard to the great vein and the aorta, we shall, by and by, treat of them together in a discussion devoted to them, and to them alone. In all animals that are furnished with a lung, and that are both internally and externally viviparous, the lung is of all organs the most richly supplied with blood, for the lung is throughout spongy and texture, and a long by every single,

Starting point is 01:27:27 single pore in it go branches from the great vein. Those who imagine it to be empty are altogether mistaken, and they are led into their error by their observation of lungs removed from animals under dissection, out of which organs the blood has all escaped immediately after death. Of the other internal organs, the heart alone contains blood, and the lung has blood not in itself, but in its veins, but the heart has blood in itself, for in each of its three cavities it has blood, but the thinnest blood is what it has in its central cavity. Under the lung comes the thoracic diaphragm, or midriff, attached to the rims, the hypochondria, and the backbone, with a thin membrane in the middle of it.

Starting point is 01:28:24 It has veins running through it, and the diaphragm, in the case of man, is thicker in proportion to the size of his frame than in other animals. Under the diaphragm, on the right-hand side lies the liver, and on the left-hand side the spleen, alike in all animals that are provided with these organs, in an ordinary and not preternatural way. For, be it observed, in some quadrupanes, these organs have been able to be it observed, have been found in a transposed position. These organs are connected with the stomach by the caul. To outward view, the spleen of man is narrow and long, resembling the self-same organ in the

Starting point is 01:29:09 pig. The liver in the great majority of animals is not provided with a gall-bladder, but the latter is present in some. The liver of a man is round-shaped and resembles the same organ in the ox. And, by the way, the absence above referred to of a gallbladder is at times met with in the practice of augury. For instance, in a certain district of the Calcutic settlement in Yubia, the sheep are devoid of gallbladder. And in Naxos, nearly all the quadrupeds have one so large that foreigners, when they offer sacrifice with such victims, are bewildered with friends. under the impression that the phenomenon is not due to natural causes, but bodes some mischief

Starting point is 01:30:01 to the individual offerers of the sacrifice. Again, the liver is attached to the great vein, but it has no communication with the aorta, for the vein that goes off from the great vein goes right through the liver, at a point where are the so-called portals of the liver. The spleen also is connected only with the great vein, for a vein extends to the spleen off from it. After these organs come the kidneys, and these are placed close to the backbone, and resemble in character the same organ in kind. In all animals that are provided with this organ, the right kidney is situated higher up than the other.

Starting point is 01:30:46 It has also less fatty substance than the left-hand one, and is less moist, and this phenomenon also is observable in all the other animals alike. Furthermore, passages or ducks lead into the kidneys, both from the great vein and from the aorta, only not into the cavity, for, by the way, there is a cavity in the middle of the kidney, bigger in some creatures and less in others, but there is none in the case of the seal. This latter animal has kidneys resembling in shape the identical organ in kind, but in its case the organs are more solid than in any other known creature. The ducks that lead into the kidneys lose themselves in the substance of the kidneys themselves,

Starting point is 01:31:38 and the proof that they extend no farther rests on the fact that they contain no blood, nor is any clot found therein. The kidneys, however, have, as has been said, a small cavity. From this cavity in the kidney, there lead to considerable ducks or uratures into the bladder, and others spring from the aorta, strong and continuous. And to the middle of each of the two kidneys is attached a hollow sinewy vein, stretching right along the spine through the narrows, By and by, these veins are lost in either loin and again become visible extending to the flank,

Starting point is 01:32:24 and these off-branchings of the veins terminate in the bladder, for the bladder lies at the extremity and is held in position by the ducks stretching from the kidneys, along the stalk that extends to the urethra, and pretty well all round it is fastened by fine sinewy membranes that resemble to some extent, the thoracic diaphragm. The bladder in man is proportionately to a size tolerably large. To the stock of the bladder, the private part is attached, the external orifices coalescing. But a little lower down, one of the openings communicates with the testicles, and the other with the bladder. The penis is grisly and sinewy in its texture. With it are connected. the testicles in male animals, and the properties of these organs we shall discuss in our

Starting point is 01:33:22 general account of the said organ. All these organs are similar in the female, for there is no difference in regard to the internal organs, except in respect to the womb, and with reference to the appearance of this organ, I must refer the reader to diagrams in my anatomy. The womb, however, is situated over the bowel, and the bladder lies over the womb. But we must treat by and by in our pages of the womb of all female animals viewed generally, for the wombs of all female animals are not identical. Neither do their local dispositions coincide. Vines are the organs internal and external of man,

Starting point is 01:34:07 and such is their nature, and such their local disposition. and of chapter 17 and end of book one book two chapter one of history of animals by aristotle translated by darcy wentworth thompson this libravox recording is in the public domain chapter one with regard to animals in general some parts or organs are common to all is has been sad, and some are common only to particular genera. The parts, moreover, are identical with or different from one another on the lines already repeatedly laid down. For, as a general rule, all animals that are generically distinct have the majority of their parts or organs different in form or species, and some of them, they have only analogically similar, and diverse in kind or genus, while they have others that are alike in kind, but specifically diverse.

Starting point is 01:35:28 And many parts or organs exist in some animals, but not in others. For instance, viviparous quadrupeds have all a head and a neck, and all the parts or organs of the hand, but they differ each from other in the shapes of the parts. The lion has its neck composed of one single bone instead of vertebra. But when dissected, the animal is found in all internal characters to resemble the dog. The quadrupedal vivipera instead of arms have four legs. This is true of all quadrupeds, but such of them as have toes have, practically speaking, organs analogous to hands. At all events, they use the ones.

Starting point is 01:36:18 these four limbs for many purposes as hands. And they have the limbs on the left-hand signed, less distinct from those on the right than man. The four limbs then serve more or less the purpose of hands in quadruppans, with the exception of the elephant. This latter animal has its toes somewhat indistinctly defined, and its front legs are much bigger than its hinder ones. is five-toed and has short ankles to its hind feet. But it has a nose, such in properties and such in size, as to allow of its using the same for a hand. For it eats and drinks by lifting up its food with the aid of this organ into its mouth, and with the same organ it lifts up articles to the driver on its back. With this organ it can pluck up trees by the roots.

Starting point is 01:37:18 and when walking through water, it spouts the water up by means of it, and this organ is capable of being crooked or coiled at the tip, but not of flexing like a joint, for it is composed of grizzle. Of all animals, man alone can learn to make equal use of both hands. All animals have a part analogous to the chest in man, but not similar to his, for the chest in man is broad, but that of all other animals is narrow. Moreover, no other animal but man has breasts in front. The elephant certainly has two breasts, not however in the chest, but near it.

Starting point is 01:38:07 Moreover, also, animals have the flexions of their fore and hind limbs in directions opposite to one another, and in directions the reverse of those observed in the arms and legs of man, with the exception of the elephant. In other words, with the viviparous quadrupanes, the front legs bend forwards, and the hind ones backwards, and the concavities of the two pairs of limbs thus face one another. The elephant does not sleep standing, as some were wont to assert, but it bends its legs and settles down, only that in consequence of its weight, it cannot bend its legs on both side simultaneously, but falls into a recumbent position on one side or the other, and in this

Starting point is 01:38:58 position it goes to sleep, and it bends its hind legs, just as a man bends his legs. In the case of the ovipura, as the crocodile and the lizard and the like, both pairs of legs, four and hind bend forwards with a slight swerve to one side. The flexion is similar in the case of the multipeds, only that the legs in between the extreme ends always move in a manner intermediate between that of those in front and those behind, and accordingly bend sideways, rather than backwards or forwards. But man bends his arms and his legs towards the same point, and therefore in opposite ways. That is, to say, he bends his arms backwards,

Starting point is 01:39:48 with just a slight inclination inwards, and his legs frontwards. No animal bends both its fore limbs and hind limbs backwards. But in the case of all animals, the flexion of the shoulders is in the opposite direction to that of the elbows or the joints of the forelegs, and the flexure in the hips, to that of the knees of the hind legs,

Starting point is 01:40:12 legs, so that, since man differs from other animals in flexion, those animals that possess such parts as these move them contrary-wise to man. Birds have the flexions of their limbs, like those of the quadrupeds, for, although bipeds, they bend their legs backwards, and instead of arms or front legs, have wings which bend frontwards. The seal is a kind of imperfect or crippled quadruped, for just behind the shoulder blade its front feet are placed, resembling hands, like the front paws of the bear, for they are furnished with five toes, and each of the toes has three flexions and a nail of inconsiderable size. The hind feet are also furnished with five toes. In their flexions and nails, they resemble the front

Starting point is 01:41:06 feet, and in shape they resemble a fissia's tail. The movements of animals, quadruped and multiped, are crosswise, or in diagonals, and their equilibrium in standing posture is maintained crosswise, and it is always the limb on the right-hand side that is the first to move. The lion, however, and the two species of camel, both the Bactrian and the Arabian, progress by an amble, and the action so-called is when the animal never overpasses the right foot with the left, but always follows close upon it. Whatever parts men have in front, these parts quadrupeds have below, in or on the belly, and whatever parts men have behind, these parts quadrupeds have above, on their backs.

Starting point is 01:42:03 Most quadrupeds have a tail. Even the seal has a tiny one resembling that of the stang. Regarding the tales of the pithacoids, we must give their distinctive properties by and by. All viviparous quadrupeds are hair-coated, whereas man has only a few short hairs excepting on the hand. But so far as the head is concerned, he is hairier than any other animal. Further, of hair-coated animals, the back is hairy. than the belly, which latter is either comparatively void of hair or smooth and void of hair altogether. With man, the reverse is the case.

Starting point is 01:42:48 Man also has upper and lower eyelashes and hair under the armpits and on the pubis. No other animal has hair in either of these localities, or has an under-eye lash, though in the case of some animals, a few straggling hair. grow under the island. Of hair-coated quadrupants, some are hairy all over the body, as the pig, the bear, and the dog. Others are especially hairy on the neck, and all round about it, as is the case with animals that have a shaggy mane, such as the lion. Others again are especially hairy on the upper surface of the neck from the head, as far as the withers, namely, such as have a crested mane, as is the case with the horse, the mule, and among the undomesticated

Starting point is 01:43:43 horned animals, the bison. The so-called hippelipus also has a mane on its withers, and the animal called partion, in either case a thin mane extending from the head to the withers. The hippilipus has exceptionally a beard by the lyrd by the lyrus. The hippilipus has exceptionally a beard by the larynx. Both these animals have horns and are cloven-footed. The female, however, of the hippelipus has no horns. This latter animal resembles the stag in size. It is found in the territory of the arachatai, where the wild cattle also are found. Wild cattle differ from their domesticated congeners, just as the wild boar differs from the domesticated one. That is to say, they are black, strong-looking with a hook-nosed muzzle, and with horns

Starting point is 01:44:46 lying more over the back. The horns of the hippelipus, indeed, resemble those of the gazelle. The elephant, by the way, is the least hairy of all quadrupants. With animals, as a general rule, the tail, corresponds with the body as regards thickness or thinness of hair coating. That is, with animals that have long tails, for some creatures have tails of altogether insignificant size. Camels have an exceptional organ wherein they differ from all other animals, and that is the so-called hump on their back. The Bactrian camel differs from the Arabian, for the former has two humps, and the latter only one, though it has, by the way, a kind of a hump below, like the one above, on which, when it kneels, the weight of the whole body rests.

Starting point is 01:45:45 The camel has four teats like the cow, a tail like that of an ass, and the privy parts of the male are directed backwards. It has one knee in each leg, and the flexures of the limb are not manifold, as some say, although they appear to be so from the constricted shape of the region of the belly. It has a huckle bone, like that of kind, but meager and small in proportion to its bulk. It is cloven-footed, and has not got teeth in both jaws, and it is cloven-footed in the following way. At the back there is a slight cleft extending as far up as the second joint of the toes, and in front there are small hooves on the tip of the first joint of the toes,

Starting point is 01:46:35 and a sort of web passes across the cleft as in geese. The foot is fleshy underneath like that of the bear, so that when the animal goes to war, they protect its feet, when they get sore with sandals. The legs of all quadrupanes are bony, sinewy, and fleshless, and in point of fact, such is the case with all animals that are furnished with fiend, with the exception of man. They are also unfurnished with badonks,

Starting point is 01:47:08 and this last point is plain in an especial degree in birds. It is the reverse with man, for there is scarcely any part of the body in which man is so fleshy as in the barang, the thigh and the calf, for the part of the leg called gastrocnemia, or calf, is fleshy. Of blooded and viviparous quadru pads, some have the foot cloven into many parts, as is the case with the hands and feet of man. For some animals, by the way, are many toad, as the lion, the dog, and the pard.

Starting point is 01:47:48 Others have feet cloven in twain, and instead of nails, have hooves. as the sheep, the goat, the deer, and the hippopotamus. Others are uncliven of foot, such, for instance, as the solid-hooved animals, the horse and the mule. Swine are either cloven-footed or un-cliven-footed, for there are in Illyria and in Pyonia and elsewhere solid-hooved swine. The cloven-footed animals have two clefts behind. In the solid-hooved, this part is continuous and undivided. Furthermore, of animals, some are horned and some are not so. The great majority of the horned animals are cloven-footed, as the ox, the stag, the goat,

Starting point is 01:48:43 and a solid-hoved animal with a pair of horns has never yet been met with. But a few animals are known to be single-horned and single-hooved. as the Indian ass, and one to which the oryx is single-horned and cloven-hooved. Of all solid-hooved animals, the Indian ass alone has an astragalus or huckle bone, for the pig, as was said above, is either solid-hooved or cloven-footed, and consequently has no well-formed huckle bone. Of the cloven-footed, many are provided with a huckle bone. Of the many-fingered or many-toed,

Starting point is 01:49:29 no single one has been observed to have a hucklebone. None of the others any more than man. The lynx, however, has something like a hemispherical, and the lion something resembling the sculptor's labyrinth. All the animals that have a huckle bone have it in the hinder legs. They have also the bone placed straight up in the joint, the upper part outside, the lower part inside, the lower part inside, the sides called koa turned towards one another, the sides called Kia, outside, and the kairae, or horns on the top. This, then, is the position of the hucklebone, in the case of all animals provided with the part. Some animals are at one and at the same time furnished, with a mane, and furnished also with a pair of horns,

Starting point is 01:50:30 bent in towards one another, as is the bison, or orox, which is found in Pionia and Midika. But all animals that are horned are quadrupedal, except in cases where a creature is said metaphorically, or by a figure of speech, to have horns. Just as the Egyptians describe the serpents found in the neighborhood of themes. Wow, in point of fact, the creatures have merely protuberances on the head sufficiently large to suggest such an epithet. Of horned animals, the deer alone has a horn, or antler, hard and solid throughout. The horns of other animals are hollow, for a certain distance and solid towards the extremity. The hollow part is derived from the skin, but the core round which this is wrapped,

Starting point is 01:51:30 the hard part is derived from the bones, as is the case with the horns of oxen. The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns, and it does so annually after reaching the age of two years, and again renews them. All other animals retain their horns permanently, unless the horns be damaged by accident. Again, with regard to the breasts in the generative organs, animals differ widely from one another and from man. For instance, the breasts of some animals are situated in front, either in the chest or near to it, and there are in such cases two breasts and two teeth, as is the case with man and the elephant, as previously stated. For the elephant has two breasts in the region of the axi,

Starting point is 01:52:28 and the female elephant has two breasts, insignificant in size, and in no one. way proportionate to the bulk of the entire frame, in fact, so insignificant as to be invisible in a sideways view. The males also have breasts, like the females, exceedingly small. The sheep bear has four breasts. Some animals have two breasts, but situated near the thighs, and teats likewise to a number, as the sheep. Others have four teats as the cow. Some have breasts neither in the chest nor at the thighs, but in the belly, as the dog and pig, and they have a considerable number of breasts or dugs, but not all of equal size. Thus the sheep hard has four dugs in the belly, the lioness, too, and others more.

Starting point is 01:53:29 The she-c camel also has two dugs and four-teens, like the cow. Of solid-hooved animals, the males have no dogs, excepting in the case of males that take after the mother, which phenomenon is observable in horses. Of male animals, the genitals of some are external, as is the case with man, the horse, and most other creatures. Some are internal, as with the dolphin. With those that have the organ externally placed,

Starting point is 01:54:02 the organ in some cases is situated in front, as in the cases already mentioned. And of these, some have the organ detached, both penis and testicles as man. Others have penis and testicles closely attached to the belly. Some more closely, some less, for this organ is not detached in the wild boar, nor in the horse. The penis of the elephant resembles that of the horse. Compared with the size of the animal, it is disproportionately small. The testicles are not visible, but are concealed inside in the vicinity of the kidneys, and for this reason the male speedily gives over in the act of intercourse.

Starting point is 01:54:50 The genitals of the female are situated where the udder is in sheep. When she is in heat, she draws the organ back and exposes it externally, to facilitate the act of intercourse for the male, and the organ opens out to a considerable extent. With most animals, the genitals have the position above assigned, but some animals discharge their urine backwards, as the lynx, the lion, the camel, and the hair. Male animals differ from one another, as has been said in this particular, but all female animals are retrimingent, even the female elephant, like other animals, though she has the privy part below the thighs. In the male organ itself, there is a great diversity, for in some

Starting point is 01:55:44 cases the organ is composed of flesh and grizzle, as in man. In such cases, the fleshy part does not become inflated, but the grizzly part is subject to enlargement. In other cases, the is composed of fibrous tissue, as with the camel and the deer. In other cases it is bony, as with the fox, the wolf, the martin, and the weasel. For this organ in the weasel has a bone. When man has arrived at maturity, his upper part is smaller than the lower one. But with all other blooded animals, the reverse holds good. By the upper part, we mean all extending from the head down to the parts used for excretion of residuum, and by the lower part all else. With animals that have feet, the hind legs are to be rated as the lower part in our comparison

Starting point is 01:56:43 of magnitudes, and with animals devoid of feet, the tail, and the length. When animals arrive at maturity, their properties are as above stated, but they differ greatly from one another in their growth towards maturity. For instance, man, when young, has his upper part larger than the lower. But in course of growth, he comes to reverse this condition. And it is owing to this circumstance that, an exceptional instance, by the way, he does not progress in early life as he does at maturity. But in infancy, creeps on all fours. But some animals in growth retain the relative proportion of the parts, as the dog. Some animals at first have the upper part smaller and the lower part larger,

Starting point is 01:57:37 and in course of growth the upper part gets to be the larger, as is the case with the bushy-tailed animals such as the horse. For in their case, there is never subsequently to birth any increase in the part extending from the hoof to the haunch. Again, in respect to the teeth, animals differ greatly, both from one another and from man. All animals that are quadrupedal, blooded and viviparous, are furnished with teeth. But to begin with, some are double-toothed, or fully furnished with teeth in both jaws, and some are not. For instance, horned quadrupeds are not double-toothed, for they have not got the front teeth in the upper jaw, and some hornless animals also are not double-toothed, as the camel.

Starting point is 01:58:30 Some animals have tusks, like the boar, and some have not. Further, some animals are saw-taste, such as the lion, the pard, and the dog, and some have teeth that do not interlock, but have flat opposing crowns, as the horse and the ox, And by saw-toothed, we mean such animals as interlock the sharp-pointed teeth in one jaw between the sharp-pointed ones in the other. No animal is there that possesses both tusks and horns. Nor yet do either of these structures exist in any animal possessed of saw-teeth. The front teeth are usually sharp, and the back ones blunt.

Starting point is 01:59:19 The seal is saw-toothed throughout, inasmuch as he is a sort of link with the class of fishes, for fishes are almost all saw-toothed. No animal of these genera is provided with double rows of teeth. There is, however, an animal of the sort, if we are, to believe tease us. He assures us that the Indian wild beast, called the Martikoras, has a triple row of teeth in both upper and lower jaw. That it is as big as a lion and equally hairy, and that its feet resemble those of the lion, that it resembles man in its face and ears, that its eyes are blue and its color

Starting point is 02:00:11 Vermillion, that its tail is like that of the land scorpion, that it has a sting in the tail, and has the faculty of shooting off arrow-wise the spines that are attached to the tail, that the sound of its voice is something between the sound of a panpipe and that of a trumpet, that it can run as swiftly as a deer, and that it is savage and a man-eater. Man sheds his teeth, and so do other animals, as the horse, the mule, and the ass, and man sheds his front teeth, but there is no instance of an animal that sheds its molars. The pig sheds none of its teeth at all. End of Chapter 1

Starting point is 02:01:02 Book 2, Chapters 2 to 11 of History of Animals by Heron. Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Liebervox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 2 With regard to dogs, some doubts are entertained, as some contend that they shed no teeth whatever, and others that they shed the canines, but those alone. The fact being that they do shed their teeth. like man, but that the circumstance escapes observation, owing to the fact that they never

Starting point is 02:01:53 shed them until equivalent teeth have grown within the gums to take the place of the shed ones. We shall be justified in supposing that the case is similar with wild beasts in general, for they are said to shed their canines only. dogs can be distinguished from one another, the young from the old by their teeth, for the teeth in young dogs are white and sharp pointed, in old dogs black and blunt. Chapter 3. In this particular, the horse differs entirely from animals in general. For generally speaking, as animals grow older, their teeth get blacker, but the horse's teeth grow whiter with age. The so-called canines come in between the sharp teeth and the broad or

Starting point is 02:02:50 blunt ones, partaking of the form of both kinds, for they are broad at the base and sharp at the tip. Males have more teeth than females in the case of men, sheep, goats, and swine. In the case of other animals, observations have not yet been made, but the more teeth they have, the more long-lived are they, as a rule, while those are short-lived in proportion that have teeth fewer in number and thinly set. Chapter 4 The last teeth to come in man are molars called Wisdom Teeth, which come at the age of of 20 years. In the case of both sexes, cases have been known in women upwards of 80 years old,

Starting point is 02:03:49 where at the very close of life, the wisdom teeth have come up, causing great pain in their coming, and cases have been known of the like phenomenon in men, too. This happens when it does happen in the case of people where the wisdom teeth have not come up in early years. Chapter 5 The elephant has four teeth on either side, by which it munches its food, grinding it like so much barley meal, and quite apart from these, it has its great teeth or tusks, two in number. In the meal, these tusks are comparatively large and curved. upwards. In the female, they are comparatively small and point in the opposite direction. That is,

Starting point is 02:04:42 they look downwards towards the ground. The elephant is furnished with teeth at birth, but the tusks are not then visible. Chapter 6. The tongue of the elephant is exceedingly small and situated far back in the mouth, so that it is difficult to get a sight of it. Chapter 7. Furthermore, animals differ from one another in the relative size of their mouths. In some animals, the mouth opens wide, as is the case with the dog, the lion, and with all the saw-toothed animals. Other animals have small mouths, as man, and others have mouths of medium capacity, as the pig and his congeners. The Egyptian hippopotamus has a mean like a horse, is cloven-footed like an ox, and is snub-nosed.

Starting point is 02:05:46 It has a huckle-bone like cloven-footed animals and tusks, just visible. It has the tail of a pig, the knee of a horse, and the dimensions of an ass. The hide is so thick that spears are made out of it. In its internal organs it resembles the horse and the ass. Chapter 8 Some animals share the properties of man and the quadrupeds as the ape, the monkey, and the baboon. The monkey is a taild ape. The baboon resembles the ape in form, only that it is bigger and stronger, more like a dog in face and is

Starting point is 02:06:33 more savage in its habits, and its teeth are more dog-like and more powerful. Apes are hairy on the back in keeping with their quadrupedal nature, and hairy on the belly in keeping with their human form. For, as was said above, this characteristic is reversed in man and the quadruped, only that the hair is coarse, so that the ape is thickly coated both on the belly, and the bird, and belly and on the back. Its face resembles that of man in many respects. In other words, it has similar nostrils and ears, and teeth like those of man, both front teeth and molars. Further, whereas quadrupeds in general are not furnished with lashes on one of the two eyelids,

Starting point is 02:07:26 this creature has them on both, only very thinly set, especially the underwerect. The underwerexious, ones. In fact, they are very insignificant indeed. And we must bear in mind that all other quadrupants have no under-eye-lash at all. The ape has also in its chest two teats upon poorly developed breasts. It has also arms like man only covered with hair, and it bends these legs like man with the convexities of both limbs facing one another. In addition, it has hands and fingers and nails like man, only that all these parts are somewhat more beast-like in appearance. Its feet are exceptional in kind,

Starting point is 02:08:15 that is, they are like large hands, and the toes are like fingers, with the middle one the longest of all. And the under part of the foot is like a hand, except for its length, and stretches out towards the extremities like the palm of the hand. And this palm, at the after end, is unusually hard, and, in a clumsy, obscure kind of way, resembles a heel.

Starting point is 02:08:44 The creature uses its feet either as hands or feet, and doubles them up, as one doubles a fist. Its upper arm and thigh are short in proportion to the forearm and the shin. It has no projecting naval, but only a hardness in the ordinary locality of the navel. Its upper part is much larger than its lower part, as is the case with quadrupants. In fact, the proportion of the former to the latter is about as five to three. Owing to this circumstance and to the fact that its feet resemble hands, and are composed in a manner of hand and of foot, of foot in their foot in their,

Starting point is 02:09:27 heel extremity of the hand in all else, for even the toes have what is called a palm. For these reasons, the animal is oftener to be found on all fours than upright. It has neither hips inasmuch as it is a quadrupad, nor yet a tail, inasmuch as it is a biped, except by the way that it has a tail as small as small can be, just a sort of, indication of a tail. The genitals of the female resemble those of the female in the human species. Those of the male are more like those of a dog than are those of a man. Chapter 9 The monkey, as has been observed, is furnished with a tail. In all such creatures, the internal

Starting point is 02:10:21 organs are found under dissection to correspond to those of man. So much then for the properties of the organs of such animals as bring forth their young into the world alive. Chapter 10 Oviparous and blooded quadrupeds. And, by the way, no terrestrial blooded animal is oviparous, unless it is quadrupedal or is devoid of feet altogether. are furnished with a head, a neck, a back, upper and under parts, the front legs and hind legs, and the part analogous to the chest, all as in the case of viviparous quadrupeds, and with a tail, usually large, in exceptional cases small.

Starting point is 02:11:20 And all these creatures are many-toed, and the several toes are cloven apart. Furthermore, they all have the ordinary organs of sensation, including a tongue, with the exception of the Egyptian crocodile. This latter animal, by the way, resembles certain fishes, for, as a general rule, fishes have a prickly tongue, not free in its movements, though there are some fishes that present a smooth, undifferentiated surface where the tongue should be, until you open their mouths wide and make a close inspection.

Starting point is 02:12:07 Again, oviparous blooded quadrupeds are unprovided with ears, but possess only the passage for hearing. Neither have they breasts, nor a copulatory organ, nor external testicles, but internal ones only. Neither are they hair-coated, but are in all cases covered with scaly plates. Moreover, they are without exception saw-toothed. River crocodiles have pig's eyes, large teeth, and tusks, and strong nails. and an impenetrable skin composed of scaly plates. They see but poorly underwater,

Starting point is 02:12:56 but above the surface of it with remarkable acuteness. As a rule, they pass the daytime on land, and the nighttime in the water, for the temperature of the water is at nighttime, more genial than that of the open air. Chapter 11. The chameleon resembles the lizard in the general configuration of its body, but the ribs stretch downwards and meet together under the belly, as is the case with fishes, and the spine sticks up, as with the fish. Its face resembles that of the baboon. Its tail is exceedingly long, terminates in a sharp point, and is, for the most part,

Starting point is 02:13:46 coiled up like a strap of leather. It stands higher off the ground than the lizard, but the flexure of the legs is the same in both creatures. Each of its feet is divided into two parts, which bear the same relation to one another that the thumb and the rest of the hand bear to one another in man. Each of these parts is, for a short distance, divided after a fashion into toes. On the front feet, the inside part is divided into three, and the outside into two. On the hind feet, the inside part into two, and the outside into three. It has claws also on these parts resembling those of birds of prey. Its body is rough all over, like that of the crocodile. Its eyes are situated in a hollow recess and are very large and round, and are enveloped in a skin resembling

Starting point is 02:14:51 that which covers the entire body. And in the middle, a slight aperture is left for vision, through which the animal sees, for it never covers up this aperture with the cutaneous envelope. It keeps twisting its eyes round and shifting its line of vision in every direction, and thus contrives to get a sight of any object that it wants to see. The change in its color takes place when it is inflated with air. It is then black, not unlike the crocodile, or green like the lizard, but black-spotted like the pard. This change of color takes place over the whole body alike,

Starting point is 02:15:37 for the eyes and the tail come alike under its indesion. influence. In its movements, it is very sluggish, like the tortoise. It assumes a greenish hue in dying, and retains this hue after death. It resembles the lizard in the position of the esophagus and the windpipe. It has no flesh anywhere except a few scraps of flesh on the head and on the jaws, and near to the root of the tail. It has blood only round about the heart, the eyes, the region above the heart, and in all the veins extending from these parts, and in all these there is but little blood after all.

Starting point is 02:16:27 The brain is situated a little above the eyes, but connected with them. When the outer skin is drawn aside from off the eye, a something is found surrounding the eye that gleams through like a thin ring of copper. Membranes extend well-nigh over its entire frame, numerous and strong, and surpassing, in respect of number and relative strength, those found in any other animal. After being cut open along its entire, length, it continues to breathe for a considerable time. A very slight motion goes on in the region of the heart. And, while contraction is especially manifested in the neighborhood of the ribs, a similar motion is more or less discernible over the whole body. It has no spleen visible.

Starting point is 02:17:27 It hibernates, like the lizard. And of Chapter 11. Book 2, Chapters 12 to 15 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libra Vox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 12 Birds also, in some parts, resemble the above-mentioned animals. That is to say, they have in all cases ahead, annex. a back, a belly, and what is analogous to the chest. The bird is remarkable among animals as having two feet like man, only, by the way, it bends

Starting point is 02:18:24 them backwards as quadrupeds bend their hind legs, as was noticed previously. It has neither hands nor front feet, but wings, an exceptional structure as compared with other animals. Its haunch bone is long like a thigh, and is attached to the body as far as the middle of the belly. So like to a thigh is it that when viewed separately, it looks like a real one, while the real thigh is a separate structure betwixt it and the shin. Of all burns, those that have crooked talons have the biggest thighs and the strongest breasts. All birds are furnished with many claws, and all have the toes separated more or less asunder, that is to say, in the greater part the toes are clearly distinct from one another.

Starting point is 02:19:22 For even the swimming burns, although they are web-footed, have still their claws fully articulated and distinctly differentiated from one another. Birds that fly high in the air are in all cases four-toed, that is, the greater part have three toes in front and one behind in place of a heel. Some few have two in front and two behind as the Rye Neck. This latter bird is somewhat bigger than the chaffinch and is modeled in appearance. It is peculiar in the arrangement of its toes, and resembles the snake in the structure of its tongue, for the creature can protrude its tongue to the extent of four-finger breaths, and then draw it back again.

Starting point is 02:20:16 Moreover, it can twist its head backwards, while keeping all the rest of its body still, like the serpent. It has big claws, somewhat resembling those of the woodpecker. its note is a shrill chirp. Birds are furnished with a mouth, but with an exceptional one, for they have neither lips nor teeth, but a beak. Neither have they ears nor a nose,

Starting point is 02:20:44 but only passages for the sensations connected with these organs, that for the nostrils in the being, and that for hearing in the hand. Like all other animals, they all have two eyes, and these are devoid of lashes. The heavy-bodied, or galenaceous birds,

Starting point is 02:21:06 close the eye by means of the lower lid, and all birds blink by means of a skin extending over the eye from the inner corner. The owl and its congeners also close the eye by means of the upper lid. The same phenomenon is observable in the animals that are protected by horny scutes, as in the lizard and its congeners. For they all, without exception, close the eye with the lower lid, but they do not blink like birds.

Starting point is 02:21:42 Further, birds have neither scutes nor hair, but feathers, and the feathers are invariably furnished with quills. They have no tail but a rump with tail feathers, short in such as are long-legged and web-footed, large in others. These latter kinds of birds fly, with their feet tucked up close to the belly, but the small-rumped or short-tailed birds fly with their legs stretched out at full length. All are furnished with a tongue, but the organ is variable, being long in some birds and broad in others. Certain species of birds, above all other animals, and next after man possess the faculty

Starting point is 02:22:32 of uttering articulate sounds, and this faculty is chiefly developed in broad-tongued birds. No oviparous creature has an epiglottis over the windpipe, but these animals so manage the opening and shutting of the windpipe as not to allow any solid substance to get down into the lung. Some species of birds are furnished additionally with spurs, but no bird with crooked talons is found so provided. The birds with talons are among those that fly well, but those that have spurs are among the heavy-bodied. Again, some birds have a crest. As a general rule, the crest sticks up and is composed of feathers only. But the crests, but the crests of the barn door cock is exceptional in kind, for whereas it is not just exactly flesh, at the same

Starting point is 02:23:32 time it is not easy to see what else it is. Chapter 13 Of water animals the genus of fishes constitutes a single group apart from the rest, and including many divers forms. In the first place, the fish has a head, a back, a back, a single group apart from the rest, and including, belly, in the neighborhood of which last are placed the stomach and viscera, and behind it has a tail of continuous, undivided shape, but not, by the way, in all cases alike. No fish has a neck, or any limb or testicles at all within or without, or breasts.

Starting point is 02:24:18 But, by the way, this absence of breasts may be predicated of all non-vivipar animals, and in point of fact, viviparous animals are not in all cases provided with the organ, accepting such as are directly viviparous without being first oviparous. Thus, the dolphin is directly viviparous, and accordingly we find it furnished with two breasts, not situated high up, but in the neighborhood of the genitals. And this creature is not provided like quadrupants with visible teeth. but has two vents, one on each flank, from which the milk flows, and its young have to follow after it to get suckled,

Starting point is 02:25:04 and this phenomenon has been actually witnessed. Fishes, then, as has been observed, have no breasts and no passage for the genitals visible externally, but they have an exceptional organ in the gills, whereby, after taking the water in by the mouth, they discharge it again, and in the fins of which the greater part have four, and the lanky ones, too, as, for instance, the eel, and these two situated near to the gills. In like manner the gray mullet, as for instance the mullet found in the lake at Sipai have only

Starting point is 02:25:46 two fins, and the same is the case with the fish called ribbon fish. Some of the lanky fishes have no fins at all, such as the muraina, nor gills articulated, like those of other fish. And of those fish that are provided with gills, some have coverings for this organ, whereas all the Silicians have the organ unprotected by a cover. And those fishes that have coverings or opercula for the gills have an all-case-es have an all-case-es. their gills placed sideways, whereas among Selakians the broad ones have the gills down below on the belly, as the torpedo and the ray, while the lanky ones have the organ placed sideways, as is the case in all the dogfish. The fishing frog has gills placed sideways, and covered not with a spiny operculum, as in all but the Selagian fishes, but with one of skin.

Starting point is 02:26:51 Moreover, with fishes furnished with gills, the gills in some cases are simple, in others duplicate, and the last gill in the direction of the body is always simple. And again, some fishes have few gills and others have a great number, but all alike have the same number on both sides. Those that have the least number have one gill on either side, and this one duplicate, like the boarfish. Others have two on either side, one simple and the other duplicate, like the Conger and the Scarus.

Starting point is 02:27:33 Others have four on either side, simple, as the Ellops, the Senagris, the Marina, and the eel. Others have four, all with the exception of the hindmost one, double rows, as the rass, the perch, the sheetfish, and the carp. The dogfish have all their gills double, five on a side, and the swordfish has eight double gills, so much for the number of gills as found in fishes. Again, fishes differ from other animals in more ways than as regards the gills, for they are not covered with hairs, as are viviparous land animals, nor, as is the case with certain oviparous quadrupanes with tessellated scouts, nor like birds with feathers, but for the most part

Starting point is 02:28:32 they are covered with scales. Some few are rough-skinned, while the smooth-skinned are very few indeed. Of the Salachia, some are rough-skinned and some smooth-skinned, and among the smooth-skinned fishes are included the conger, the eel, and the tunny. All fishes are saw-toothed excepting the scarus, and the teeth in all cases are sharp and set in many rows, and in some cases are placed on the tongue. The tongue is hard and spiny, and so very feroose, and so very few, firmly attached that fishes in many instances seem to be devoid of the organ altogether. The mouth, in some cases, is wide-stretched, as it is with some viviparous quadrupanes. With regard to organs of sense, all save eyes, fishes possess none of them, neither the organs

Starting point is 02:29:32 nor their passages, neither ears nor nostrils, but all fishes are furnished with eyes, and the eyes devoid of lens, though the eyes are not hard. With regard to the organs connected with the other senses, hearing and smell, they are devoid, alike of the organs themselves, and of passages indicative of them. Fishes, without exception, are supplied with blood. Some of them are oviparous, and some viviparous. Scaly fish are invariably oviparous. but cartilaginous fishes are all viviparous, with the single exception of the fishing frog.

Starting point is 02:30:19 Chapter 14 Of blooded animals, there now remains the serpent genus. This genus is common to both elements, for, while most species comprehended therein are land animals, a small minority to which the aquatic species pass their lives in fresh water. There are also sea serpents in shape to a great extent resembling their congeners of the land, with this exception that the head, in their case, is somewhat like the head of the conger, and there are several kinds of sea serpent, and the different kinds differ in color. These animals are not found in very deep water.

Starting point is 02:31:04 water. Serpents, like fish, are devoid of feet. There are also sea scolopindras, resembling in shape their land congeners, but somewhat less in regard to magnitude. These creatures are found in the neighborhood of rocks. As compared with their land congeners, they are redder in color, are furnished with feet in greater numbers, and with legs of more delicate structure, and the same remark applies to them as to the sea serpents, that they are not found in very deep water. Of fishes whose habitat is in the vicinity of rocks, there is a tiny one which some call the echinace,

Starting point is 02:31:51 or shipholder, and which is by some people used as a charm to bring luck in affairs of law and love. The creature is unfit for eating. Some people assert that it has feet, But this is not the case. It appears, however, to be furnished with feet from the fact that its fins resemble those organs. So much, then, for the external parts of blooded animals, as regards their numbers, their properties, and their relative diversities.

Starting point is 02:32:23 Chapter 15 As for the properties of the internal organs, these we must first discuss in the case of the animals that are supplied with blood. For the principal genera differ from the rest of animals in that the former are supplied with blood, and the latter are not. And the former include man, viviparous and oviparous quadrupanes, burns, fishes, cetaceans, and all the others that come under no general designation

Starting point is 02:32:56 by reason of their not forming genera. But groups of which, simply the specific name, is predictable, as when we say the serpent, the crocodile. All viviparous quadrupeds then are furnished with an esophagus and a windpipe, situated as in man. The same statement is applicable to oviparous quadrupanes and to birds, only that the latter present diversities in the shapes of these organs. As a general rule, all animals that take up air and breathe it in and don't, are furnished with a lung, a windpipe, and an esophagus.

Starting point is 02:33:39 With the windpipe and esophagus, not admitting of diversity in situation, but admitting of diversity in properties, and with the lung, admitting of diversity in both these respects. Further, all blooded animals have a heart and a diaphragm or midriff, but in small animals, the existence of the latter organ is not so obvious, owing to a blooded animal. its delicacy and minute size. In regard to the heart, there is an exceptional phenomenon observable inoxin. In other words, there is one species of ox where, though not in all cases, a bone is found inside the heart.

Starting point is 02:34:21 And, by the way, the horse's heart also has a bone inside it. The genera referred to above are not in all cases furnished with a lung. For instance, the fish is devoid of the organ, as is also every animal furnished with gills. All blooded animals are furnished with a liver. As a general rule, blooded animals are furnished with a spleen, but with the great majority of non-vivorous but oviparous animals, the spleen is so small as all but to escape observation. And this is the case with almost all burns, as with the pigeon,

Starting point is 02:35:01 the kite, the falcon, the owl. In point of fact, the agachephalus is devoid of the organ altogether. With oviparous quadrupeds, the case is much the same as with the viviparous. That is to say, they also have the spleen exceedingly minute as the tortoise, the freshwater tortoise, the toad, the lizard, the crocodile, and the frog. Some animals have a gall-bladder close to the liver, and others have not. Of viviparous quadrupeds, the deer is without the organ, as also the roe, the horse, the mule, the ass, the seal, and some kinds of pigs.

Starting point is 02:35:48 Of deer, those that are called a kainai appear to have gall in their tail. But what is so-called does resemble gall in color, though it is not so completely fluid, and the organ internally resembles a spleen. However, without any exception, stangs are found to have magents living inside the hand, and the habitat of these creatures is in the hollow underneath the root of the tongue,

Starting point is 02:36:19 and in the neighborhood of the vertebra, to which the head is attached. These creatures are as large as the largest grubs. They grow, altogether in a cluster, and they aren't usually about 20 in number. The year then, as has been observed, are without a gallbladder. Their gut, however, is so bitter that even hounds refuse to eat it unless the animal is exceptionally fat. With the elephant also, the liver, is unfurnished with a gallbladder. But when the animal is cut in the region

Starting point is 02:36:56 where the organ is found in animals furnished with it, there oozes out a fluid resembling gall in greater or less quantities. Of animals that take in sea-wanner and are furnished with a lung, the dolphin is unprovided with a gall-blanner. Birds and fishes all have the organ, as also a viperous quadrupants, all to a greater or a lesser extent. But of fishes, some have the organ close to the liver as the dog fishes, the sheetfish, the rhine or angel fish, the smooth skate, the torpedo, and of the lanky fishes, the eel, the pipefish, and the hammer-headed shark. The callumus also has the gallbladder close to the liver, and in no other fish does the organ attain so great a relative size. Other fishes have the organ. Other fishes have the

Starting point is 02:37:55 organ close to the gut, attached to the liver by certain extremely fine ducks. The Benito has the gallbladder stretched alongside the gut, and equalling it in length, and often a double fold of it. Others have the organ in the region of the gut, in some cases far off, in others near, as the fishing frog, the elops, the Senagris, the Marina, and the swordfish. Other animals of the same species show this diversity of position, as, for instance,

Starting point is 02:38:32 some congers are found with the organ attached close to the liver, and others with it detached from and below it. The case is much the same with birds, that is, some have the gall-bladder close to the stomach,

Starting point is 02:38:47 and others close to the gut, as the pigeon, the raven, the quail, and the sparrow. Some have it near at once to the liver and to the stomach, as the Igocephalus. Others have it near at once to the liver and the gut, as the falcon and the kite. And of chapter 15. Book 2, chapters 16 and 17 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 02:39:30 This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 16 Again, all viviparous quadrupants are furnished with kidneys and a bladder. Of the ovipera, that are not quadrupedal, there is no instance known of an animal, whether fish or bird, provided with these organs. Of the ovipera that are quadrupedal, the turtle alone is provided with these organs, of a magnitude to correspond with the other organs of the animal.

Starting point is 02:40:08 In the turtle, the kidney resembles the same organ in the ox, that is to say, it looks like one single organ composed of a number of small ones. The bison also resembles the ox in all its internal, parts. Chapter 17. With all animals that are furnished with these parts, the parts are similarly situated, and, with the exception of man, the heart is in the middle. In man, however, as has been observed, the heart is placed a little to the left-hand side. In all animals, the pointed end of the heart turns frontwards, only in fish it would, at first sight seem otherwise, for the pointed end is turned not towards the breast, but towards

Starting point is 02:41:03 the head and the mouth. And in fish, the apex is attached to a tube, just where the right and left gills meet together. There are other ducks extending from the heart to each of the gills, greater in the greater fish, lesser in the lesser, but in the large fishes the ducked at the pointed end of the heart is a tomb, white-colored and exceedingly thick. Fishes, in some few cases, have an esophagus, as the conger and the eel, and in these the organ is small. In fishes that are furnished with an undivided liver, the organ lies entirely on the right side, where the liver is cloven from the root. The larger half of the organ, is on the right side, for in some fishes, the two parts are detached from one another

Starting point is 02:42:01 without any coalescence at the route, as is the case with the dogfish. And there is also a species of hare in what is named the fig district near Lake Abolpe, and elsewhere, which animal might be taken to have two livers owing to the length of the connecting ducks, similar to the structure in the lung of birds. The spleen, in all cases, when normally placed ears on the left-hand side, and the kidneys also lie in the same position in all creatures that possess them. There have been known instances of quadrupeds under dissection where the spleen was on the right hand and the liver on the left, but all such cases are regarded as supernatural.

Starting point is 02:42:54 In all animals the windpipe extends to the lung, and the manner how we shall discuss hereafter, and the esophagus, in all that have the organ, extends through the midriff into the stomach. For, by the way, as has been observed, most fishes have no esophagus, but the stomach is united directly with the mouth, so that in some cases, when big fish are pursuing little ones, the stomach tumbles forward into the mouth. All the aforementioned animals have a stomach, and one similarly situated, that is to say, situated directly under the midriff, and they have a gut connected therewith, and closing at the outlet of the residualum,

Starting point is 02:43:44 and at what is termed the rectum. However, animals present diversities in the structure of their stomachs. In the first place of the viviparous quadrupants, such of the horned animals as are not equally furnished with teeth in both jaws are furnished with four such chambers. These animals, by the way, are those that are said to chew the cud. In these animals, the esophagus extends from the mouth downwards along the lung, from the midrift to the big stomach or paunch, and the stomach is rough inside and semi-partitioned. And connected with it, near to the entry of the esophagus, is what from its appearance is termed the reticulum, or honeycomb bag. For outside, it is like the stomach, but inside it resembles a netted cap,

Starting point is 02:44:43 and the reticulum is a great deal smaller than the stomach. Connected with this is the echinus, or many plies, rough, inside, and laminated, and of about the same size as the reticulum. Next after this comes what is called the Enistram, or Abamesum, larger and longer than the echinus, furnished inside, with numerous folds or ridges, large and size. smooth. After all this comes the gut. Such is the stomach of those quadrupanes that are horned, and have an unsymmetrical dentition, and these animals differ one from another in the shape and size of the parts, and in the fact of the esophagus reaching the stomach central-wise, in some cases, and sideways in others. Animals that are furnished equally with teeth in both jaws have one stomach,

Starting point is 02:45:48 as man, the pig, the dog, the bear, the lion, the wolf. The thos, by the by, has all its internal organs similar to the wolves. All these then have a single stomach, and after that the gut. But the stomach in some is comparatively large, as in the pig and bear, and the stomach of the pig has a few smooth folds or ridges. Others have a much smaller stomach, not much bigger than the gut, as the lion, the dog, and man. In the other animals, the shape of the stomach varies in the direction of one or other of those already mentioned. That is, the stomach in some animals resembles that of the pig.

Starting point is 02:46:42 In others, that of the dog, alike with the larger animals. and the smaller ones. In all these animals, diversities occur in regard to the size, the shape, the thickness or the thinness of the stomach, and also in regard to the place where the esophagus opens into it. There is also a difference in structure in the gut of the two groups of animals above-mentioned, those with unsymmetrical and those with symmetrical dentition in size, in the in thickness and in foldings.

Starting point is 02:47:18 The intestines in those animals whose jaws are unequally furnished with teeth are in all cases the larger, for the animals themselves are larger than those in the other category, for very few of them are small, and no single one of the horned animals is very small. And some possess appendages, or sika, to the gut. But no animal that has not inside. visors in both jaws has a straight gut. The elephant has a gut constricted into chambers, so constructed that the animal appears to have four stomachs.

Starting point is 02:47:59 In it the food is found, but there is no distinct and separate receptacle. Its viscera resemble those of the pig, only that the liver is four times the size of that of the ox, and the other viscera, in like proportion, while the splicellable. spleen is comparatively small. Much the same may be predicated of the properties of the stomach and the gut in oviparous quadrupanes, as in the land tortoise, the turtle, the lizard, both crocodiles and in fact in all animals of the like kind. That is to say, their stomach is one and simple, resembling in some cases that of the pig, and in other cases that of the dog. The serpent genus is similar and in almost all respects furnished similarly to the Sorians among

Starting point is 02:48:52 ophiparous land animals, if one could only imagine these Sorians to be increased in length and to be devoid of legs. That is to say, the serpent is coated with tessellated scouts and resembles the Sorian in its back and belly, only by the way it has no testicles, but like fishes, has two ducks converging into one, and an ovary, long and bifurcate. The rest of its internal organs are identical with those of the Sorians, except that, owing to the narrowness and length of the animal, the viscera are correspondingly narrow and elongated, so that they are apt to escape recognition from the similarities in shape. Thus, the windpipe of the creature is exceptionally long, and the esophagus is longer still.

Starting point is 02:49:48 And the windpipe commences so close to the mouth that the tongue appears to be underneath it. And the windpipe seems to project over the tongue, owing to the fact that the tongue draws back into a sheath and does not remain in its place as in other animals. The tongue, moreover, is thin and long and black, and can be very much. protruded to a great distance. And both serpents and sorians have this altogether exceptional property in the tongue, that it is forked at the outer extremity,

Starting point is 02:50:23 and this property is the more marked in the serpent, for the tips of his tongue are as thin as hairs. The seal also, by the way, has a split tongue. The stomach of the serpent is like a more spacious gut, resembling the stomach of the dog. Then comes the gut, long, narrow, and single to the end. The heart is situated close to the pharynx, small and kidney-shaped, and for this reason the organ might in some cases appear not to have the pointed end

Starting point is 02:51:00 turned towards the breast. Then comes the lung, single and articulated with a membranous passage, very long and quite detached from the heart. The liver is long and simple. The spleen is short and round, as is the case in both respects with the Sorians. Its gall resembles that of the fish. The water snakes have it beside the liver,

Starting point is 02:51:27 and the other snakes have it usually beside the gut. These creatures are all saw-toothed. Their ribs are as numerous as the days of the month, month. In other words, they are 30 in number. Some affirm that the same phenomenon is observable with serpents as with swallow chinks. In other words, they say that if you prick out a serpent's eyes, they will grow again. And further, the tails of sorians and of serpents, if they be cut off, will grow again. With fishes, the properties of the gut and stomach are similar. That is, they have a stomach, single and simple, but variable in shape according to species.

Starting point is 02:52:14 For in some cases the stomach is gut-shaped, as with the scaros or parrot fish, which fish, by the way, appears to be the only fish that choose the cud. And the whole length of the gut is simple, and if it have a reduplication or king, it loosens out again into a simple form. An exceptional property in fishes and in birds, for the most part, is the being furnished with gut appendages or sika. Birds have them low down and few in number. Fishes have them high up about the stomach, and sometimes numerous, as in the gobi, the Galeas, the perch, the scorpina, the chitharas, the red mullet, and the sparrus. The castreos, or gray mullet, has several of them on one side of the belly, and on the other side only one.

Starting point is 02:53:16 Some fish possess these appendages, but only in small numbers, as the hepatus and the glaucus. And, by the way, they are few also in the Dorado. These fishes differ also from one another within the same species, for in the Dorado, one individual has many and another few. Some fishes are entirely without the part, as the majority of the Selakians. As for all the rest, some of them have a few, and some a great many. And in all cases where the gut appendages are found in fish, they are found close up to the stomach.

Starting point is 02:53:58 In regard to their internal parts, birds differ from other animals and from one another. Some birds, for instance, have a crop in front of the stomach, as the barn-door cock, the cushat, the pigeon, and the part-trench, and the crop consists of a large hollow skin into which the food first enters, and where it lies undigested. Just where the crop leaves the esophagus, it is somewhat narrow. By and by, it broadens out, but where it communicates with the stomach, it narrows down, again. The stomach or gizzard in most birds is fleshy and hard, and inside is a strong skin, which comes away from the fleshy part. Other burns have no crop, but instead of it,

Starting point is 02:54:48 an esophagus wide and roomy, either all the way or in the part leading to the stomach, as with the daw, the raven, and the carrion crow. The quail also has the esophagus widened out at the lower extremity, and in the Iga-Kiphalus, and the owl, the organ is slightly broader at the bottom than at the top. The duck, the goose, the gall, the cataractes, and the great bustered have the esophagus wide and rumy from one end to the other, and the same applies to a great many other birds. In some birds, there is a portion of the stomach that resembles a crop, and, you know, as in the kestrel.

Starting point is 02:55:35 In the case of small burns, like the swallow and the sparrow, neither the esophagus nor the crop is wind, but the stomach is long. Some few have neither a crop nor a dilated esophagus, but the latter is exceedingly long, as in long-necked burns, such as the Porphyrio. And, by the way, in the case of all these burns, the excrement is unusually moist. The quail is exceptional in regard to these organs as compared with other birds. In other words, it has a crop, and at the same time its esophagus is wide and spacious in front of the stomach, and the crop is at some distance, relatively to its size from the esophagus

Starting point is 02:56:23 at that part. Further, in most birds the gut is thin and simple when loosened out. The gut appendages, or sika in birds, as has been observed, are few in number and are not situated high up, as in fishes, but low down towards the extremity of the gut. Birds then have sika, not all, but the greater part of them, such as the barn door cock, the partridge, the duck, the night raven, the locales, the escalifus, the goose, the swan, the Bustard and the owl. Some of the little birds also have these appendages, but the Sika, in their case, are exceedingly minute, as in the sparrow.

Starting point is 02:57:14 End of Chapter 17, and end of Book 2. Book 3, Chapter 1 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 1. Now that we have stated the magnitudes, the properties, and the relative differences of the other internal organs, it remains for us to treat of the organs that contribute to generation. These organs in the female are in all cases internal. In the male, they present numerous diversities.

Starting point is 02:58:04 In the blooded animals, some males. are altogether devoid of testicles, and some have the organ, but situated internally. And of those males that have the organ internally situated, some have it close to the loin in the neighborhood of the kidney, and others close to the belly. Other males have the organ situated externally. In the case of these last, the penis is in some cases attached to the belly, whilst in others it is loosely suspended, as is the case also with the touch. testicles, and, in the cases where the penis is attached to the belly, the attachment varies

Starting point is 02:58:43 accordingly as the animal is imposteretic or opisceretic. No fish is furnished with testicles, nor any other creature that has gills, nor any serpent whatever, nor, in short, any animal devoid of feet, save such only as are viviparous within themselves. Birds are furnished with testicles, but these are internally situated close to the loin. The case is similar with oviparous quadrupanes, such as the lizard, the tortoise, and the crocodile, and among the viviparous animals, this peculiarity is found in the hedgehog. Others among those creatures that have the organ internally situated have it close to the belly, as is the case with the dolphin amongst animals devoid of feet,

Starting point is 02:59:38 and with the elephant among viviparous quadrupanes. In other cases, these organs are externally conspicuous. We have already alluded to the diversities observed in the attachment of these organs to the belly and the adjacent region. In other words, we have stated that in some cases the testicles are tightly fastened back, as in the pig and its allies, and that in others they are freely suspended as in man. Fishes, then, are devoid of testicles, as has been stated, and serpents also. They are furnished, however, with two ducks, connected with the midriff and running on to either

Starting point is 03:00:22 side of the backbone, coalescing into a single duct above the outlet of the residuum, and by above the outlet, I mean the region near to the spine. These ducks in the writing season get filled with the genital fluid, and if the ducks be squeezed, the sperm oozes out white in color. As to the differences observed in male fishes of diverse species, the reader should consult my treatise on anatomy, and the subject will be hereafter more fully discussed when we describe the specific character in each case.

Starting point is 03:01:01 The males of oviparous animals, whether biped or quadruped, are in all cases furnished with testicles close to the loin underneath the midriff. With some animals, the organ is whitish, in others somewhat of a sallow hue. In all cases, it is entirely enveloped with minute and delicate veins. From each of the two testicles extends a duct, and, as in the case of fishes, the two ducks coalesce into one above the outlet of the residuum.

Starting point is 03:01:34 This constitutes the penis, which organ in the case of small ovipera is inconspicuous, but in the case of the larger ovipera, as in the goose and the lank, the organ becomes quite visible just after copulation. The ducks, in the case of fishes, and in biped and quadruped ofipura, are attached to the loin under the stomach and the gut, in betwixt them, and the great vein, from which ducks or blood vessels extend one to each of the two testicles. And just as with fishes, the male sperm is found in the seminal ducks, and the ducks become plainly visible at the breading season, and in some instances, because,

Starting point is 03:02:21 invisible after the season is passed. So also isn't with the testicles of birds. Before the breeding season, the organ is small in some birds, and quite invisible in others. But during the season, the organ in all cases is greatly enlarged. This phenomenon is remarkably illustrated in the ring dove and the partridge, so much so that some people are actually of opinion that these birds are devoid of the organ in the winter time. Of male animals that have their testicles placed front words, some have them inside close to the belly, as the dolphin. Some have them outside exposed to view,

Starting point is 03:03:05 close to the lower extremity of the belly. These animals resemble one another thus far in respect to this organ, but they differ from one another in this fact, that some of them have their testicles situated separately by, themselves, while others which have the organ situated externally have them enveloped in what is termed the scrotum. Again, in all viviparous animals furnished with feet, the following properties are observed in the testicles themselves. From the aorta, they extend vein-like ducks to the head of each of the testicles, and another two from the kidneys. These two from the kidneys

Starting point is 03:03:46 are supplied with blood, while the two from the aorta are devoid of it. From the head of the testicle alongside of the testicle itself is a duct, thicker and more sinewy than the other just alluded to, a duct that bends back again at the end of the testicle to its head, and from the head of each of the two testicles, the two ducks extend until they coalesce in front at the penis. The duct that bends back again and that which is in contact with the testicle are enveloped in one and the same membrane, so that until you draw aside the membrane, they present all the appearance of being a single undifferentiated duct.

Starting point is 03:04:31 Further, the duct in contact with the testicle has its moist content qualified by blood, but to a comparatively less extent, then, in the case of the duct's higher up, which are connected with the aorta, in the ducts that bend back towards the tube of the penis, the liquid is white-colored. There also runs a duct from the bladder, opening into the upper part of the canal, around which lies sheath-wise what is called the penis. All these descriptive particulars may be regarded by the light of the accompanying diagram, wherein the letter alpha marks the starting-party.

Starting point is 03:05:14 point of the ducks that extend from the aorta, the letters Kappa Kappa, mark the heads of the testicles, and the ducks descending thereunto. The ducks extending from these along the testicles are marked omega-Omega-Omega. The ducks, turning back, in which is the white fluid, are marked beta-beta. The penis, delta, the bladder, epsilon, and the testicles, Psi, Psi. By the way, when the testicles are cut off or removed, the ducks draw upwards by contraction. Moreover, when male animals are young, their owner sometimes destroys the organ in them by attrition. Sometimes they castrate them at a later period. And I may here add that a bull has been known to serve a cow immediately after castration,

Starting point is 03:06:08 and actually to impregnate her. So much then for the properties of testicles in male animals. In female animals furnished with a womb, the womb is not in all cases the same in form, or endowed with the same properties, but both in the vivipura and the ovipura, great diversities present themselves. In all creatures that have the womb close to the genitals, the womb is two-horned, and one-horned. lies to the right-hand side and the other to the left. Its commencement, however, is single, and so is the orifice, resembling, in the case of the most numerous and largest animals,

Starting point is 03:06:53 a tube composed of much flesh and grizzle. Of these parts, one is termed the Hystera, or Delphus, whence is derived the word Adelphus, and the other part, the tube orifice is termed, METRA. In all biped or quadruped vivipura, the womb is in all cases below the midriff, as in man, the dog, the pig, the horse, and the ox. The same is the case also in all horned animals. At the extremity of the so-called keratia, or horns, the wombs of most animals, have a twist or convolution. In the case of those ovipura that lay eggs externally, the wombs are not in all cases similarly situated.

Starting point is 03:07:46 Thus, the wombs of birds are close to the midriff, and to the wombs of fishes down below, just like the wombs of biped and quadruped vivipera, only that, in the case of the fish, the wombs are delicately formed, membranous and elongated, so much so that in extremely small fish, each of the two bifurcated parts, looks like a single egg, and those fishes whose egg is described as crumbling would appear to have inside them a pair of eggs, whereas in reality each of the two sides consists not of one but of many eggs, and this accounts for their breaking up into so many particles. The womb of burns has the lower and tubular portion, fleshy and firm, and the part close to the midriff, membranous and exceedingly thin and fine,

Starting point is 03:08:42 so thin and fine that the eggs might seem to be outside the womb altogether. In the larger burns, the membrane is more distinctly visible, and if inflated through the tube, lifts and swells out. In the smaller burns, all these parts are more indistinct. The properties of the womb are so much. similar in oviparous quadrupeds as the tortoise, the lizard, the frog, and the link. For the tube below is single and fleshy, and the cleft portion with the eggs is at the top, close to the midriff.

Starting point is 03:09:20 With animals devoid of feet that are internally oviparous and viviparous externally, as is the case with the dogfish and the other so-called Selikians. and by this title we designate such creatures destitute a feat and furnished with gills as are viviparous. With these animals the womb is bifurcate, and, beginning down below, it extends as far as the midriff, as in the case of burns. There is also a narrow part between the two horns running up as far as the midriff, and the angs are engendered here and above at the origin of birds. of the midriff. Afterwards, they pass into the wider space and turn from eggs into young animals. However, the differences in respect to the wombs of these fishes, as compared with others of their own species, or with fishes in general, would be more satisfactorily studied in their

Starting point is 03:10:22 various forms in specimens under dissection. The members of the serpent genus also present divergencese, either when compared with the above-mentioned creatures or with one another. Serpents, as a rule, are oviparous, the viperous being the only viviparous member of the genus. The viper is, previously, to external parturition, oviparous internally, and owing to this peculiarity, the properties of the womb in the viper are similar to those of the womb in the Selakians. The womb of the serpent is long, in keeping with the body, and starting below from a single duct, extends continuously on both sides of the spine, so as to give the impression of thus being a separate duct on each side of the spine, until it reaches the midriff, where the eggs are engendered

Starting point is 03:11:19 in a row, and these eggs are laid not one by one, but all strung together, and all animals that are viviparous, both internally and externally have the womb situated above the stomach, and all the ovipera underneath near to the loin. Animals that are viviparous externally and internally oviparous present an intermediate arrangement, for the underneath portion of the womb in which the eggs are is placed near to the loin, but the part about the orifice is above the gut. Further, there is the following diversity observable in wombs as compared with one another, namely that the females have horned non-ambidental animals are furnished with Cotolidens in the womb,

Starting point is 03:12:11 when they are pregnant, and such is the case among ambidentals, with the hair, the mouse, and the bat, whereas all other animals that are ambidental, viviporous, and furnished with feet, have the womb quite, smooth, and in their case, the attachment of the embryo is to the womb itself, and not to any cateleidon inside it. The parts then in animals that are not homogeneous with themselves and uniform in their texture, both parts external and parts internal have the properties above assigned to them. End of Chapter 1. Book 3, chapters 2 and 3 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 2

Starting point is 03:13:16 In sanguineous animals, the homogeneous or uniform part most universally found is the blood, and its habitat, the vein. Next, in degree of universality, they're analogues, lymph and fiber, and that, which chiefly constitutes the frame of animals, flesh, and whatsoever in the several parts is analogous to flesh, then bone, and parts that are analogous to bone, as fishbone and grizzle, and then again skin, membrane, sinew, hair, nails, and whatever corresponds to these. And furthermore, fat, suet, and the excretions, and the excretions are dung, phleg,

Starting point is 03:14:10 yellow bile, and black bile. Now, as the nature of blood and the nature of the veins have all the appearance of being primitives, We must discuss their properties, first of all, and, all the more, as some previous writers have treated them very unsatisfactorily. And the cause of the ignorance thus manifested is the extreme difficulty experienced in the way of observation. For, in the dead bodies of animals, the nature of the chief veins is undiscoverable, owing to the fact that they collapse at once when the way of the animals.

Starting point is 03:14:51 the blood leaves them, for the blood pours out of them in a stream, like liquid out of a vessel, since there is no blood separately situated by itself, except a little in the heart, but it is all lodged in the veins. In living animals, it is impossible to inspect these parts, for, of their very nature, they are situated inside the body and out of sight. For this reason, anatomists, who have carried on their investigations on dead bodies, in the dissecting room, have failed to discover the chief roots of the veins, while those who have narrowly inspected bodies of living men, reduced to extreme attenuation, have arrived at conclusions regarding the origin of the veins from the manifestations visible externally.

Starting point is 03:15:47 Of these investigators, Swenesis, the physician of Svigernes, the physician of Cyprus writes as follows. The big fiends run thus, from the nevel across the loins, along the back, past the lung, in under the breasts, one from right to left and the other from left to right, that from the left through the liver to the kidney and the testicle,

Starting point is 03:16:16 that from the right to the spleen and kidney and testicle, and from thence to the penis. Close quote. Diogenes of Apollonia writes thus, quote, The veins in man are as follows. There are two veins preeminent in magnitude. These extend through the belly along the backbone,

Starting point is 03:16:43 one to right, one to left, either one to the leg on its own side, and upwards to the hand, past the collar bones through the throat. From these veins extend all over the body, from that on the right hand to the right side, and from that on the left hand to the left side. The most important ones, two in number,

Starting point is 03:17:10 to the heart in the region of the backbone. Other two, a little higher up, through the chest in underneath the armpit, each to the hand on its own side. Of these two, one being termed the vein, spleenitis, and the other the vein, hepatitis. Each of the pair splits at its extremity. The one branches in the direction of the thumb,

Starting point is 03:17:38 and the other in the direction of the palm, and from these run off a number of minute veins, branching off to the fingers and to all parts of the hand, Other veins, more minute, extend from the main veins, from that on the right towards the liver, from that on the left towards the spleen and the kidneys. The veins that run to the legs split at the juncture of the legs with the trunk, and extend right down the thigh. The largest of these goes down the thigh at the back of it, and can be discerned and traced

Starting point is 03:18:15 as a big one. The second one runs inside the thigh, not quite as big as the one just mentioned. After this, they pass on along the knee to the shin and the foot, as the upper veins were described as passing towards the hands, and arrive at the sole of the foot, and from thence continue to the toes. Moreover, many delicate veins separate off from the great veins towards the stomach and towards the ribs. Quote, the veins that run through the throat to the hand can be discerned and traced in the neck as large ones,

Starting point is 03:18:56 and from each one of the two, where it terminates, there branch off a number of veins to the hand, some from the right side towards the left, and some from the left side towards the right, and the two veins terminate near to each of the two ears. There is another pair of veins, in the neck, running along the big vein on either side, slightly less in size than the pair just

Starting point is 03:19:22 spoken of, and with these the greater part of the veins in the head are connected. This other pair runs through the throat inside, and from either one of the two, their extent veins in underneath the shoulder blade and towards the hands, and these appear alongside the veins, spleenitis and hepatitis, as another pair of veins, smaller in size. When there is a pain near the surface of the body, the physician lances these two latter veins. But when the pain is within and in the region of the stomach, he lances the veins splenitis and hepatitis, and from these other veins depart to run below the breasts. quote,

Starting point is 03:20:11 There is also another pair running on each side through the spinal marrow to the testicles, thin and delicate. There is further a pair running a little underneath the cuticle

Starting point is 03:20:26 through the flesh to the kidneys, and these, with men, terminate at the testicle, and with women at the womb. These veins are termed the spermatic veins. The veins that leave the stomach are comparatively broad, just as they leave, but they become gradually thinner until they change over

Starting point is 03:20:48 from right to left, and from left to right. Quote, blood is thickest when it is imbibed by the fleshy parts. When it is transmitted to the organs above-mentioned, it becomes thin, warm, and frothy. Close quote. Chapter 3 Such are the accounts given by Senecius and Diogenes. Polybus writes to the following effect. Quote,

Starting point is 03:21:20 There are four pairs of veins. The first extends from the back of the head through the neck on the outside, past the backbone on either side, until it reaches the loins and passes on to the legs, after which it goes on through the shins to the outer side of the ankles and on to the feet. And it is on this account that surgeons, for pains in the back and loin, bleed in the ham, and in the outer side of the ankle. Another pair of veins runs from the head past the ears, through the neck,

Starting point is 03:21:58 which veins are termed the jugular veins. This pair goes on inside along the back, bone, passed the muscles of the loins onto the testicles, and onwards to the thighs and through the inside of the hams, and through the shins, down to the inside of the ankles, and to the feet. And for this reason, surgeons, for pains in the muscles of the loins and in the testicles, bleed on the hams and the inner side of the ankles. The third pair extends from the temples. through the neck, in underneath the shoulder blades, into the lung.

Starting point is 03:22:40 Those from right to left going in underneath the breast, and onto the spleen and the kidney. Those from left to right, running from the lung in underneath the breast, and into the liver, and the kidney, and both terminate in the fundament. The fourth pair extend from the front part of the head, and the eyes in underneath the neck and the collar bones. From thence they stretch on through the upper part of the upper arms to the elbows,

Starting point is 03:23:16 and then through the forearms on to the wrists and the jointings of the fingers, and also through the lower part of the upper arms to the armpits, and so on, keeping above the ribs, until one of the pair reaches the spleen, and the other reaches the liver, and after this they both pass over the stomach and terminate at the penis. Close quote. The above quotations sum up pretty well the statements of all previous writers. Furthermore, there are some writers on natural history who have not ventured to lay down the law in such precise terms as regards the veins, but who all alike agree in assigning the head and the brain

Starting point is 03:24:02 as the starting point of the veins, and in this opinion they are mistaken. The investigation of such a subject, as has been remarked, is one fraught with difficulties, but if anyone be keenly interested in the matter, his best plan will be to allow his animals to starve to emaciation, then to strangle them on a sudden, and thereupon to prosecute his investigations. We now proceed to give particulars regarding the properties and functions of the veins. There are two blood vessels in the thorax by the backbone, and lying to its inner side, and of these two, the larger one is situated to the front, and the lesser one is to the rear of it, and the larger is situated rather to the right-hand side of the body, and the lesser one to the left,

Starting point is 03:25:00 And, by some, this vein is termed the aorta, from the fact that even in dead bodies, part of it is observed to be full of air. These blood vessels have their origins in the heart, for they traverse the other viscera in whatever direction they happen to run, without in any way losing their distinctive characteristic as blood vessels, whereas the heart is, as it were, a part of them, and that two more in respect to the frontward and larger one of the two, owing to the fact that these two veins are above and below, with the heart lying midway. The heart in all animals has cavities inside it.

Starting point is 03:25:47 In the case of the smaller animals, even the largest of the chambers is scarcely discernible. The second larger is scarcely discernible in animals of medium size. But in the largest animals, all three chambers are distinctly seen. In the heart thin, with its pointed and directed front words, as has been observed, the largest of the three chambers is on the right-hand side and highest up. The least one is on the left-hand side, and the medium-sized one lies in betwixt the other two, and the largest one of the three chambers is a great deal larger than either of the two others. All three, however, are connected with passages leading in the direction of the lung,

Starting point is 03:26:39 but all these communications are indistinctly discernible by reason of their minuteness, except one. The great blood vessel, then, is attached to the biggest of the three chambers, the one that lies uppermost and on the right-hand side, it then extends right through the chamber, coming out as blood vessel again, just as though the cavity of the heart were a part of the vessel, in which the blood broadens its channel as a river that widens out in a lake.

Starting point is 03:27:13 The aorta is attached to the middle chamber, only, by the way, it is connected with it by a much narrower pipe. The great blood vessel then passes through the heart and runs from the heart into the aorta. The great vessel looks as though made of membrane or skin, while the aorta is narrower than it, and is very sinewy, and as it stretches away to the head and to the lower parts, it becomes exceedingly narrow and sinewy. First of all then, upwards from the heart, there stretches a part of the great blood vessel towards the lung. and the attachment of the aorta, a part consisting of a large undivided vessel. But they're split off from it two parts,

Starting point is 03:28:02 one towards the lung and the other towards the backbone, and the last vertebra of the neck. The vessel, then, that extends to the lung, as the lung itself is duplicate, divides at first into two, and then extends along by every pipe and every perforation, greater along the greater ones, lesser along the less, so continuously that it is impossible to discern a single part wherein there is not perforation and vein, for the extremities are indistinguishable from their minuteness, and in point of fact the whole lung appears to

Starting point is 03:28:42 be filled with blood. The branches of the blood vessels lie above the tubes that extend from the windpipe, and that vessel, which extends to the vertebra of the neck and the backbone, stretches back again along the backbone, as Homer represents in the lines, quote, Antilicus, as Thouon turned him round, trans pierced his back with a dishonest wound, the hollow vein that to the neck extends along the chine, the eager javelin rends, close quote. From this vessel there extend small blood vessels past each rib and each vertebra, and at the vertebra above the kidneys, the vessel bifurcates. And in the above way, the parts branch off from the great blood vessel.

Starting point is 03:29:35 But up above all these, from that part which is connected with the heart, the entire vein branches off in two directions, for its branches extend to the sides and to the collage, and to the collar-bones, and then pass on, in men, through the armpits to the arms, in quadrupants to the forelegs, in birds to the wings, and in fishes to the upper or pectoral fins. The trunks of these veins, where they first branch off are called the jugular veins, and where they branch off to the neck from the great vein, they run alongside the windpipe, And occasionally, if these veins are pressed externally, men, though not actually choked, become insensible,

Starting point is 03:30:26 shut their eyes and fall flat on the ground. Extending in the way described, and keeping the windpipe in betwixt them, they pass on until they reach the ears at the junction of the lower jaw with the skull. Hence again, they branch off into four veins, of which one, bends back and descends through the neck and the shoulder, and meets the previous branching off of the vein, at the bend of the arm, while the rest of it terminates at the hand and fingers. Each vein of the other pair stretches from the region of the ear to the brain, and branches off in a number of fine and delicate veins into the so-called meninks or membrane which surrounds the brain.

Starting point is 03:31:14 The brain itself in all animals is destitute of blood, and no vein, great or small, holds its course therein. But of the remaining veins that branch off from the last-mentioned vein, some envelop the hand. Others close their courses in the organs of sense, and at the roots of the teeth, in veins exceedingly fine and minute. And of Chapter 3. Book 3 Chapter 4 to 7 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 03:32:02 This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 4. And in like manner, the parts of the lesser one of the two chief blood vessels designated the aorta, branch off, accompanying the branches from the big, vein, only that in regard to the aorta, the passages are less in size, and the branches very considerably less than are those of the great vein, so much for the veins as observed in the regions above the heart. The part of the great vein that lies underneath the heart extends freely suspended right through the midriff, and is united both to the aorta and the back,

Starting point is 03:32:51 bone by slack membranous communications. From it, one vein, short and wide, extends through the liver, and from it a number of minute veins branch off into the liver and disappear. From the vein that passes through the liver, two branches separate off, of which one terminates in the diaphragm, or so-called midriff, and the other runs up again through the armpit into the right arm, and unites with the other veins at the inside of the bend of the arm. And it is in consequence of this local connection that, when the surgeon opens this vein in the forearm, the patient is relieved of certain pains in the liver,

Starting point is 03:33:40 and from the left-hand side of it, there extends a short but thick vein to the spleen, and the little veins, branching off it, disappear in that organ. Another part branches off from the left-hand side of the great vein, and ascends by a course similar to the course recently described into the left arm, only that the ascending vein, in the one case, is the vein that traverses the liver, while in this case it is distinct from the vein that runs into the spleen. Again, other veins branch off from the big vein, one to the omenum, and another to the pancreas, from which vein run a number of veins through the mesentery.

Starting point is 03:34:31 All these veins coalesce in a single large vein, along the entire gut and stomach, to the esophagus. About these parts, there is a great ramification of branch veins. As far as the kidneys, each of the two remaining, undivided, the aorta and the big vein extend, and here they get more closely attached to the backbone and branch off each of the two into a lambda shape, and the big vein gets to the rear of the aorta. But the chief attachment of the aorta to the backbone takes place in the region of the heart. and the attachment is affected by means of minute and sinewy vessels. The aorta, just as it draws off from the heart, is a tube of considerable volume,

Starting point is 03:35:27 but as it advances in its course, it gets narrower and more sinewy, and from the aorta, there extend veins to the mesentary, just like the veins that extend thither from the big vein, only that the branches in the case of the aorta are considerably less in magnatune. They are, indeed, narrow and fibrillar, and they end in delicate hollow fiber-like veinlets. There is no vessel that runs from the aorta into the liver or the spleen. From each of the two great blood vessels, they extend branches to each of the two flanks,

Starting point is 03:36:07 and both branches fasten onto the bone. Vessels also extend to the kidneys from the big vein and the aorta, only that they do not open into the cavity of the organ, but their ramifications penetrate into its substance. From the aorta run two other ducks to the bladder, firm and continuous, and there are other ducks from the hollow of the kidneys in no way communicating with the big vein. From the center of each of the two kidneys springs a hollow sinewy vein running along the backbone right through the loins. By and by, each of the two veins first disappears in its own flank, and soon afterwards reappears stretching in the direction of the flank. The extremities of these attach to the bladder, and also in the male to the penis, and in the female to the womb. From the big vein, no vein extends to the womb, but the organ is connected with the aorta by veins numerous and closely packed.

Starting point is 03:37:17 Furthermore, from the aorta and the great vein, at the points of devirication, their branch off other veins. Some of these run to the groins, large, hollow veins, and then pass on down through the legs and terminate in the feet and toe. toes. And again, another set runs through the groins, and the thighs cross-garter fashion,

Starting point is 03:37:44 from right to left and from left to right, and unite in the hams with the other veins. In the above description, we have thrown light upon the course of the veins, and their points of departure. In all sanguineous animals, the case stands as here set forth in regard to the points of departure, and the courses of the chief veins. But the description does not hold equally good for the entire vein system in all these animals. For, in point of fact, the organs are not identically situated in them all. And what is more, some animals are furnished with organs of which other animals are destitute. At the same time, while the description so far holds good, the proof of its accuracy is not equal.

Starting point is 03:38:35 easy in all cases, but is easiest in the case of animals of considerable magnitude and supplied abundantly with blood. For in little animals and those scantily supplied with blood, either from natural and inherent causes, or from a prevalence of fat in the body, thorough accuracy in investigation is not equally attainable. For in the latter of these creatures, the passages get clogged, like water channels choked with slush, and the others have a few minute fibers to serve instead of veins. But in all cases, the big vein is plainly discernible, even in creatures of insignificant size.

Starting point is 03:39:23 Chapter 5 The sinews of animals have the following properties, for these also the point of origin is the heart. For the heart has sinews within itself in the largest of its three chambers, and the aorta is a sinew-like vein. In fact, at its extremity it is actually a sinew, for it is there no longer hollow, and is stretched like the sinews where they terminate at the jointings of the bones. Be it remembered, however, that the sinews do not proceed in unbroken sequence from one

Starting point is 03:40:01 point of origin, as do the blood vessels. For the veins have the shape of the entire body, like a sketch of a mannequin, in such a way that the whole frame seems to be filled up with little veins in attenuated subjects. For the space occupied by flesh in fat individuals is filled with little veins in thin ones, whereas the sinews are distributed about the joints and the flexures of the bones. Now, if the sinews were derived in unbroken sequence from a common point of departure, this continuity would be discernible in attenuated specimens. In the ham, or the part of the frame, brought into full play in the effort of leaping, is an important system of sinews, and another sinew, a double one, is that called the tendon, and others.

Starting point is 03:41:00 are those brought into play when a great effort of physical strength is required. That is to say, the epitonos, or backstay, and the shoulder sinews. Other sinews, devoid of specific designation, are situated in the region of the flexures of the bones. For all the bones that are attached to one another are bound together by sinews, and a great quantity of sinews are placed in the neighborhood of all the bones. Only, by the way, in the head there is no sinew, but the head is held together by the sutures of the bones. sinew is fissile, lengthwise, but crosswise it is not easily broken,

Starting point is 03:41:51 but admits of a considerable amount of hard tension. In connection with sinews, a liquid mucus is developed, developed, white and glutinous, and the organ, in fact, is sustained by it, and appears to be substantially composed of it. Now, vein may be submitted to the actual cottery, but sinew, when submitted to such action, shrivels up altogether, and if sinews be cut asunder, the severed parts will not again cohere. A feeling of numbness is incidental only to parts of the frame where sinew is situated. There is a very extensive system of sinews connected severally with the feet, the hands, the ribs,

Starting point is 03:42:38 the shoulder blades, the neck, and the arms. All animals supplied with blood are furnished with sinews, but in the case of animals that have no flexures to their limbs, but are, in fact, destitute of either feet or hands, the sinews are fine and inconspicuous, and so, as might have been anticipated, the sinews in the fish are chiefly discernible in connection with the fin. Chapter 6 The inus, or fibrous connective tissue, are a something intermediate between sinew and vein.

Starting point is 03:43:17 Some of them are supplied with fluid, the lymph, and they pass from sinew to vein, and from vein to sinew. There is another kind of inus, or fiber, that is found in blood, but not in the blood of all animals alike. If this fiber be left in the blood, the blood will coagulate. If it be removed or extracted,

Starting point is 03:43:41 the blood is found to be incapable of coagulation. While, however, this fibrous matter is found in the blood of the great majority of animals, it is not found in all. For instance, we fail to find it in the blood of the deer, the roe, the antelope, and some other animals. And owing to this deficiency of the fibrous tissue, the blood of these animals does not coagulate to the extent observed in the blood of other animals.

Starting point is 03:44:12 The blood of the deer coagulates to about to the same extent as that of the hair. That is to say, the blood in either case coagulates, but not into a stiff or jelly-like substance, like the blood of ordinary animals, but only into a flaccid consistency, like that of milk, which is not subjected to the action of rennet. The blood of the antelope admits of a firmer consistency in coagulation, for in this respect it resembles, or only comes a little short of the blood of sheep. Such are the properties of vein, sinew, and fibrous tissue. Chapter 7.

Starting point is 03:44:55 The bones in animals are all connected with one single bone, and are interconnected like the veins, in one unbroken sequence, and there is no instance of a bone standing apart by itself. In all animals furnished with bones, the spine or backbone is the point of origin for the entire osseous system. The spine is composed of vertebrae, and, and, you know, and, you it extends from the head down to the loins. The vertebrae are all perforated, and above, the bony portion of the head is connected with the topmost vertebrae, and is designated the skull, and the serrated lines on the skull are

Starting point is 03:45:40 termed sutures. The skull is not formed alike in all animals. In some animals, the skull consists of one single undivided bone, as in the case of the dog. In others it is composite in structure, as in man. And in the human species, the suture is circular in the female, while in the male it is made up of three separate sutures, uniting above in three-corner fashion, and instances have been known of a man's skull being devoid of suture altogether. The skull is composed not of four bones, but of six. Two of these are in the region of the ears, small in comparison with the other four. From the skull extend the jaws, constituted of bone.

Starting point is 03:46:35 Animals in general move the lower jaw. The river crocodile is the only animal that moves the upper one. In the jaws is the tooth system, and the teeth are constituted of bone, and are halfway perforated, and the bone in question is the only kind of bone which it is found impossible to grave with a graving tool. On the upper part of the course of the backbone are the collar bones and the ribs. The chest rests on ribs, and these ribs meet together, whereas the others do not, for no animal has bone in the region of the stomach.

Starting point is 03:47:14 Then come the shoulder bones or blade bones, and the arm bones connected with these, and the bones in the hands connected with the bones of the arms. With animals that have four legs, the osseous system of the foreleg resembles that of the arm in man. Below the level of the back bone, after the haunch bone comes the hip socket, then the leg bones, in the thighs and those in the shins, which are termed colonis, or limb bones, a part of which is the ankle, while a part of the same is the so-called plectrum in those creatures that have an ankle, and connected with these bones are the bones in the feet. Now, with all animals that are supplied

Starting point is 03:48:05 with blood and furnished with feet, and are at the same time viviparous, the bones do not differ greatly one from another, but only in the way of relative hardness, softness, or magnitude. A further difference, by the way, is that in one and the same animal, certain bones are supplied with marrow, while others are destitute of it. Some animals might, on casual observation, appear to have no marrow whatsoever in their bones, as is the case with the lion, owing to his having marrow only in small amount, poor and thin, and in very few bones, for marrow is found in his thigh and arm bones. The bones of the lion are exceptionally hard, so hard, in fact, that if they are rubbed hard against

Starting point is 03:48:58 one another, they emit sparks like flint stones. The dolphin has bones, and not fish spine. Of the other animals supplied with blood, some differ but little, as is the case with birds. Others have systems analogous as fishes. For viviparous fishes, such as the cartilaginous species, are grizzle-spined, while the ovipera have a spine which corresponds to the backbone in quadrupanes. This exceptional property has been observed in fishes, that in some of them there are.

Starting point is 03:49:37 are found delicate spines scattered here and there throughout the fleshy parts. The serpent is similarly constructed to the fish. In other words, his backbone is spinous. With oviparous quadrupanes, the skeleton of the larger ones is more or less osseous. Of the smaller ones, more or less spinous. But all sanguineous animals have a backbone of either one kind or other. that is, composed either of bone or of spine. The other portions of the skeleton are found in some animals and not found in others.

Starting point is 03:50:16 But the presence or the absence of this and that part carries with it, as a matter of course, the presence or the absence of the bones, or the spines corresponding to this or that part. For animals that are destitute of arms and legs cannot be furnished with limb bones, and in like manner with animals that have the same parts, but yet have them unlike in form. For in these animals, the corresponding bones differ from one another in the way of relative excess or relative defect, or in the way of analogy, taking the place of identity.

Starting point is 03:50:55 So much for the osseous or spinous systems in animals. End of chapter 7. Book 3, Chapter 8 to 16 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 8. Grizzle is of the same nature as bone, but differs from it in the way of relative excess or relative defect.

Starting point is 03:51:37 And just like bone, cartilage also, if cut, does not grow again. In terrestrial vivipar sanguinea, the grizzle formations are unperforated, and there is no marrow in them, as there is in bones. In the silica, however, for, be it observed, they are grizzle-spined, there is found, in the case of the flat species, in the region of the backbone, a grizzle-like substance analogous to bone, and, in the case of the flat species, and, in this grizzle-like substance, there is a liquid resembling marrow. In viviparous animals furnished with feet, grizzle formations are found in the region of the ears,

Starting point is 03:52:22 in the nostrils, and around certain extremities of the bones. Chapter 9 Furthermore, there are parts of other kinds, neither identical with, nor altogether diverse from, the parts above enumerated, such as nails, hooves, claws and horns, and also, by the way, beaks, such as birds are furnished with, all, in the several animals that are furnished therewithal. All these parts are flexible and fissile, but bone is neither flexible nor fissile, but frangible.

Starting point is 03:53:01 And the colors of horns and nails and claw and hoof follow the color of the skin and the hair. for according as the skin of an animal is black or white or of medium hue, so are the horns, the claws or the hooves, as the case may be of hue to match. And it is the same with nails. The teeth, however, follow after the bones. Thus in black men, such as the Ethiopians and the like, the teeth and bones are white, but the nails are brown. black, like the whole of the skin.

Starting point is 03:53:43 Horns in general are hollow at their point of attachment to the bone, which juts out from the head inside the horn, but they have a solid portion at the tip, and they are simple and undivided in structure. In the case of the stag alone of all animals, the horns are solid throughout, and ramify into branches or antlers. And whereas no other animal is known to shed its horns, the deer sheds its horns annually, unless it has been castrated. And with regard to the effects of castration in animals, we shall have much to say hereafter.

Starting point is 03:54:23 Horns attach rather to the skin than to the bone, which will account for the fact that there are found in Phrygia and elsewhere cattle that can move their horns as freely as their ears. Of animals furnished with nails, and, by the way, all animals have nails that have toes, and toes that have feet, except the elephant, and the elephant has toes undivided and slightly articulated, but has no nails whatsoever. Of animals furnished with nails, some are straight-nailed like men, others are crooked-nailed as the lion among animals that walk,

Starting point is 03:55:05 and the eagle among animals that fly. Chapter 10. The following are the properties of hair and of parts analogous to hair, and of skin or hind. All viviporous animals furnished with feet have hair. All oviparous animals furnished with feet have horn-like tessellates. Fishes, and fishes only, have scales. That is, such oviparous fishes. as have the crumbling egg or row.

Starting point is 03:55:38 For, of the lanky fishes, the conger has no such egg, nor the marina, and the eel has no egg at all. The hair differs in the way of thickness and fineness, and of length, according to the locality of the part in which it is found, and according to the quality of skin or hide on which it grows. For, as a general rule, the thicker the hide, the harder and the thicker is the hair,

Starting point is 03:56:07 and the hair is inclined to grow in abundance and to a great length in localities of the bodies hollow and moist, if the localities be fitted for the growth of hair at all. The facts are similar in the case of animals, whether coated with scales or with tessellates. With soft-haired animals, the hair gets harder with good feeding, and with hard-haired or brisly animals, it gets softer and scantier from the same cause. Hair differs in quality also according to the relative heat or warmth of the locality,

Starting point is 03:56:46 just as the hair in man is hard in warm places and soft in cold ones. Again, straight hair is inclined to be soft and curly hair to be brisly. Chapter 11 Hair is naturally fissile, and in this respect it differs in degree in diverse animals. In some animals, the hair goes on gradually hardening into bristle, until it no longer resembles hair but spine, as in the case of the hedgehog, and in like manner with the nails, for in some animals the nail differs as regards solidity in no way from bone. Of all animals, man has the most delicate skin, that is, if we take into consideration his relative size.

Starting point is 03:57:37 In the skin or hide of all animals, there is a mucus liquid, scanty in some animals, and plentiful in others, as, for instance, in the hide of the ox, for men manufacture glue out of it. And, by the way, in some cases, glue is manufactured from fishes also. So. The skin, when cut, is in itself devoid of sensation, and this is especially the case with the skin on the head, owing to there being no flesh between it and the skull. And wherever the skin is quite by itself, if it be cut asunder, it does not grow together again, as is seen in the thin part of the jaw, in the prepious and the eyelid.

Starting point is 03:58:26 In all animals the skin is one of the parts that extends continuous and unbroken, and it comes to a stop only where the natural ducks pour out their contents, and at the mouth and nails. All sanguineous animals then have skin, but not all such animals have hair, save only under the circumstances described above. The hair changes its color as animals grow old, and in man it turns white or gray. With animals in general, the change takes place, but not very obviously, or not so obviously, as in the case of the horse. Hair turns grey from the point backwards to the roots, but in the majority of cases, grey hairs are white from the beginning, and this is a proof that greyness of hair does not, as some believe to be the case, imply withering or decrepitude,

Starting point is 03:59:23 for no part is brought into existence in a withered or decrepit condition. In the eruptive malady called the white sickness, all the hairs get gray, and instances have been known where the hair became gray while the patients were ill of the malady, whereas the gray hairs shed off and black ones replaced them on their recovery. Hair is more apt to turn gray when it is a bit of the malady, kept covered, then, when exposed to the action of the outer air. In men, the hair over the temples is the first to turn gray, and the hair in the front grows gray sooner than the hair at the back, and the hair on the pubis is the last to change color. Some hairs are congenital. Others grow

Starting point is 04:00:17 after the maturity of the animal, but this occurs in man only. The congenital, the congenital. The congenital hairs are on the hand, the eyelids and the eyebrows. Of the latter growths, the hairs on the pubis are the first to come, then those under the armpits, and thirdly, those on the chin. For, singularly enough, the regions where congenital growths and the subsequent growths are found are equal in number. The hair on the hand grows scanty and sheds out to a greater extent and sooner than all the rest. But this remark applies only to hair in front, for no man ever gets bald at the back of his hand. Smoothness on the top of the head is termed baldness, but smoothness on the eyebrows is denoted by a special term which means forehead baldness.

Starting point is 04:01:14 And neither of these conditions of baldness supervenes in a man until he shall have come under the influence of sexual passion. For no boy ever gets bald, no woman, and no castrated man. In fact, if a man be castrated before reaching puberty, the latter growths of hair never come at all, and if the operation take place subsequently, the after-growths and these only shed off, or rather two of the growths shed off, but not that on the pubis. Women do not grow hairs on the chin, except that a scanty beard grows on some women after the monthly courses have stopped, and a similar phenomenon is observed at times in priestesses in Kerea, but these cases are looked upon as portentous with regard to coming events.

Starting point is 04:02:12 The other after-growths are found in women, but more scanty and sparse. men and women are at times born constitutionally and congenitally incapable of the after-growth, and individuals that are destitute even of the growth upon the pubies are constitutionally impotent. Hair, as a rule, grows more or less in length as the wearer grows in age. Chiefly, the hair on the hand, then, that in the beard, and fine hair grows longest of all. With some people, as they grow old, the eyebrows grow thicker to such an extent that they have to be cut off,

Starting point is 04:02:56 and this growth is owing to the fact that the eyebrows are situated at a conjuncture of bones, and these bones, as age comes on, draw apart and exude a gradual increase of moisture or room. The eyelashes do not grow in size, but they shed when the wearer comes first under the influence of sexual feelings, and shed all the quicker, as this influence is the more powerful, and these are the last hairs to grow grey. Hairs, if plucked out before maturity, grow again, but they do not grow again if plucked out afterwards. Every hair is supplied with a mucus moisture at its root, and immediately after being plucked out, it can lift light articles if it touch them with this mucus.

Starting point is 04:03:46 Animals that admit of diversity of color in the hair admit of a similar diversity to start with in the skin, and in the cuticle of the tongue. In some cases among men, the upper lip and the chin is thickly covered with hair, and in other cases these parts are smooth, and the cheeks are hairy, and, by the way, smooth-chinned men are less inclined than bearded men to baldness. The hair is inclined to grow in certain diseases, especially in consumption and in old age and after death. And under these circumstances, the hair hardens concomitantly with its growth,

Starting point is 04:04:27 and the same duplicate phenomenon is observable in respect of the nails. In the case of men of strong sexual passions, the congenital hairs shed the sooner, while the hairs of the aftergrowth are the quicker to come. When men are afflicted with vericose veins, they are less inclined to take on baldness, and if they be bald, when they become thus afflicted, they have a tendency to get their hair again. If a hair be cut, it does not grow at the point of section, but it gets longer by growing upward from below. In fishes, the scales grow harder and thicker with age, and when the animal gets emaciated or is growing old, the scales grow harder.

Starting point is 04:05:16 In quadru pads, as they grow old, the hair in some, and the wool in others gets deeper, but scantier in a mount, and the hooves or claws get larger in size, and the same as the case with the beaks of burns. The claws also increase in size, as do also, the nails. Chapter 12. With regard to winged animals, such as birds, no creature is liable to change of color by reason of age, excepting the crane.

Starting point is 04:05:49 The wings of this bird are ash-colored at first, but as it grows old, the wings get black. Again, owing to special climatic influences, as when unusual frost prevails, a change is sometimes observed to take place in birds whose plumage is of one uniform color. Thus, birds that have dusky or downright black plumage turn white or gray as the raven, the sparrow, and the swallow. But no case has ever yet been known of a change of color from white to black. Further, most birds change the color of their plumage at different seasons of the year, so much so that a man ignorant of their habits might be mistaken as to their identity. Some animals change the color of their hair with a change in their drinking water, for in some

Starting point is 04:06:43 countries the same species of animal is found white in one district and black in another. And in regard to the commerce of the sexes, water in many places is of such peculiar quality that rams, if they have intercourse with the female after, after drinking it, beget black lambs, as is the case with the water of the Psycrus, so-called from its coldness, a river in the district of Asurates, in the Calcutic Peninsula, on the coast of Thrace, and in Antandria there are two rivers of which one makes the lambs white, and the other black. The rivers commander also has the reputation of making lambs yellow, and that is the reason they say why Homer designates it the Yellow River.

Starting point is 04:07:37 Animals, as a general rule, have no hair on their internal surfaces, and in regard to their extremities they have hair on the upper, but not on the lower side. The hair, or daisopod, is the only animal known to have hair inside its mouth and underneath its feet. Further, the so-called mouse whale, instead of teeth, has hairs in its mouth resembling pig's bristles. Hairs after being cut grow at the bottom, but not at the top. If feathers be cut off, they grow neither at top nor bottom, but shed and fall out. Further, the bees' wing will not grow again after being plucked off, nor will the wing of any creature that has undivided wings. Neither will the sting grow again if the bee lose it, but the creature will die of the loss.

Starting point is 04:08:38 Chapter 13 In all sanguineous animals membranes are found, and membrane resembles a thin, close-textured skin, but its qualities are different, as it admits neither of cleavage nor of extension. membrane envelops each one of the bones and each one of the viscera, both in the larger and the smaller animals, though in the smaller animals the membranes are indiscernible from their extreme tenuity and minuteness. The largest of all the membranes are the two that surround the brain, and of these two the one that lines the bony skull is stronger and thicker than the one that envelopes the brain. Next, in order of magnitude, comes the membrane that encloses the heart.

Starting point is 04:09:29 If membrane be bared and cut asunder, it will not grow together again, and the bone, thus stripped of its membrane, mortifies. Chapter 14 The omentum, or call, by the way, is membrane. All sanguineous animals are furnished with this organ, but in some animals the organ is supplied with fat, and in others it is devoid of it. The omenum has both its starting point and its attachment with ambidental vivipura in the center

Starting point is 04:10:03 of the stomach, where the stomach has a kind of suture. In non-ambidental vivipura, it has its starting point and attachment in the chief of the ruminating stomachs. Chapter 15. The bladder also is of the nature of membrane, but of membrane, peculiar in kind, for it is extensile. The organ is not common to all animals, but while it is found in all the vivipypyrra,

Starting point is 04:10:32 the tortoise is the only oviparous animal that is furnished therewithal. The bladder, like ordinary membrane, if cut asunder, will not grow together again, unless the section be just at the commencement of the urethra, except indeed in very rare cases. for instances of healing have been known to occur.

Starting point is 04:10:55 After death, the organ passes no liquid excretion, but in life, in addition to the normal liquid excretion, it passes at times dry excretion also, which turns into stones, in the case of sufferers from that malady. Indeed, instances have been known of concretions in the bladder so shaped as closely to resemble cockle-shells, Such are the properties then of vein, sinew, and skin, of fiber and membrane, of hair, nail,

Starting point is 04:11:29 claw, and hoof, of horns, of teeth, of beak, of grizzle, of bones, and of parts that are analogous to any of the parts here enumerated. Chapter 16. Flash, and that which is by nature akin to it in sanguineous animals, is in all cases situated in between the skin and the bone, or the substance analogous to bone. For just as spine is a counterpart of bone, so is the flesh-like substance of animals that are constructed on a spina system, the counterpart of the flesh of animals constructed on an osseous one. Flesh can be divided asunder in any direction, not lengthwise only, as is the case with sinew and vein.

Starting point is 04:12:19 When animals are subjected to emaciation, the flesh disappears, and the creatures become a mass of veins and fibers. When they are overfed, fat takes the place of flesh. Where the flesh is abundant in an animal, its veins are somewhat small, and the blood abnormally red. The viscera also, and the stomach are diminutive, whereas with animals whose veins are large, the blood is somewhat black, the viscera and the stomach are large, and the flesh is somewhat scanty, and animals with small stomachs are disposed to take on flesh.

Starting point is 04:13:01 And of Chapter 16, Book 3, Chapters 17 to 22 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libra Fox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 17 Again, fat and suet differ from one another. Suet is frangible in all directions and congeals if subjected to extreme cold, whereas fat can melt but cannot freeze or congeal, and soups made of the flesh of animals supplied with fat,

Starting point is 04:13:51 do not congeal or coagulate, as is found with horse flesh and pork. But soups made from the flesh of animals, supplied with suet, do coagulate, as is seen with mutton and goat's flesh. Further, fat and suet differ as to their localities, for fat is found between the skin and flesh, but suet is found only at the limit of the fleshy parts. Also, in animals supplied with fat, the omentum, or coal, is supplied with fat, and it is supplied with suet in animals supplied with suet. Moreover, ambidental animals are supplied with fat,

Starting point is 04:14:39 and non-ambidantals with suet. Of the viscera, the liver in some animals becomes fatty. As among fishes is the case with the salacia, by the melting of whose livers an oil is manufactured. These cartilaginous fish themselves have no free fat at all in connection with the flesh or with the stomach. The suet in fish is fatty and does not solidify or congeal. All animals are furnished with fat, either intermediate. wringled with their flesh or apart. Such as have no free or separate fat

Starting point is 04:15:24 are less fat than others in stomach and omentum as the eel, for it has only a scanty supply of suet about the omentum. Most animals take on fat in the belly, especially such animals as are little in motion. The brains of animals supplied with fat are oily,

Starting point is 04:15:48 as in the pig of animals supplied with suet, parched and dry. But it is about the kidneys more than any other viscera that animals are inclined to take on fat, and the right kidney is always less supplied with fat than the left kidney, and be the two kidneys ever so fat, there is always a space devoid of fat in between the two. Animals supplied with suet are,

Starting point is 04:16:18 especially apt to have it about the kidneys, and especially the sheep, for this animal is apt to die from its kidneys being entirely enveloped. Fat or suet about the kidney is superinduced by overfeeding, as is found at Leontimi in Sicily, and consequently in this district, they defer driving goat sheep to pasture until the day is well on, with the view of limited their food by curtailment of the hours of pasture. Chapter 18 The part around the pupil of the eye is fatty, in all animals, and this part resembles suet in all animals, that possess such a part, and that are not furnished with hard eyes.

Starting point is 04:17:11 Fat animals, whether male or female, are more or less unfitted for breeding purposes. Animals are disposed to take on fat more when old than when young, and especially when they have attained their full breadth and their full length and are beginning to grow depthways. Chapter 19 And now, to proceed to the consideration of the blood. In sanguineous animals, blood is the most universal and the most indispensable part, and it is not an acquired or adventitious part, but it is a consubstantial part of all

Starting point is 04:17:55 animals that are not corrupt or moribund. All blood is contained in a vascular system, to wit the veins, and is found nowhere else except in the heart. Blood is not sensitive to touch in any animal any more than the excretions of the stomach, and the case is similar with the brain and the marrow. When flesh is lacerated, blood exudes, if the animal be alive, and unless the flesh be gangreneed. Blood in a healthy condition is naturally sweet to the taste and red in color. Blood that deteriorates from natural decay or from disease is more or less black.

Starting point is 04:18:41 Blood, at its best, before it undergoes deterioration from either natural decay or from disease, is neither very thick nor very thin. In the living animal, it is always liquid and warm, but on issuing from the body it coagulates in all cases except in the case of the deer, the roe, and the like animals. For, as a general rule, blood coagulates unless the fibres, be extracted. Bull's blood is the quickest to coagulate. Animals that are internally and externally viviparous are more abundantly supplied with blood than the sanguineous ovipera. Animals that are in good

Starting point is 04:19:28 condition, either from natural causes or from their health having been attended to, have the blood neither too abundant, as creatures just after drinking have the liquid inside them in abundance, nor again very scanty, as is the case with animals when exceedingly fat. For animals in this condition have pure blood, but very little of it, and the fatter an animal gets, the less becomes its supply of blood, for whatsoever is fat is destitute of blood. A fat substance is incorruptible, but blood and all things containing it corrupt rapidly, and this property characterizes especially all parts connected with the bones.

Starting point is 04:20:18 Blood is finest and purest in man, and thickest and blackest in the bull and the ass of all vivipera. In the lower and the higher parts of the body, blood is thicker and blacker than in the central. parts. Blood beats or palpitates in the veins of all animals alike all over their bodies, and blood is the only liquid that permeates the entire frames of living animals, without exception and at all times, as long as life lasts. Blood is developed, first of all, in the heart of animals, before the body is differentiated as a whole. If blood be removed, or if it escape in any considerable quantity, animals fall into a faint or swoon. If it be removed, or if it escape in an exceedingly large quantity, they die.

Starting point is 04:21:16 If the blood get exceedingly liquid, animals fall sink, for the blood then turns into something like Icar or a liquid, so thin that it at times has been known to exude through the pores like sweat. In some cases, blood, when issuing from the veins, does not coagulate at all, or only here and there. Whilst animals are sleeping, the blood is less abundantly supplied near the exterior surfaces, so that if the sleeping creature be pricked with a pin, the blood does not issue as copiously as it would if the creature were awake. Blood is developed out of icker by coction and fat in like manner out of blood. If the blood get diseased, haemorrhoids may ensue in the nostril or at the anus, or the veins may become varicose.

Starting point is 04:22:15 Blood, if it corrupt in the body, has a tendency to turn into pus, and pus may turn into a solid concretion. Blood in the female differs from that in the male. For supposing the male and female to be on a par as regards age and general health, the blood in the female is thicker and blacker than in the male. And with the female, there is a comparative superabundance of it in the interior. Of all female animals, the female in man, is the most richly supplied with blood. and of all female animals, the menstruous discharges are the most copious in woman.

Starting point is 04:22:58 The blood of these discharges, under disease, turns into flux. Apart from the menstrual discharges, the female in the human species is less subject to diseases of the blood than the male. Women are seldom afflicted with varicose veins, with hemorrhoids, or with bleeding at the nose, and if any of these maladies supervene, the mencies are imperfectly discharged. Blood differs in quantity and appearance according to age. In very young animals, it resembles icker and is abundant. In the old, it is thick and black and scarce,

Starting point is 04:23:41 and in middle-aged animals, its qualities are intermediate. In old animals, the blood coagulates rapidly. even blood at the surface of the body. But this is not the case with young animals. Icor is, in fact, nothing else but unconcocted blood, either blood that has not yet been concocted or that has become fluid again. Chapter 20

Starting point is 04:24:09 We now proceed to discuss the properties of marrow, for this is one of the liquids found in certain sanguineous animals. All the natural liquids of the body are contained in vessels, as blood in veins, marrow in bones, and other moistures in membranous structures of the skin or gut. In young animals, the marrow is exceedingly sanguineous, but as animals grow old, it becomes fatty in animals supplied with fat, and sewage plank in animals with suet. All bones, however, are not supplied with marrow, but only the hollow ones, and not all of these. For of the bones in the lion, some contain no marrow at all, and some are only scantily supplied therewith. And that accounts, as was previously observed, for the statement made by certain writers that the lion is marrowless. In the bones of pigs it is found in small quantities, and in the bones of certain animals of this species it is not found at all.

Starting point is 04:25:19 These liquids, then, are nearly always congenital in animals, but milk and sperm come at a later time. Of these latter, that which, whosoever it is present, is secreted in all cases ready made, is the milk. sperm, on the other hand, is not secreted out in all cases, but in some only, as in the case of what are designated thori in fishes. Whatever animals have milk have it in their breasts. All animals have breasts that are internally and externally vivipress, as, for instance, all animals that have hair, as man and the horse, and the cetaceans, as the dolphin, the porpoise, and the whale.

Starting point is 04:26:09 For these animals have breasts and are supplied with milk. Animals that are oviparous, or only externally viviparous, have neither breasts nor milk, as the fish and the bird. All milk is composed of a watery serum called whey, and a consistent substance called curd or cheese, and the thicker the milk, the more abundant the curd. The milk, then, of non-ambidantals coagulates, and that is why cheese is made of the milk of such animals under domestication.

Starting point is 04:26:43 But the milk of ambidentals does not coagulate, nor they're fat either, and the milk is thin and sweet. Now, the camel's milk is the thinnest, and that of the human species next after it, and that of the ass next again. But cow's milk is the thickest. Milk does not coagulate under the influence of cold, but rather runs to weigh. But under the influence of heat, it coagulates and thickens. As a general rule, milk only comes to animals in pregnancy. When the animal is pregnant, milk is found.

Starting point is 04:27:24 But for a while, it is unfit for use, and then, after an interval of usefulness, it becomes unfit for use again. In the case of female animals not pregnant, a small quantity of milk has been procured by the employment of special food, and cases have been actually known where women advanced in years on being submitted to the process of milking have produced milk, and in some cases have produced it in sufficient quantities to enable them to suckle an infant. The people that live on and about Mount Etta take such she goats as decline the male

Starting point is 04:28:05 and rub their udders hard with nettles to cause an irritation amounting to pain. Hereupon they milk the animals, procuring at first a liquid resembling blood, then a liquid mixed with purulent matter, and eventually milk, as freely as from females submitting to the male. As a general rule, milk is not found in the mail of man or of any other animal, though from time to time it has been found in a male.

Starting point is 04:28:36 For instance, once in Lemnos, a he goat was milked by its dugs, for it has, by the way, two dugs close to the penis, and was milked to such effect that cheese was made of the produce, and the same phenomenon was repeated in a male, of its own begetting. Such occurrences, however, are regarded as supernatural, and fraught with omen as to futurity. And in point of fact, when the Lemnian owner of the animal inquired of the oracle, the God informed him that the portent foreshadowed the acquisition of a fortune.

Starting point is 04:29:17 With some men, after puberty, milk can be produced by squeezing the breasts. cases have been known where, on their being subjected to a prolonged milking process, a considerable quantity of milk has been adduced. In milk, there is a fatty element which in clotted milk gets to resemble oil. Goat's milk is mixed with sheep's milk in Sicily, and wherever sheep's milk is abundant. The best milk for clotting is not only that where the cheese is most abundant, but that also where the cheese is driest.

Starting point is 04:29:56 Now, some animals produce not only enough milk to rear their young, but a superfluous amount for general use, for cheese-making and for storage. This is especially the case with the sheep and the goat, and next in degree with the cow. Mears milk, by the way, and milk of the she-ass are mixed in with Phrygian cheese, And there is more cheese in cow's milk than in goat's milk.

Starting point is 04:30:26 For graziers tell us that from nine gallons of goat's milk, they can get nineteen cheeses of an oble apiece. And from the same amount of cow's milk, 30. Other animals give only enough of milk to rear their young withal, and no superfluous amount, and none fitted for cheese-making, as is the case with all animals that have more than two breasts or dugs, for with none of such animals is milk produced in superabundance were used for the manufacture of cheese. The juice of the fig and rennet are employed to curdle milk. The fig juice is first squeezed out into wool.

Starting point is 04:31:10 The wool is then washed and rinsed, and the rinsing put into a little milk. And if this be mixed with other milk, it curdles it. Renet is a kind of milk, for it is found in the stomach of the animal while it is yet suckling. Chapter 21 Renet then consists of milk with an admixture of fire, which comes from the natural heat of the animal, as the milk is concocted. All ruminating animals produce rennet, and of ambidentals the hair. Renet improves in quality the longer it is kept,

Starting point is 04:31:48 and cows rennet, after being kept a good while, and also hairs rennet is good for diarrhea, and the best of all rennet is that of the young deer. In milk-producing animals, the comparative amount of the yield varies with the size of the animal and the diversities of pasturage. For instance, there are in fascies small cattle that in all cases give a copious supply of milk, and the large cows in epirus yield each one daily some nine gallons of milk, and half of this from each pair of teats. And the milker has to stand erect, stooping forward a little,

Starting point is 04:32:32 as otherwise if he were seated he would be unable to reach up to the teats. But with the exception of the ass, all the quadrupeds in epirus are of large size, and relatively the cattle and the dogs are the largest. Now, large animals require abundant pasture, and this country supplies just such pasturage, and also supplies diverse pasture grounds to suit the diverse seasons of the year. The cattle are particularly large, and likewise the sheep of the so-called Piric breed,

Starting point is 04:33:09 the name being given in honor of King Pyrus. Some pasture quenches milk, as median grass or lucerne, and that especially in ruminants. Other feeding renders it copious as citicus and vetch, only by the way, scythus in flour is not recommended, as it has burning properties, and vetch is not good for pregnant kind, as it causes increased difficulty in parturation. However, beasts that have access to good feeding, as they are benefited thereby in regard to pregnancy, so also being well-nourished produce milk in plenty. Some of the leguminous plants bring milk in abundance, as, for instance, a large feed of beans with the yew, the common she-goat.

Starting point is 04:34:08 the cow, and the small she-goat, for this feeding makes them drop their udders. And by the way, the pointing of the udder to the ground before parturition is a sign of there being plenty of milk coming. Milk remains for a long time in the female, if she be kept from the male and be properly fed, and of quadru-pants this is especially true of the yew. for the yew can be milked for eight months. As a general rule, ruminating animals give milk in abundance, and milk fitted for cheese manufacture.

Starting point is 04:34:49 In the neighborhood of Torrone, cows run dry for a few days before calving, and have milk all the rest of the time. In women, milk of a livid color is better than white for nursing purposes, and swarthy women give healthier milk than fair ones. Milk that is richest in cheese is the most nutritious, but milk with a scanty supply of cheese is the more wholesome for children. Chapter 22 All sanguineous animals ejects sperm.

Starting point is 04:35:27 As to what and how it contributes to generation, these questions will be discussed in another. treatise. Taking the size of his body into account, man emits more sperm than any other animal. In hairy-coated animals, the sperm is sticky, but in other animals it is not so. It is white in all cases, and Herodotus is under a misapprehension when he states that the Itheopians eject black sperm. Sperm issues from the body white and consistent, if it be healthy, and after quitting the body, becomes thin and black. In frosty weather, it does not quagulate, but gets exceedingly thin and watery, both in color and consistency, but it

Starting point is 04:36:18 coagulates and thickens under the influence of heat. If it be long in the womb before issuing out, it comes more than usually thick, and sometimes it comes out dry and compact. sperm capable of impregnating or of fructification sinks in water. Sperm incapable of producing that result dissolves away. But there is no truth in what Tejas has written about the sperm of the elephant. End of chapter 22 and end of book three. Book 4. Chapter 1 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 04:37:13 This Libra Vox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 1 We have now treated in regard to blooded animals, of the parts they have in common and of the parts peculiar to this genus, or that, and of the parts both composite and simple, whether without or within. We now proceed to treat of animals devoid of blood. These animals are divided into several genera. One genus consists of so-called mollusks, and by the term mollusk, we mean an animal that,

Starting point is 04:37:55 being devoid of blood, has its flesh-like substance outside, and any hard structure it may happen to have inside. In this respect, resembling the red blood-blood, animals, such as the genus of the cuttlefish. Another genus is that of the malacostrica. These are animals that have their hard structure outside, and their soft or flesh-like substance inside, and the hard substance belonging to them has to be crushed rather than shattered. And to this genus belongs the crawfish and the crab. A third genus is that, of the ostracoderms or testations.

Starting point is 04:38:42 These are animals that have their hard substance outside, and their flesh-like substance within. And their hard substance can be shattered but not crushed. And to this genus belong the snail and the oyster. The fourth genus is that of insects, and this genus comprehends numerous and dissimilar species. Insects are creatures that, as the name implies, have nicks either on the belly or on the back, or on both belly and back, and have no one part distinctly osseous, and no one part distinctly fleshy, but are throughout a something intermediate between bone and flesh. That is to say, their body is hard all through, inside and outside.

Starting point is 04:39:34 Some insects are wingless, such as, the eulose and the centipede. Some are winged as the bee, the cock chaffer, and the wasp, and the same kind is in some cases both winged and wingless, as the ant and the glowworm. In mollusks, the external parts are as follows. In the first place, the so-called feet, Secondly, and attached to these the head. Thirdly, the mantlesack, containing the internal parts, and incorrectly designated by some writers the hand, and fourthly, fins round about the sack.

Starting point is 04:40:19 In all mollusks, the head is found to be between the feet and the belly. All mollusks are furnished with eight feet, and in all cases these feet are severally furnished with a double row of suckers. with the exception of one single species of pulp or octopus. The sepia, the small calumary, and the large calumary, have an exceptional organ in a pair of long arms or tentacles, having at their extremities a portion rendered rough by the presence of two rows of suckers.

Starting point is 04:40:56 And with these arms or tentacles they apprehend their food and draw it into their mouths, and in stormy weather they cling by them to a rock and sway about in the rough water like ships lying at anchor. They swim by the aid of the fins that they have about the sack. In all cases, their feet are furnished with suckers. The octopus, by the way, uses his feelers either as feet or hands. With the two, which stand over his mouth, he draws in food, and the last of his feelers he employs in the act of copulation.

Starting point is 04:41:35 And this last one, by the way, is extremely sharp, is exceptional as being of a whitish color, and at its extremity is bifurcate. That is to say, it has an additional something on the rakas, and by rakas is meant the smooth surface or edge of the arm on the far side from the suckers. In front of the sack and over the feelers, they have a hollow tube, by means of which they discharge any sea water that they may have taken into the sack of the body, in the act of receiving food

Starting point is 04:42:10 by the mouth. They can shift the tube from side to side, and by means of it they discharge the black liquid peculiar to the animal. Stretching out its feet, it swims obliquely in the direction of the so-called hand, and by this mode of swimming it can see in front, for its eyes are at the top, and in this attitude it has its mouth at the rear. The hand, while the creature is alive, is hard, and looks as though it were inflated. It apprehends and retains subjects by means of the under-surface of its arms, and the membrane in between its feet is kept at full tension. If the animal get onto the sand, it can no longer retain its hold. There is a difference between the octopus and the other mollusks above mentioned.

Starting point is 04:43:04 The body of the octopus is small, and his feet are long, whereas in the others the body is large and the feet short, so short in fact that they cannot walk on them. Compared with one another, the Teothis, or Calamary, is long-shaped, and the sepiaeepia, flat-shaped, and of the calamaries, the so-called Teuthos, is much bigger than the Teothes, for Teothi have been found as much as five L's long. Some sepia attain a length of two ls, and the feelers of the octopus are sometimes as long or even longer. The species Teutthus is not a numerous one.

Starting point is 04:43:52 The teuthos differs from the teuthness in shape. That is, the sharp extremity of the teuthos is broader than that of the other. And further, the encircling fin goes all round the trunk, whereas it is in part lacking in the teuthis. Both animals are pelagic. In all cases, the hand comes after the feet, in the middle of the feet that are called arms or feelers. There is here situated a mouth and two teeth in the mouth, and above these two large eyes, and betwixt the eyes a small cartilage enclosing a small brain, and within the mouth it has a minute organ of a fleshy nature,

Starting point is 04:44:41 and this it uses as a tongue, for no other tongue does it possess. Next, after this on the outside, is what looks like a sack. The flesh of which it is made is divisible, not in long, straight strips, but in annular flanks, and all mollusks have a cuticle around this flesh. Next after, or at the back of the mouth, comes a long and narrow esophagus, and close after that a crop or craw, large and spherical, like that of a bird. Then comes the stomach, like the fourth stomach in ruminance, and the shape of it resembles the spiral convolution in the trumpet shell. From the stomach there goes back again

Starting point is 04:45:27 in the direction of the mouth a thin gut, and the gut is thicker than the esophagus. Mollusks have no viscera, but they have what is called a mitus, and on it a vessel containing a thick black juice. In the sepia or cuttlefish, this vessel is the largest, and this juice is most abundant. All mollusks, when frightened, discharge such a juice, but the discharge is most copious in the cuttlefish. The mitus, then, is situated under the mouth, and the esophagus runs through it, and down below at the point to which the gut extends is the vesicle of the black juice, and the animal has the vesicle, and the gut enveloped in one and the same membrane, and by the same orifice discharges both the black juice and the residuum.

Starting point is 04:46:22 The animals have also certain hair-like or furry growths in their bodies. In the sepia, the teothis and the teuthos, the hard parts are within towards the back of the body. Those parts are called in one the sepium and in the other the sword. They differ from one another. for the sepium in the cuttlefish and the teuthos is hard and flat, being a substance intermediate between bone and fishbone, with, in part, a crumbling, spongy texture, but in the teuthis, the part is thin and somewhat grisly. These parts differ from one another in shape, as do also the bodies of the animals.

Starting point is 04:47:10 The octopus has nothing hard of this kind in its interior. but it has a grizzly substance round the hand, which, if the animal grows old, becomes hard. The females differ from the males. The males have a duct in under the esophagus, extending from the mantle cavity to the lower portion of the sack, and there is an organ to which it attaches resembling a breast. In the female there are two of these organs situated higher up, with both sexes, there are underneath these organs certain red formations. The egg of the octopus is single,

Starting point is 04:47:50 and even on its surface and of large size. The fluid substance within is all uniform in color, smooth and in color white, the size of the egg is so great as to fill a vessel larger than the creature's head. The sepia has two sacks, and inside them a number of eggs, like in appearance to white hailstones.

Starting point is 04:48:15 For the disposition of these parts, I must refer to my anatomical diagrams. The males of all these animals differ from the females, and the difference between the sexes is most marked in the sepia. For the back of the trunk, which is blacker than the belly

Starting point is 04:48:34 is rougher in the male than in the female, and in the male the back is striped, and the rump is more sharply. pointed. There are several species of the octopus. One keeps close to the surface and is the largest of them all, and near the shore the size is larger than in deep water, and there are others small, variegated in color, which are not articles of food. There are two others, one called the Heledone, which differs from its congeners in the length of its legs, and in having one row of suckers, all the rest of the mollusks having two, and the other nicknamed variously the

Starting point is 04:49:17 baletina or the onion, and the azollies, or the stinkard. There are two others found in shells resembling those of the testations. One of them is nicknamed by some persons the nautilus, or the pontalus, or by others the polypus egg, and the shell of this creature is something like a separate valve of a deep scallop shell. This polypus lives very often near to the shore and is apt to be thrown up high and dry on the beach. Under these circumstances, it is found with its shell detached and dies by and by on dry land. These polypods are small and are shaped as regards the form of their bodies. like the bulbidia.

Starting point is 04:50:11 There is another polypus that is placed within a shell like a snail. It never comes out of the shell, but lives inside the shell, like the snail, and from time to time protrudes its feelers. So much for mollusks. And of Chapter 1. Book 4. Chapters 2 and 3 of History of Animals by Aristotle. translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 04:50:49 This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 2 With regard to the malacostrica, or crustaceans, one species is that of the crawfish, and a second resembling the first is that of the lobster. The lobster, differing from the crawfish in having claws, and in a few other respects as well. Another species is that of the carid,

Starting point is 04:51:21 and another is that of the crab, and there are many kinds both of carid and of crab. Of carids, there are the so-called kufai, or hunchbacks, the crangons or squilla, and the little kind or shrimps, and the little kind do not. develop into a larger kind. Of the crab, the varieties are indefinite and incalculable. The largest of all crabs is one nicknamed Maya. A second variety is the Pagurus and the crab

Starting point is 04:52:01 of Heraklates. And a third variety is the freshwater crab. The other varieties are smaller in size and destitute of special designations. In the neighborhood of Foiniqué, there are found on the beach certain crabs that are nicknamed the horsemen, from their running with such speed that it is difficult to overtake them. These crabs, when opened, are usually found empty, and this emptiness may be put down to insufficiency of nutriment. There is another variety, small, like the crab, but resembling in shape the lobster. All these animals, as has been stated, have their hard and shelly part outside,

Starting point is 04:52:49 where the skin is in other animals, and the fleshy part inside, and the belly is more or less provided with lamellay or little flaps, and the female here deposits her spawn. The crawfishes have five feet on either side, including the claws at the end, and in like manner the crabs have ten feet in all, including the claws. Of the carids, the hunchbacked, or prawns, have five feet on either side, which are sharp-pointed, those towards the head, and five others on either side in the region of the belly, with their extremities flat. They are devoid of flaps on the underside, such as the crawfish has,

Starting point is 04:53:37 but on the back they resemble the crawfish. It is very different with the crangon, or squilla. It has four front legs on either side, then three thin ones close behind on either side, and the rest of the body is for the most part devoid of feet. Of all these animals, the feet bend out obliquely, as is the case with insects, and the claws, where claws are found, turn into.

Starting point is 04:54:07 Inwards. The crawfish has a tail and five fins on it, and the round-backed carid has a tail, and four fins. The squilla also has fins at the tail on either side. In the case of both the hump-backed carid and the squilla, the middle part of the tail is spinous, only that in the squilla, the part is flattened, and in the carid it is sharp-pointed. Of all animals, of all animals, of this genus, the crab is the only one devoid of a rump, and while the body of the carid and the crawfish is elongated, that of the crab is rotund. In the crawfish the male differs from the female. In the female, the first foot is bifurcate.

Starting point is 04:54:55 In the male it is undivided. The belly fins in the female are large and overlapping on the neck, while in the male they are smaller and do not overlap. Further, on the last feet of the male, there are spur-like projections, large and sharp, which projections in the female are small and smooth. Both male and female have two antennae in front of the eyes, large and rough, and other antennae underneath, small and smooth. The eyes of all these creatures are hard and beady, and can move either to the inner or to the

Starting point is 04:55:34 outer side. The eyes of most crabs have a similar facility of movement, or rather, in the crab, this facility is developed in a higher degree. The lobster is all over gray-colored, with a mottling of black. Its under or hinder feet, up to the big feet or claws are eight in number. Then come the big feet, far larger and flatter at the tips than the same organs in the crawfish, and these big feet or claws are exceptional in their structure. For the right claw has the extreme flat surface long and thin, while the left claw has the corresponding surface thick and round. Each of the two claws, divided at the end like a pair of jaws, has both below and above

Starting point is 04:56:23 a set of teeth, only that in the right claw they are all small and saw-shaped, while in the left claw, those at the apex are saw-shaped, and those within are molar-shaped, these latter being in the under part of the cleft claw, four teeth close together, and in the upper part, three-teeth, not close together. Both right and left claws have the upper part mobile, and bring it to bear against the lower one, and both are curved, like bandy legs, being thereby naturally adapted for apprehension and constriction. Above, the two large claws come to others, covered with hair, a little underneath the mouth,

Starting point is 04:57:07 and underneath these, the gill-like formations in the region of the mouth, hairy and numerous. These organs the animal keeps in perpetual motion, and the two hairy feet it bends and draws in towards its mouth. The feet near the mouth are furnished also with delicate outgrowing appendages. Like the crawfish, the lobster has two teeth or mandibles, and above these teeth are its antennae, long, but shorter and finer by far than those of the crawfish. And then, for other antennae, similar in shape, but shorter and finer than the others. Over these antennae come the eyes, small and short, not large like the eyes of the crawfish. Over the eyes is a peaky, rough projection like a forehead, larger than the same part in the crawfish.

Starting point is 04:58:04 In fact, the frontal part is more pointed, and the thorax is much broader in the lobster than in the crawfish, and the body in general is smoother and more full of flesh. Of the eight feet four are bifurcate, at the extremities, and four are undivided. The region of the so-called neck is outwardly divided into five divisions, and sixthly comes the flattened portion at the end, and this portion has five flaps or tail fins, and the inner or under parts into which the female drops her spawn are four in number and hairy, and on each of the aforesaid parts is a spine turned outwards, short, and straight. The body in general, and the region of the thorax in particular, are smooth, not rough as in the crawfish, but on the large claws, the outer portion has larger spines.

Starting point is 04:59:02 There is no apparent difference between the male and female, for they both have one claw, whichever it may be, larger than the other, and neither male nor female is ever found with both claws of the same size. All crustaceans take in water close by the mouth. The crab discharges it, closing up, as it does so, a small portion of the same, and the crawfish discharges it by way of the gills. And, by the way, the gill-shaped organs in the crawfish are very numerous. The following properties are common to all crustaceans. They have, in all cases, two teeth or mandibles. For the front teeth in the crawfish are two in number, and in all cases there is in the

Starting point is 04:59:51 mouth a small fleshy structure serving for a tongue, and the stomach is close to the mouth, only that the crawfish has a little esophagus in front of the stomach, and there is a straight gut attached to it. This gut in the crawfish and its congeners, and in the carins, extends in a straight line to the tail, and terminates where the air-es where the antirefish and the antionates where the antioners. animal discharges the residuum, and where the female deposits her spawn. In the crab, it terminates where the flap is situated and in the center of the flap. And, by the way, in all these animals, the spawn is deposited outside.

Starting point is 05:00:33 Further, the female has the place for the spawn running along the gut. And again, all these animals have, more or less, an organ termed the mitus or poppy juice. We must now proceed to review their several differentii. The crawfish, then, as has been said, has two teeth, large and hollow, in which is contained a juice resembling the mitus, and in between the teeth is a fleshy substance shaped like a tongue. After the mouth comes a short esophagus, and then a membranous stomach attached to the esophagus, and at the orifice of the stomach are three teeth.

Starting point is 05:01:14 two facing one another and a third standing by itself underneath coming off at a bend from the stomach is a gut simple and of equal thickness throughout the entire length of the body until it reaches the anal vent these are all common properties of the crawfish the carid and the crab for the crab be it remembered has two teeth again the crawfish has a duct of attached all the way from the chest to the anal vent, and this duct is connected with the ovary in the female, and with the seminal ducts in the male. This passage is attached to the concave surface of the flesh in such a way that the flesh is in betwixt the duct and the gut, for the gut is related to the convexity, and this duct, to the concavity, pretty much as is observed in quadrupan's, and the duct is identical in both the sexes, that is to say, the duct in both is thin and white, and charged with a sallow-colored moisture, and is attached

Starting point is 05:02:24 to the chest. The following are the properties of the egg and of the convolutes in the carid. The male, by the way, differs from the female in regard to its flash, in having, in connection with the chest two separate and distinct white substances, resembling in color and confirmation the tentacles of the cuddlefish, and they are convoluted like the poppy or quasi-liver of the trumpet shell. These organs have their starting point in Cotolidens or Papilli, which are situated under the hindmost feet.

Starting point is 05:03:03 And hereabouts the flesh is red and blood-colored, but is slippery to the touch, and insofar unlike flesh. Off from the convolut organ at the chest branches off another coil about as thick as ordinary twine, and underneath there are two granular seminal bodies in juxtaposition with the gut. These are the organs of the male. The female has red-colored eggs, which are adjacent to the stomach and to each side of the gut, all along to the fleshy parts, being enveloped in a thin membrane. Such are the parts internal and external of the cairn.

Starting point is 05:03:46 Chapter 3. The inner organs of sanguineous animals happen to have specific designations, for these animals have in all cases the inner viscera. But this is not the case with the bloodless animals. But what they have in common with red-blooded animals is the stomach, the esophagus and the gut. With regard to the crab, it has already been stated that it has claws and feet, and their position has been set forth. Furthermore, for the most part, they have the right claw bigger and stronger than the left. It has also been stated that in general, the eyes of the

Starting point is 05:04:25 crab look sideways. Further, the trunk of the crab's body is single and undivided, including its head, and any other part it may possess. Some crabs have eyes placed sideways on the upper part, immediately under the back, and standing a long way apart. And some have their eyes in the center and close together like the crabs of Heracleaties and the so-called grannies. The mouse lies underneath the eyes and inside it there are two teeth, as is the case with the crawfish, only that in the crab the teeth are not rounded but long, and over the teeth are two lids, and in betwixt them are structures such as the crawfish has besides its teeth.

Starting point is 05:05:13 The crab takes in water near by the mouth, using the lids as a check to the inflow, and discharges the water by two passages above the mouse, closing by means of the lids the way by which it entered, and the two passageways are just underneath, the eyes. When it has taken in water, it closes its mouth by means of both lids, and ejects the water in the way above described.

Starting point is 05:05:41 Next after the teeth comes the esophagus, very short, so short in fact that the stomach seems to come straightway after the mouth. Next after the esophagus comes the stomach, too horned, to the centre of which is attached a simple and delicate gut, and the gut terminates outwards at the operculum, as has been previously stated. The crab has the parts in between the lids in the neighborhood of the teeth similar to the same parts in the crawfish. Inside the trunk is a sallow juice, and some few little bodies, mong and white and others spotted red. The male differs from the female in size and breadth, and in respect of the ventral flap, for this is larger in the female

Starting point is 05:06:32 than in the male, and stands out further from the trunk, and is more hairy, as is the case also with the female in the crawfish. So much then for the organs of the malacostrica, or crustacea. and of chapter three, book four, chapter four, of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 4 With the ostracaderma or testations, such as the land snails and the sea snails, and all the oysters, so-called, and also with the sea urchin genus, the fleshy part in such as have

Starting point is 05:07:35 flesh is similarly situated to the fleshy part in the crustaceans. In other words, it is inside the animal, and the shell is outside, and there is no hard substance in the interior. As compared with one another, the testations present many diversities, both in regard to their shells and to the flesh within. Some of them have no flesh at all, as the sea urchin. Others have flesh, but it is inside and wholly hidden, except the hand, as in the land snails and the so-called coccalia, and among pelagic animals, in the purple muragic, the syricks or trumpet shell, the sea-snail, and the spiral-shaped testations in general.

Starting point is 05:08:29 Of the rest, some are bivalved, and some univoved, and by bivalves, I mean such as are enclosed within two shells, and by univolved, such as are enclosed within a single shell, and in these last, the fleshy part is exposed, as in the case of the limpid. Of the bi-valves, some can open out, like the scallop and the muscle, for all such shells are grown together on one side and are separate on the other, so as to open and shut. Other bivalves are closed on both sides alike, like the solon or razor-fish. Some testations there are that are entirely enveloped in shell and expose no portion. of their flesh outside, as the Tethia or Assyrians. Again, in regard to the shells themselves,

Starting point is 05:09:29 the testations present differences when compared with one another. Some are smooth-shelled, like the Solon, the mussel, and some clams. We darelicat those that are nicknamed milk shells, while others are rough-shelled, such as the pool oyster or edible, oyster, the pina, and certain species of cockles, and the trumpet shells, and of these, some are ribbed, such as the scallop, and a certain kind of clam or cockle, and some are devoid of ribs, as the pina, and another species of clam. Testations also differ from one another in regard to the thickness or thinness of their shell, both as regards the shell in its entirety, and as

Starting point is 05:10:18 regards specific parts of the shell, for instance, the lips. For some have thin-lipped shells, like the muscle, and others have thick-lipped shells, like the oyster. A property common to the above mentioned, and, in fact, to all testations, is the smoothness of their shells inside. Some also are capable of motion, like the scallop, and indeed some aver that scallops can actually fly, owing to the circumstance that they often jump right out of the apparatus by means of which they are caught. Others are incapable of motion, and are attached fast to some external object, as is the case with the pina. All the spiral-shaped testations can move and creep, and even the limpid relaxes its hold to go in quest of food.

Starting point is 05:11:18 In the case of the univalves and the bivalves, the fleshy substance adheres to the shell so tenaciously that it can only be removed by an effort. In the case of the stromboids, it is more loosely attached. And a peculiarity of all the stromboids is the spiral twist of the shell in the part farthest away from the hand. They are also furnished from birth with an aperculative. And further, all stromboid testations have their shells on the right-hand side and move not in the direction of the spire, but the opposite way. Such are the diversities observed in the external parts of these animals. The internal structure is almost the same in all these creatures, and in the stromboids especially,

Starting point is 05:12:13 for it is in size that these latter differ from one another. in accidents of the nature of excess or defect, and there is not much difference between most of the univalves and bivalves. But, while those that open and shut differ from one another, but slightly, they differ considerably from such as are incapable of motion. And this will be illustrated more satisfactorily hereafter. The spiral-shaped testations are all similarly constructed, but differing from one another, as has been said, in the way of excess or defect. For the larger species

Starting point is 05:12:54 have larger and more conspicuous organs, and the smaller have smaller and less conspicuous, and furthermore, in relative hardness or softness, and in other such accidents or properties. All the stromboids, for instance, have the flesh that extrudes from the mouth of the shell, hard and stiff, some more and some less. From the middle of this protrudes the head and two horns, and these horns are large in the large species, but exceedingly minute in the smaller ones. The head protrudes from them all in the same way,

Starting point is 05:13:36 and if the animal be alarmed, the head draws in again. Some of these creatures have a mouth and teeth has the snail, teeth sharp and small and delicate. They have also a proboscis, just like that of the fly, and the proboscis is tongue-shaped. The cirricks and the purple meurricks have this organ firm and solid, and just as the myops or horsefly, and the estrus or gadfly can pierce the skin of a quadrupan,

Starting point is 05:14:12 So is this proboscis proportionately stronger in these testations, for they bore right through the shells of other shellfish on which they prey? The stomach follows close upon the mouth, and, by the way, this organ in the snail resembles a bird's crop. Underneath come two white firm formations, mastoid or papillary in form, and similar formations are fanations, and similar formations are very farmy found in the cuttlefish also, only that they are of a firmer consistency in the cuttlefish. After the stomach comes an esophagus, simple and long, extending to the poppy or quasi-liver, which is in the innermost recess of the shell. All these statements may be verified in the case of the purple murix and the syrix, by observation within the whorl of the shell.

Starting point is 05:15:10 What comes next to the esophagus is the gut. In fact, the gut is continuous with the esophagus and runs its whole length, uncomplicated, to the outlet of the residuum. The gut has its point of origin in the region of the coil of the mecon, or so-called poppy, and is wider hereabouts. For remember, the mecon is, for the most part, a sort of excretion in all testations. It then takes a bed-execretion. and runs up again towards the fleshy part, and terminates by the side of the hand, where the

Starting point is 05:15:47 animal discharges its residuum, and this holds good in the case of all stromboid testations, whether terrestrial or marine. From the stomach there is drawn in a parallel direction with the esophagus in the larger snails a long white duct enveloped in a membrane, resembling in color the mastoid formations higher up, and in it are Nixor interruptions, as in the egg mass of the crawfish, only, by the way, the duct of which we are treating is white, and the egg mass of the crawfish is red. This formation has no outlet nor duct, but is enveloped in a thin membrane with a narrow cavity in its interior, and from the gut downward extend black and rough formations

Starting point is 05:16:35 in close connection, something like the formations in the tortoise, only not so black. Marine snails also have these formations, and the white ones, only that the formations are smaller in the smaller species. The non-spiral univalves and bivalves are in some respects similar in construction, and in some respects dissimilar to the spiral testations. They all have a head and horns, and a mouth, and the organ resembling a tongue. But these organs in the smaller species are indiscernible

Starting point is 05:17:11 owing to the minuteness of these animals, and some are indiscernible even in the larger species, when dead, or when at rest and motionless. They all have the mecon or poppy, but not all in the same place, nor of equal size, nor similarly open to observation. Thus the limpets have this organ deep, deep down in the bottom of the shell, and the bivalves at the hinge connecting the two valves.

Starting point is 05:17:42 They also have, in all cases, the hairy growths or beards, in a circular form, as in the scallops, and with regard to the so-called egg, in those that have it, when they have it, it is situated in one of the semicircles of the periphery, as is the case with the white formation in the snail. For this white formation in the snail corresponds to the so-called egg, of which we are speaking. But all these organs, as has been stated, are distinctly traceable in the larger species, while in the small ones they are in some cases almost and in others altogether indiscernible. Hence, they are most plainly visible in the large scallops, and these are the bivalves that have one valve, flat-shaped like the lid of a pot.

Starting point is 05:18:34 The outlet of the excretion is in all these animals, save for the exception to be afterwards related on one side. For there is a passage whereby the excretion passes out. And remember, the mechon or poppy, as has been stated, is an excretion in all these animals, an excretion enveloped in a membrane. The so-called hang has no outlet in any of these creatures, but is merely an excrescence in the fleshy mass, and it is not situated in the same region

Starting point is 05:19:07 with the gut, but the egg is situated on the right-hand side, and the gut on the left. Such are the relations of the anal vent in most of these animals, but in the case of the wild limpet, called by some the sea ear, the residuum issues beneath the shell, for the shell is perforated to give an outlet. In this particular limpet, the stomach is seen coming after the mouth, and the egg-shaped formations are discernible. But for the relative positions of these parts, you are referred to my treatise on anatomy. The so-called carcinium, or hermit crab, is in a way intermediate between the crustaceans

Starting point is 05:19:52 and the testations. In its nature it resembles the crawfish kind, and it is born simple of itself. But by its habit of introducing itself into a shell and living there, it resembles the testations, and so appears to partake of the characters of both kinds. In shape, to give a simple illustration, it resembles a spider, only that the part below the head and thorax is larger in this creature than in the spider. It has two thin red horns, and underneath these horns two long eyes, not retreating inwards, nor turning sideways like the eyes of the crab, but protruding straight

Starting point is 05:20:36 out, and underneath these eyes, the mouth, and round about the mouth several hair-like growths, and next after these two bifurcate legs or claws, whereby it draws in objects towards itself, and two other legs on either side, and a third small one. All below the thorax is soft, and when opened in dissection is found to be sallow-colored within. From the mouth there runs a single passage right on to the stomach, but the passage for the excretions is not discernible. The legs and the thorax are hard, but not so hard as the legs and the thorax of the crab. It does not adhere to its shell like the purple merix and the syrinx, but can easily slip out of it.

Starting point is 05:21:26 It is longer when found in the shell of the stromboids than when found in the shell of the neri-tie. And, by the way, the animal found in the shell of the neri-tie is a separate species, like to the other in most respects, but of its bifurcate feet or claws, the right-hand one is small, and the left-hand one is large, and it progresses chiefly by the aid of this latter and larger one. In the shells of these animals, and in certain others, there is found a parasite whose mode of attachment is similar. The particular one which we have just described is named the cilleros. The nereitis has a smooth, large, round shell, and resembles the

Starting point is 05:22:15 syrux in shape, only the poppy juice is, in its case, not black but red. it clings with great force near the middle. In calm weather then, they go free a field, but when the wind blows, the carcinia take shelter against the rocks. The nerita themselves cling fast like limpets, and the same is the case with the hemorrhoid or apparid, and all others of the like kind. And, by the way, they cling to the rock,

Starting point is 05:22:49 when they turn back their operculum, for this operculum seems like a lid. In fact, this structure represents the one part in the stromboids of that, which in the bivalves is a duplicate shell. The interior of the animal is fleshy, and the mouth is inside, and it is the same with the hemorrhoid, the purple meorex, and all such-like animals. Such of the little crabs as have the left foot or claw the bigger of the two are found in the Neritae, but not in the stromboids. There are some snail shells which have inside them creatures resembling those little crayfish

Starting point is 05:23:36 that are also found in fresh water. These creatures, however, differ in having the part inside the shell soft. But as to their characters, you are referred to my treatise on. on anatomy. End of Chapter 4. Book 4, Chapters 5 to 7 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 05:24:15 Chapter 5 The urchins are devoid of flesh, and this is a character peculiar to them. While they are in all cases empty and devoid of any flesh within, they are, in all cases, furnished with the black formations. There are several species of the urchin, and one of these is that which is made use of for food. This is the kind in which are found the so-called eggs, large and edible, in the larger and smaller specimens alike. For even when, as yet very small, they are provided with them.

Starting point is 05:24:57 There are two other species, the Spatangus and the so-called Brussus. These animals are pelagic and scarce. Further, there are the Echinometra, or mother urchins, the largest in size of all the species. In addition to these, there is another species, small in size but furnished with large hard spines. It lives in the sea at a depth of several fathoms, and is used by some people as a specific four cases of strangery. In the neighborhood of Torone, there are sea urchins of a white color, shells, spines, eggs, and all, and that are longer than the ordinary sea urchin. The spine in this species is not large nor strong, but rather limp, and the black formations in connection with the mouth are more than usually numerous,

Starting point is 05:25:58 and communicate with the external duct, but not with one another. In point of fact, the animal is in a manner divided up by them. The edible urchin moves with greatest freedom and most often, and this is indicated by the fact that these urchins have always something or other on their spines. All urchins are supplied with eggs, but in some of the species the eggs are exceedingly small and unfit for food. Singularly enough, the urchin has what we may call its head and its mouth down below, and a place for the issue of the residuum up above. and this same property is common to all stromboids and to limpets.

Starting point is 05:26:48 For the food on which the creature lives lies down below. Consequently, the mouth has a position well adapted for getting at the food, and the excretion is above, near to the back of the shell. The urchin has also five hollow teeth inside, and in the middle of these teeth a fleshy substance, serving the office of a tongue. Next to this comes the esophagus, and then the stomach divided into five parts

Starting point is 05:27:19 and filled with excretion, all the five parts uniting at the anal vent, where the shell is perforated for an outlet. Underneath the stomach in another membrane are the so-called eggs, identical in number in all cases, and that number is always an odd number, to it five.

Starting point is 05:27:41 Up above, the black formations are attached to the starting point of the teeth, and they are bitter to the taste and unfit for food. A similar, or at least an analogous formation, is found in many animals, as, for instance, in the tortoise, the toad, the frog, the stromboids, and generally in the mollusks. But the formation varies here and there in color, and in all cases is altogether uneatable, or more or less unpalatable. In reality, the mouth apparatus of the urchin is continuous from one end to the other. But to outward appearance, it is not so, but looks like a horn lantern, with the pains of horn left out.

Starting point is 05:28:28 The urchin uses its spines his feet, for it rests its weight on these, and then, moving, shifts from place to place. Chapter 6 The so-called tethium or assidion has of all these animals the most remarkable characteristics. It is the only mollusk that has its entire body concealed within its shell, and the shell is a substance intermediate between hide and shell, so that it cuts like a piece of hard leather. It is attached to rocks by its shell, and is provided with two passages placed at a distance from one another, very minute and hard to see, whereby it admits and discharges the seawater, for it has no visible excretion, whereas of shellfish in general some resemble the urchin

Starting point is 05:29:21 in this matter of excretion, and others are provided with the so-called mecon or poppy juice. If the animal be opened, it is found to have, in the first place, a tendinous membrane running round inside the shell-like substance, and within this membrane is the flesh-like substance of the acidion, not resembling that in other mollusks, but this flesh, to which I now allude, is the same in all acidia. And this substance is attached in two places to the membrane and the skin, obliquely, and at the point of attachment the space is narrowed from side to side, where the fleshy substance stretches towards the passages that lead outwards through the shell. And here it discharges and admits food and liquid matter,

Starting point is 05:30:12 just as it would if one of the passages were a mouth and the other an anal vent. And one of the passages is somewhat wider than the other one. Inside it has a pair of cavities, one on either side, a small partition separating them, and one of these two cavities contains the liquid. The creature has no other organ, whether motor or sensory, nor, as was said, in the case of the others, is it furnished with any organ connected with excretion,

Starting point is 05:30:44 as other shellfish are? The color of the acidion is in some cases sallow, and in other cases red. There is, furthermore, the genus of the sea nettles, peculiar in its way. The sea-nettle, or sea anemone, clings to rocks like certain of the testations, but at times relaxes its hold. It has no shell, but its entire body is fleshy.

Starting point is 05:31:12 It is sensitive to touch, and if you put your hand to it, it will seize and cling to it, as the cuttlefish would do with its feelers, and in such a way as to make the flesh of your hand swell up. Its mouth is in the center of its body, and it lives adhering to the rock as an oyster to its shell. If any little fish come up against it, it clings to it. In fact, just as I described it above as doing it your hand, so it does to anything edible that comes in its way, and it feeds upon sea urchins and scallops.

Starting point is 05:31:50 Another species of the sea nettle roams freely abroad. The sea nettle appears to be devoid altogether of excretion, and in this respect it resembles a plant. Of sea nettles, there are two species, the lesser and more edible, and the larger hard ones, such as are found in the neighborhood of calciss. In wintertime, their flesh is firm, and accordingly they are sought after as articles of food, but in summer weather they are worthless, for they become thin and long. watery, and if you catch at them, they break at once into bits, and cannot be taken off the rocks entire, and being oppressed by the heat, they tend to slip back into the crevices of

Starting point is 05:32:36 the rocks. So much for the external and the internal organs of mollusks, crustaceans, and testations. Chapter 7 We now proceed to treat of insects in like manner. This genus comprises many, species, and though several kinds are clearly related to one another, these are not classified under one common designation, as in the case of the bee, the drone, the wasp, and all such insects, and again, as in the case of those that have their wings in a sheath or shard, like the cockchafer, the caribus or stag beetle, the cantharis or blister beetle, and the like. Insects have three parts common to them all, the hand, the trunk containing the stomach,

Starting point is 05:33:28 and a third part in betwixt these two, corresponding to what in other creatures embraces chest and back. In the majority of insects, this intermediate part is single, but in the long and multi-pedal insects, it has practically the same number of segments as of nix. All insects, when cut in two, continue to live, accepting such as are naturally cold by nature, or such as, from their minute size, chill rapidly, though, by the way, wasps, notwithstanding their small size, continue living after severance. In conjunction with the middle portion, either the head or the stomach can live, but the head cannot live by itself. Insects that are long in shape and many-footed can live for a long while after being cut in twain,

Starting point is 05:34:22 and the severed portions can move in either direction, backwards or forwards. Thus, the hinder portion, if cut off, can crawl either in the direction of the section or in the direction of the tail, as is observed in the scolopendra. All insects have eyes, but no other or other or. organ of sense discernible, except that some insects have a kind of a tongue corresponding to a similar organ common to all testations. And by this organ, such insects taste and imbibe their food. In some insects, this organ is soft. In other insects it is firm, as it is, by the way, in the purple fish among testations. In the horsefly and the gadfly, this organ is hard, and indeed,

Starting point is 05:35:13 it is hard in most insects. In point of fact, such insects as have no sting in the rear, use this organ as a weapon. And, by the way, such insects as are provided with this organ are unprovided with teeth, with the exception of a few insects. The fly, by a touch, can draw blood with this organ, and the gnat can prick or sting with it. Certain insects are furnished with prickers or stings. Some insects have the sting inside as the bee and the wasp, others outside as the scorpion. And, by the way, this is the only insect furnished with a long tail. And further, the scorpion is furnished with claws, as is also the creature resembling a scorpion found within the pages of books. In addition to their other organs, flying insects are furnished

Starting point is 05:36:13 with wings. Some insects are dipterous or double-winged as the fly. Others are tetraptrus or furnished with four wings as the bee. And by the way, no insect with only two wings has a sting in the rear. Again, some winged insects have a sheath or shard for their wings as the cockchafer, whereas in others the wings are unsheathed as in the bee. But in the case of all alike, flight is in no way modified by tail steerage, and the wing is devoid of quill structure or division of any kind. Again, some insects have antennae in front of their eyes as the butterfly and the horned beetle. Such of them, as have the power of jumping, have the hinder legs the longer, and these long hind legs whereby they jump bend backwards like the hind legs of quadrupeds. All insects have the

Starting point is 05:37:09 belly different from the back, as in fact is the case with all animals. The flesh of an insect's body is neither shell-like, nor is it like the internal substance of shell-covered animals, nor is it like flesh in the ordinary sense of the term, but it is a something intermediate in quality. Wherefore they have nor spine, nor bone, nor sepia bone, nor enveloping shell, but their body, by its hardness, is its own protection, and requires no extraneous support. However, insects have a skin, but the skin is exceedingly thin. Knees and such like are the external organs of insects. Internally, next after the mouth comes a gut, in the majority of cases,

Starting point is 05:37:58 straight and simple, down to the outlet of the residuum, but in a few cases the gut is coiled. No insect is provided with any viscera or is supplied with fat, and these statements apply to all animals devoid of blood. Some have a stomach also, and attached to this the rest of the gut, either simple or convoluted, as in the case of the acris or grasshopper. The tetics or cicada alone of such creatures, and in fact alone of all creatures, is unprovided. with a mouth. But it is provided with the tongue-like formation found in insects furnished with frontward stings. And this formation in the cicada is long, continuous, and devoid of any splint. And by the aid of this the creature feeds on dew, and on dew only, and in its

Starting point is 05:38:56 stomach no excretion is ever found. Of the cicada, there are several kinds, and they differ from one another in relative magnitude, and in this respect that the acetes or chirper is provided with a cleft or aperture under the hyposoma, and has in it a membrane quite discernible, whilst the membrane is indiscernible in the tetagonia. Furthermore, there are some strange creatures to be found in the sea, which, from their rarity we are unable to classify. experienced fishermen affirm, some that they have at time seen in the sea, animals like sticks, black, rounded, and of the same thickness throughout. Others that they have seen creatures resembling shields, red in color, and furnished with fins,

Starting point is 05:39:50 packed close together, and others that they have seen creatures resembling the male organ in shape and size, with a pair of fins in the place of the testicles, and they aver that on one occasion, a creature of this description, was brought up on the end of a night line. So much then, for the parts external and internal, exceptional and common of all animals. And of chapter 7. Chapters 8 and 9 of Book 4 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 05:40:39 Chapter 8. We now proceed to treat of the senses, for there are diversities in animals with regard to the senses, seeing that some animals have the use of all the senses, and others the use of a limited number of them. The total number of the senses, for we have no experience of any special sense, not here included is five. Sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Man then, and all vivipera that have feet, and further all red-blooded ovipra, appear to

Starting point is 05:41:21 have the use of all the five senses, except where some isolated species has been subjected to mutilation, as in the case of the mole. for this animal is deprived of sight. It has no eyes visible. But if the skin, a thick one, by the way, be stripped off the head, about the place in the exterior where eyes usually are, the eyes are found inside in a stunted condition, furnished with all the parts found in ordinary eyes,

Starting point is 05:41:58 That is to say, we find there the black rim, and the fatty part surrounding it. But all these parts are smaller than the same parts in ordinary visible eyes. There is no external sign of the existence of these organs in the mole, owing to the thickness of the skin drawn over them, so that it would seem that the natural course of development were congenitly arrested. for extending from the brain, at its junction with the marrow, are two strong sinewy ducks, running past the sockets of the eyes, and terminating at the upper eye teeth. All the other animals of the kinds above-mentioned have a perception of color and of sound,

Starting point is 05:42:48 and the senses of smell and taste. The fifth sense, that, namely of touch, is common to all animals whatsoever. In some animals, the organs of sense are plainly discernible, and this is especially the case with the eyes. For animals have a special locality for the eyes, and also a special locality for hearing. That is to say, some animals have ears, while others have the passage for sound discernible. It is the same with the sense of smell, that is to say, some animals have nostrils. and others have only the passages for smell, such as burns.

Starting point is 05:43:34 It is the same also with the organ of taste, the tongue. Of aquatic, red-blooded animals, fishes possess the organ of taste, namely the tongue, but it is in an imperfect and amorphous form. In other words, it is ausious and undetached. In some fish, the palate is fleshy, as in the fresh, water carp, so that by an inattentive observer it might be mistaken for a tongue. There is no doubt but that fishes have the sense of taste, for a great number of them delight in special flavors, and fishes freely take the hook if it be baited with a piece of flesh

Starting point is 05:44:18 from a tony or from any fat fish, obviously enjoying the taste and the eating of food of this kind. fishes have no visible organs for hearing or for smell. For what might appear to indicate an organ for smell in the region of the nostril has no communication with the brain. These indications, in fact, in some cases, lead nowhere, like blind alleys, and in other cases lead only to the gills. But for all this, fishes undoubtedly hear and smell, for they are observed to run away from any loud noise,

Starting point is 05:44:58 such as would be made by the rowing of a galley, so as to become easy of capture in their holes. For, by the way, though a sound be very slight in the open air, it has allowed an alarming resonance to creatures that hear underwater. And this is shown in the capture of the dolphin. For when the hunters have enclosed a shoal of these fishes

Starting point is 05:45:22 with a ring of their canoes. They set up from inside the canoes a loud splashing in the water, and by so doing induce the creatures to run in a shoal, high and dry up on the beach, and so capture them while stupefied with the noise. And yet, for all this, the dolphin has no organ of hearing discernible. Furthermore, when engaged in their craft, fishermen are particularly careful to make no noise with ore or net, and after they have spied a shawl, they let down their nets at a spot so far off

Starting point is 05:46:04 that they count upon no noise being likely to reach the shawl, occasioned either by ore or by the surging of their boats through the water, and the crews are strictly enjoined to preserve silence until the shoal has been surrounded. And at times, when they want the fish to crowd together, they adopt the stratagem of the dolphin hunter. In other words, they clatter stones together, that the fish may, in their fright, gather close into one spot, and so they envelop them with their nets. Before surrounding them, then, they preserve silence, as was said. But after hemming the shoal in, they call on every man to shout out aloud and make

Starting point is 05:46:52 any kind of noise, for on hearing the noise and hubbub, the fish are sure to tumble into the nets from sheer fright. Further, when fishermen see a shoal of fish feeding at a distance, disporting themselves in calm, bright weather on the surface of the water, if they are anxious To descry the size of the fish, and to learn what kind of a fish it is, they may succeed in coming upon the shoal, whilst yet basking at the surface if they sail up without the slightest noise. But if any man make a noise previously, the shoal will be seen to scurry away in alarm. Again, there is a small riverfish called the Cotas, or Bullhead.

Starting point is 05:47:39 This creature burrows under a rock, and fishers catch it by clattering stones against the rock, and the fish, bewildered at the noise, darts out of its hiding place. From these facts it is quite obvious that fishes can hear, and indeed some people from living near the sea, and frequently witnessing such phenomena affirm that of all living creatures the fish is the quickest of hearing. And, by the way, of all fishes, the quickest of hearing are the kestrius or mullet, the crimps, the labracks or bass, the salpe or salp, the chrymese or schina, and such like. Other fishes are less quick of hearing, and as might be expected, are more apt to be found

Starting point is 05:48:30 living at the bottom of the sea. The case is similar in regard to the sense of smell. Thus, as a rule, fishes will not touch a bait that is not fresh. Neither are they all caught by one and the same bait, but they are severally caught by beets suited to their several likings, and these baits they distinguish by their sense of smell. And, by the way, some fishes are attracted by malodorous baits, as the selp, for instance, is attracted by exer.

Starting point is 05:49:02 excrement. Again, a number of fishes live in caves, and accordingly, fishermen, when they want to entice them out, smear the mouth of a cave with strong-smelling pickles, and the fish are soon attracted to the smell. And the eel is caught in a similar way, for the fisherman lays down an earthen pot that has held pickles, after inserting a wheel in the neck thereof. As a general rule, fishes are especially attracted by savoury smells. For this reason, fishermen roast the fleshy parts of the cuttlefish and use it as bait on account of its smell, for fish are peculiarly attracted by it. They also bake the octopus and bait their fish baskets or wheels with it, entirely, as they say, on account of its smell. Furthermore, gregarious fishes, if fishwashings

Starting point is 05:49:59 or bilge water be thrown overboard, are observed to scud off to a distance from apparent dislike of the smell. And it is asserted that they can at once detect by smell the presence of their own blood, and this faculty is manifested by their hurrying off to a great distance whenever fish blood is spilt in the sea. And, as a general rule, if you bait your wheel with a stinking bait, the fish refused to enter the wheel or even to draw near. But if you bait the wheel with a fresh and savory bait, they come at once from long distances and swim into it. And all this is particularly manifest in the dolphin,

Starting point is 05:50:43 for, as was stated, it has no visible organ of hearing, and yet it is captured when stupefied with noise. And so, while it has no visible organ for smell, It has the sense of smell remarkably keen. It is manifest, then, that the animals above-mentioned are in possession of all the five senses. All other animals may, with very few exceptions, be comprehended within four genera, to it mollusks, crustaceans, testations, and insects. Of these four genera, the mollusk, the crustacean, and the insect have all the mosts,

Starting point is 05:51:25 all the senses. At all events, they have sight, smell, and taste. As for insects, both winged and wingless, they can detect the presence of scented objects afar off, as, for instance, bees and snipes detect the presence of honey at a distance, and they do so, recognizing it by smell. Many insects are killed by the smell of brimstone. Ants, if the apertures to their dwellings be smeared with powdered oregano and brimstone quit their nests, and most insects may be banished with burnt hearts horn, or, better still, by the burning of the gum, styrax. The cuttlefish, the octopus, and the crawfish may be caught by bait. The octopus, in fact, clings so tightly to the rocks that it cannot be pulled off,

Starting point is 05:52:22 but remains attached even when the knife is employed to sever it. And yet, if you apply fleaane to the creature, it drops off at the very smell of it. The facts are similar in regard to taste. For the food that insects go in quest of is of diverse kinds, and they do not all delight in the same flavors. For instance, the bee never settles on a withered or wilted flower, but on fresh and sweet ones, and the conops, or gnat, settles only on acrid substances and not on sweet. The sense of touch, by the way, as has been remarked, is common to all animals.

Starting point is 05:53:05 Testations have the senses of smell and taste. With regard to their possession of the sense of smell, that is proved by the use of baits. Exempligratia, in the case of the purple fish, for this crue. creature is enticed by baits of rancid meat, which it perceives and is attracted to from a great distance. The proof that it possesses a sense of taste hangs by the proof of its sense of smell, for whenever an animal is attracted to a thing by perceiving its smell, it is sure to like the taste of it.

Starting point is 05:53:43 Further, all animals furnished with a mouth derive pleasure or pain from the touch of sapid juices. With regard to sight and hearing, we cannot make statements with thorough confidence or on irrefutable evidence. However, the solon or razorfish, if you make a noise, appears to burrow in the sand and to hide himself deeper when he hears the approach of the iron rod. For the animal, be it observed, juts a little out of its home, while the greater part of the body remains within. And scallops, if you present your finger near their open valves, close them tight again, as though they could see what you were doing. Furthermore, when fishermen are laying bait for neri-tie, they always get to leeward of them and never speak a word while so engaged,

Starting point is 05:54:43 under the firm impression that the animal can smell and hear, and they assure us that, If anyone speaks aloud, the creature makes efforts to escape. With regard to testations of the walking or creeping species, the urchin appears to have the least developed sense of smell, and of the stationary species the acidion and the barnacle. So much for the organs of sense, in the general run of animals. We now proceed to treat a voice. Chapter 9

Starting point is 05:55:17 Voice and sound are different from one another, and language differs from voice and sound. The fact is that no animal can give utterance to voice except by the action of the pharynx, and consequently such animals as are devoid of lung have no voice, and language is the articulation of vocal sounds by the instrumentality of the tongue. Thus, the voice and larynx can emit vocal. or vowel sounds. Non- vocal or consonantal sounds are made by the tongue and the lips, and out of these vocal and non-vocal sounds language is composed. Consequently, animals that have no tongue at all, or that have a tongue, not freely detached, have neither voice nor language, although, by the way,

Starting point is 05:56:12 they may be enabled to make noises or sounds by other organs than the tongue. Insects, for instance, have no voice and no language, but they can emit sound by internal air or wind, though not by the emission of air or wind. For no insects are capable of respiration, but some of them make a humming noise like the bee, and the other winged insects, and others are said to sing as the cicada. And, all these latter insects make their special noises by means of the membrane that is underneath the hyposoma. Those insects, that is to say, whose body is thus divided. As, for instance, one species of cicada, which makes the sound by means of the friction of the air.

Starting point is 05:57:05 Flies and bees and the like produce their special noise by opening and shutting their wings in the act of flying. For the noise made is by the noise made is by the light. friction of air between the wings when in motion. The noise made by grasshoppers is produced by rubbing or reverberating with their long hind legs. No mollus or crustacean can produce any natural voice or sound. Fishers can produce no voice, for they have no lungs, nor windpipe and farings, but they emit certain inarticulate sounds and squeaks, which is what is called their voice.

Starting point is 05:57:44 voice as the Lyra or Gernerd and the Schina. For these fishes make a grunting kind of noise, and the capris or boarfish in the river Ackaloas, and the chalcis, and the cuckoo fish. For the chalcis makes a sort of piping sound, and the cuckoo fish makes a sound greatly like the cry of the cuckoo, and is nicknamed from the circumstance. The apparent voice in all these fishes is a sound caused in some cases by a rubbing motion of their gills, which, by the way, are prickly, or in other cases by internal parts about their bellies, for they all have air or wind inside them, by rubbing and moving, which they produce the sounds. Some cartilaginous fish seem to squeak.

Starting point is 05:58:39 But in these cases the term voice is inappropriate. The more correct expression would be sound. For the scallop, when it goes along supporting itself on the water, which is technically called flying, makes a whizzing sound, and so does the sea swallow or flying fish. For this fish, flies in the air clean out of the water, being furnished with fins, broad and long. Just then, as in the flight of birds,

Starting point is 05:59:09 The sound made by their wings is obviously not voice, so is it in the case of all these other creatures. The dolphin, when taken out of the water, gives a squeak and moans in the air. But these noises do not resemble those above mentioned, for this creature has a voice, and can therefore utter vocal or vowel sounds, for it is furnished with a lung and windpipe, its tongue is not loose, nor has it lips so as to give utterance to an articulate sound, or a sound of vowel and consonant in combination. Of animals which are furnished with tongue and lung, the oviparous quadrupanes produce a voice,

Starting point is 05:59:56 but a feeble one, in some cases a shrill piping sound like the serpent, in others a thin, faint cry. In others, a low hiss, like the tortoise. The formation of the tongue in the frog is exceptional. The front part of the tongue, which in other animals is detached, is tightly fixed in the frog, as it is in all fishes. But the part towards the pharynx is freely detached, and may, so to speak, be spat outwards, and it is with this that it makes its peculiar croak. The croaking that goes on in the marsh is the call of the males to the females at rutting time, and, by the way, all animals have a special cry for the like end at the like season, as is observed in the case of goats, swine, and sheep.

Starting point is 06:00:52 The bullfrog makes its croaking noise by putting its under jaw on a level with the surface of the water, and extending its upper jaw to its utmost capacity. The tension is so great that the upper jaw becomes transparent, and the animal's eyes shine through the jaw like lamps. For, by the way, the commerce of the sexes takes place usually in the night time. Birds can utter vocal sounds, and such of them can articulate best as have the tongue moderately flat, and also such as have thin, delicate tongues.

Starting point is 06:01:33 In some cases the male and the female utter the same note. In other cases, different notes. The smaller birds are more vocal and to give in to chirping than the larger ones. But in the pairing season, every species of bird becomes particularly vocal. Some of them call when fighting as the quail. Others cry or crow when challenging to combat. as the partridge, or when victorious, as the barn-door cock. In some cases, cock birds and hens sing alike, as is observed in the nightingale,

Starting point is 06:02:11 only that the hen stops singing when brooding or rearing her young. In other birds, the cocks sing more than the hens. In fact, with barn-door fowls and quails, the cock sings and the hen does not. Viviparous quadrups utter vocal sounds of different kinds, but they have no power of converse. In fact, this power or language is peculiar to man, for while the capability of talking implies the capability of uttering vocal sounds, the converse does not hold good. Men, that are born deaf, are in all cases also dumb. That is, they can make vocal sounds, but they cannot see.

Starting point is 06:02:57 speak. Children, just as they have no control over other parts, so have no control at first over the tongue. But it is so far imperfect, and only freeze and detaches itself by degrees, so that in the interval children, for the most part, lisp and stutter. Vocal sounds and modes of language differ according to locality. Vocal sounds are characterized chiefly by their pitch, whether high or low, and the kinds of sound capable of being produced are identical within the limits of one and the same species. But articulate sound, that one might reasonably designate language, differs both in various animals and also in the same species according to diversity of locality. As, for instance, some partridges cackle, and some make a shrill-twittering noise.

Starting point is 06:03:55 Of little birds, some sing a different note from the parent birds, if they have been removed from the nest and have heard other birds singing, and a mother nightingale has been observed to give lessons in singing to a young bird, from which spectacle we might obviously infer that the song of the bird was not equally congenital with mere voice, but was something capable of modification and of improvement. men have the same voice or vocal sounds, but they differ from one another in speech or language. The elephant makes a vocal sound of a wind-like sort by the mouse alone, and aided by the trunk, just like the sound of a man panting or sighing. But if it employ the trunk as well,

Starting point is 06:04:45 the sound produced is like that of a horse trumpet. And of Chapter 9. Chapter 10 and 11 of Book 4 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 10 With regard to the sleeping and waking of animals, all creatures that are red-blooded and provided with legs give sensible proof that they go to sleep, and that they waken up from sleep.

Starting point is 06:05:31 For, as a matter of fact, all animals that are furnished with eyelids shut them up when they go to sleep. Furthermore, it would appear that not only do men dream, but horses also, and dogs, and oxen, I, and sheep, and goats, and all viviparous quadrupeds, and dogs, show their dreaming by barking in their sleep. With regard to oviparous animals, we cannot be sure that they dream, but most undoubtedly they sleep, and the same may be said of water animals, such as fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, to it crawfish and the like. These animals sleep without doubt, although their sleep is of very short duration. The proof of their sleeping cannot be got from the condition of their eyes, for none of these creatures are furnished with

Starting point is 06:06:30 islands, but can be obtained only from their motionless repose. Apart from the irritation caused by lice, and what are nicknamed fleas, fish are met with in a state so motionless that one might easily catch them by hand, and, as a matter of fact, these little creatures, if the fish remain long, in one position, will attack them in myriads and devour them. For these parasites are found in the depths of the sea, and are so numerous that they devour any bait made of fishes' flesh, if it be left long on the ground at the bottom, and fishermen often draw up a cluster of them, all clinging on to the bait. But it is from the following facts that we may more reasonably infer that

Starting point is 06:07:25 fish's sleep. Very often it is possible to take a fish off its guard, so far as to catch hold of it, or to give it a blow unawares. And all the while that you are preparing to catch or strike it, the fish is quite still, but for a slight motion of the tail. And it is quite obvious that the animal is sleeping from its movements, if any disturbance be made during its repone. for it moves just as you would expect in a creature suddenly awakened. Further, owing to their being asleep, fish may be captured by torchlight. The watchmen in the Tunny fishery often take advantage of the fish being asleep to envelop them in a circle of nets.

Starting point is 06:08:17 And it is quite obvious that they were thus sleeping by their lying still and allowing the glistening underpard. of their bodies to become visible, while the capture is taking place. They sleep in the nighttime more than during the day, and so soundly at night that you may cast the net without making them stir. Fish, as a general rule, sleep close to the ground, or to the sand, or to a stone at the bottom, or after concealing themselves under a rock or the ground. Flat fish go to sleep in the sand, and they can be distinguished by the outlines of their shapes in the sand, and are caught in this position by being speared with pronged instruments.

Starting point is 06:09:07 The bass, the Chrysophrus or gilt hand, the mullet, and fish of the like sort are often caught in the daytime by the prong, owing to their having been surprised when sleeping, for it is scarcely probable that such fish could be pronged while awake. Cartilaginous fish sleep at times so soundly that they may be caught by hand. The dolphin and the whale, and all such as are furnished with a blowhole, sleep with the blowhole over the surface of the water, and breathe through the blowhole while they keep up a quiet flapping of their fins. Indeed, some mariners assure us that they have actually heard the dolphin snoring.

Starting point is 06:09:56 Mollusks sleep-like fishes and crustaceans also. It is plain also that insects sleep, for there can be no mistaking their condition of motionless repose. In the bee, the fact of its being asleep is very obvious, for at nighttime bees are at rest and cease to hum. But the fact that insects sleep may be very well seen in the case of common everyday creatures. For not only do they rest at night time from dimness of vision, and, by the way, all hard-eyed creatures see but indistinctly, but even if a lighted candle be presented, they continue sleeping quite as soundly.

Starting point is 06:10:41 Of all animals man is most given to dreaming. Children and infants do not dream, but in most cases dreaming comes on at the age of four or five years. Instances have been known of full-grown men and women that have never dreamed at all. In exceptional cases of this kind, it has been observed that when a dream occurs in advanced life, it prognosticates either actual dissolution or a general breakup of the system. So much, then, for sensation and for the phenomena of sleeping, End of Awakening.

Starting point is 06:11:20 Chapter 11 With regard to sex, some animals are divided into male and female, but others are not so divided, but can only be said in a comparative way to bring forth young and to be pregnant. In animals that live confined to one spot, there is no duality of sex, nor is there such, in fact, in any testations. In mollusks and in crustaceans, we find male and female, and indeed, in all animals furnished with feet, biped, or quadruped,

Starting point is 06:11:54 in short, in all such as by copulation and gender either live, young, or egg, or grump. In the several genera, with however certain exceptions, there either absolutely is, or absolutely is not a duality of sex. Thus, in quadrupeds, the duality is universal, while the absence of such duality is universal intestations, and of these creatures, as with plants, some individuals are fruitful, and some are not. But among insects and fishes, some cases are found wholly devoid of this duality of sex. For instance, the eel is neither male nor female, and can engender nothing. In fact, those who assert that eels are at times found with hair-like or worm-like progeny

Starting point is 06:12:47 attached make only random assertions from not having carefully noticed the locality of such attachments. For no eel nor animal of this kind is ever viviparous, unless previously oviparous, and no eel was ever yet seen with an egg. and animals that are viviparous have their young in the womb, and closely attached, and not in the belly. For if the embryo were kept in the belly, it would be subjected to the process of digestion like ordinary food. When people rest duality of sex in the eel on the assertion that the head of the male is bigger and longer, and the head of the female smaller and more snubbed, they are taking diversity of species, for diversity of sex.

Starting point is 06:13:39 There are certain fish that are nicknamed the epitraguei or capen fish, and, by the way, fish of this description are found in fresh water, as the carp and the balagrus. This sort of fish never has either row or milt, but they are hard and fat all over, and are furnished with a small gut, and these fish are regarded as of superexecis. quality. Again, just as in testations and in plants, there is what bears and engenders,

Starting point is 06:14:14 but not what impregnates. So is it among fishes, with the psetta, the erythrinus, and the cany. For these fish are in all cases found furnished with eggs. As a general rule, in red-blooded animals, furnished with feet and not oviparous, the male is larger and longer lived than the female, except with the mule, where the female is longer-lived and bigger than the male. Whereas in oviparous and vermiparous creatures, as in fishes and in insects, the female is larger than the male, as, for instance, with the serpent, the phalangium or venom spider, the gecko and the frog. The same difference in size of the sexes is found in fishes, as, for instance, in the smaller

Starting point is 06:15:04 cartilaginous fishes, in the greater part of the gregaria species, and in all that live in and about the rocks. The fact that the female is longer lived than the male is inferred from the fact that female fishes are caught older than males. Furthermore, in all animals, the upper and front parts are better, stronger, and more thoroughly equipped in the male than in the female, Whereas in the female those parts are the better that may be termed hinder parts or underpants. And this statement is applicable to man and to all viperum that have feet. Again, the female is less muscular and less compactly jointed, and more thin and delicate in the hair, that is where hair is found, and where there is no hair, less strongly furnished,

Starting point is 06:15:56 in some analogous substance. And the female is more flaccid in texture of flesh, and more knock-kneed, and the shin bones are thinner, and the feet are more arched and hollow in such animals as are furnished with feet. And, with regard to voice, the female in all animals that are vocal has a thinner and sharper voice than the male, except, by the way, with kind, for the lowing and bellowing of the cow has a deeper note than that of the bull. With regard to organs of defense and offense such as teeth, tusks, horns, spurs, and the like, these in some species the male possesses and the female does not, as, for instance, the hind has no horns, and where the cockbird has a spur, the hen is entirely destitute of the organ,

Starting point is 06:16:50 and in like manner the sow is devoid of tusks. In other species, such organs are found in both sexes, but are more perfectly developed in the male, as, for instance, the horn of the bull is more powerful than the horn of the cow. End of Chapter 11, and end of book 4. Chapters 1 to 7 of Book 5 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy, Wentworth-Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 1

Starting point is 06:17:37 As to the parts internal and external, that all animals are furnished with all, and further, as to the senses, to voice and sleep, and the duality of sex, all these topics have now been touched upon. It now remains for us to discuss duly and in order, there are several modes of propagation. These modes are many and diverse, and in some respects are like, and in other respects are unlike to one another.

Starting point is 06:18:14 As we carried on our previous discussion, genus by genus, so we must attempt to follow the same divisions in our present argument, only that whereas in the former case we started with a consideration of the parts of man, In the present case it behoves us to treat of man last of all, because he involves most discussion. We shall commence then with testations, and then proceed to crustaceans, and then to the

Starting point is 06:18:46 other genera in due order. And these other genera are, severally, mollusks and insects, then fishes, viviparous, and fishes oviparous, and next birds, and afterwards we shall treat of animals provided with feet, both such as our oviparous and such as our viviparous, and we may observe that some quadrupeds are viviparous, but that the only viviparous biped is man. Now, there is one property that animals are found to have in common with plants, for some plants are generated from the seed of plants, whilst other plants are self-generated through the formation of some elemental principle similar to a seed.

Starting point is 06:19:35 And of these latter plants, some derive their nutriment from the ground, whilst others grow inside other plants, as is mentioned by the way in my treatise on botany. So, with animals, some spring from parent animals according to their kind, whilst others grow spontaneously and not from kindred stock. And of these instances of spontaneous generation, some come from putrefying earth or vegetable matter, as is the case with a number of insects, while others are spontaneously generated in the inside of animals

Starting point is 06:20:13 out of the secretions of their several organs. In animals where generation goes by heredity, wherever there is duality of sex, generation is due to copulation. In the group of fishes, however, there are some that are neither male nor female, and these, while they aren't identical generically with other fish, differ from them specifically, but there are others that stand altogether isolated and apart by themselves. Other fishes, there are, that are always female and never male,

Starting point is 06:20:48 and from them are conceived what correspond to the wind-eggs in burns. Such eggs, by the way, in birds are all unfruitful, but it is their nature to be independently capable of generation, up to the egg-stange, unless, indeed, there be some other mode than the one familiar to us of intercourse with the male. But concerning these topics, we shall treat more precisely later on. In the case of certain fishes, however, after they have spontaneously generated eggs, these eggs develop into living animals, only that in certain of these cases development is spontaneous,

Starting point is 06:21:30 and in others is not independent of the male. And the method of proceeding in regard to these matters will be set forth by and by, for the method is somewhat like to the method followed in the case of burns. But whensoever creatures are spontaneously generated, either in other animals, in the soil, or on plants, or in the parts of these, and when such are generated male and female, then from the copulation of such spontaneously generated males and females, there is generated a something, a something never identical in shape with the parents, but a something imperfect. For instance, the issue of copulation in lice is nits. In flies, grubs. In fleas, grubs egg-like in shape. And from these issues, the parent species is never reproduced, nor is any animal produced at all,

Starting point is 06:22:30 but the like nondescripps only. First then, we must proceed to treat of covering in regard to such animals as cover and are covered, and then after this to treat in due order of other matters, both the exceptional and those of general occurrence. Chapter 2 Those animals then cover and are covered, in which there is a duality of sex, and the modes of covering in such animals are not in all cases similar, nor analogous. For the red-blooded animals that are viviparous and furnished with feet, have an all

Starting point is 06:23:10 cases organs adapted for procreation, but the sexes do not in all cases come together in like manner. Thus, epithoretic animals copulate with a rear-word presentment, as is the case with the lion, the hair and the links, though, by the way, in the case of the hair, the female is often observed to cover the male. The case is similar in most other such animals, that is to say the majority of quadrupeds copulate as best they can, the male mounting the female. And this is the only method of copulating adopted by burns, though there are certain diversities of method observed even in burns. For in some cases the female squats on the ground and the male mounts on top of her, as is the case with the cock

Starting point is 06:23:59 and hen busterned, and the barn door cock and hen. In other cases the male mounts without the female squatting, as with the male and female crane. For with these burns, the male mounts onto the back of the female, and covers her, and, like the cocksbarrow, consumes but very little time in the operation. Of quadrupeds, bears perform the operation lying prone on one another, in the same way as other quadrupeds do while standing up. That is to say, with the belly of the male pressed to the back of the female. Hedgehogs, copulate erect, belly to belly. With regard to large-sized vivipura, the hind only, very rarely sustains the mounting of the stag to the full conclusion of the operation, and the same is the case with the cow as regards

Starting point is 06:24:54 the bull, owing to the rigidity of the penis of the bull. In point of fact, the females of these animals elicit the sperm of the male in the act of withdrawing from underneath. him, and, by the way, this phenomenon has been observed in the case of the stag and hind, domesticated, of course. Covering with the wolf is the same as with the dog. Cats do not copulate with a rear-word presentiment, on the part of the female, but the male stands erect and the female puts herself underneath him. And by the way, the female cat is peculiarly lecherous, and wheedles the male on to

Starting point is 06:25:35 sexual commerce, and catar-walls during the operation. Camels copulate with the female in a sitting posture, and the male straddles over and covers her, not with the hinder presentiment, on the female's part, but like the other quadrupeds mentioned above, and they pass the whole day long in the operation. When thus engaged, they retire to lonely spots, and none but their keeper dare approach them. And, be it observed, the penis of the camel is so sinewy that bow-strings are manufactured out of it. Elephants also copulate in lonely places, and especially by riversides, in their usual

Starting point is 06:26:20 haunts. The female squats down and straddles with her legs, and the male mounts and covers her. The seal covers like all opisteratic animals, and in this species the copulation extends over lengthened time, as is the case with the dog and bitch, and the penis in the male seal is exceptionally large. Chapter 3 Ophiparous quadrupanes cover one another in the same way. That is to say, in some cases the male mounts the female, precisely as in the viviparous animals,

Starting point is 06:26:57 as is observed in both the land and the sea tortoise. Lacuna And these creatures have an organ in which the ducks converge, and with which they perform the act of copulation, as is also observed in the toad, the frog, and all other animals of the same group. Chapter 4 Long animals devoid of feet, like serpents and marina intertwine in coition, belly to belly, and in fact serpents coil round one another so tightly as to present the appearance of a single

Starting point is 06:27:35 serpent with a pair of hands. The same mode is followed by the Sorians, that is to say, they coil round one another in the act of coition. Chapter 5. All fishes, with the exception of the flat Selakians, lie down side by side and copulate belly to belly. Fishes, however, that are flat and furnished with tails, as the ray, the trigon, and the like, copulate not only in this way, but also, where the tail from its thinness is no impediment, by mounting of the male upon the female belly to back. But the rhino, or angel fish, and other like fishes, where the tail is large, copulate only by rubbing against one another, sideways, belly to belly. Some men assure us that they have seen some of the Salequia copulating hind ways, like dog and bitch.

Starting point is 06:28:33 In all the cartilaginous species, the female is larger than the male, and the same is the case with other fishes for the most part. And among cartilaginous fishes are included besides those already named the boss, the lemia, the iatos, the narque or torpedo, the fishing frog, and all the Galeidas, or sharks and dogfish. Cardalaginous fishes, then, of all kinds, have in many instances been observed copulating in the way above mentioned, for, by the way, in viviparous animals, the process of copulation is of longer duration than in the oviparra.

Starting point is 06:29:14 It is the same with the dolphin and with all cetaceans, that is to say, they come side-by-side male and female, and copulate, and they act, extends over a time which is neither short nor very long. Again, in cartilaginous fishes, the male in some species differs from the female in the fact that he is furnished with two appendages hanging down from about the exit of the residuum, and that the female is not so furnished, and this distinction between the sexes is observed in all the species of the sharks and dogfish. Now, neither fishes nor any animals devoid of feet are furnished with testicles, but male serpents and male fishes have a pair of ducks which fill with milk or sperm at the

Starting point is 06:30:05 running season, and discharge in all cases a milk-like juice. These ducks unite as in burns. For burns, by the way, have their testicles in their interior, and so have all ovipera that are furnished with feet. And this union of the ducks is so far continued and of such extension as to enter the receptive organ in the female. In viviporous animals, furnished with feet, there is outwardly one and the same duct for the sperm and the liquid residuum.

Starting point is 06:30:37 But there are separate ducts internally, as has been observed in the differentiation of the organs. And with such animals, as are not viviparous, the same passage serves for the discharge also of the solid residuum, although internally there are two passages, separate but near to one another. And these remarks apply to both male and female, for these animals are unprovided with a bladder, except in the case of the tortoise. And the she tortoise, though furnished with a bladder, has only one passage. And tortoises, by the way, belong to the ovipra. In the case of oviparous fishes, the process of coition is less open to observation.

Starting point is 06:31:23 In point of fact, some are led by the want of actual observation to surmise that the female becomes impregnated by swallowing the seminal fluid of the male. And there can be no doubt that this proceeding on the part of the female is often witnessed. For at the riding season, the females follow the males and perform this operation and strike the males with their mouths under the belly, and the males are thereby induced to part with the sperm sooner and more plentifully. And further, at the spawning season, the males go in pursuit of the females, and, as the female spons, the males swallow the eggs,

Starting point is 06:32:04 and the species is continued in existence by the spawn that survives this process. On the coast of Phoenicia, they take advantage of these eggs, instinctive propensities of the two sexes to catch both one and the other. That is to say, by using the male of the gray mullet as a decoy, they collect and net the female, and by using the female, the male. The repeated observation of this phenomenon has led to the notion that the process was equivalent to coition, but the fact is that a similar phenomenon is observable in quadrupan's. For, at the running season, both the males and the females take to running at their genitals,

Starting point is 06:32:48 and the two sexes take to smelling each other at those parts. With partridges, by the way, if the female gets to leeward of the male, she becomes thereby impregnated. And often, when they happen to be in heat, she is affected in this wise by the voice of the male, or by his breathing down on her as he flies overhead. And, by the way, both the male and the female partridge keep the mouth wide open and protrude the tongue in the process of coition. The actual process of copulation on the part of oviparous fishes

Starting point is 06:33:25 is seldom accurately observed, owing to the fact that they very soon fall aside and slip us under. But for all that, the process has been observed. served to take place in the manner above described. Chapter 6. Mollusks such as the octopus, the sepia, and the calamary, have sexual intercourse all in the same way. That is to say, they unite at the mouth by an interlacing of their tentacles. When then the octopus rests its so-called head against the ground

Starting point is 06:34:01 and spreads abroad its tentacles. The other sex fits into the outsource. spreading of these tentacles, and the two sexes then bring their suckers into mutual connection. Some assert that the male has a kind of penis in one of his tentacles, the one in which are the two largest suckers, and they further assert that the organ is tendinous in character, growing attached right up to the middle of the tentacle, and that the latter enables it to enter the nostril or funnel of the female. Now, cuttlefish and calamaries swim about closely intertwined, with mouths and tentacles,

Starting point is 06:34:45 facing one another, and fitting closely together, and swim thus in opposite directions, and they fit their so-called nostrils into one another, and the one-sex swims backwards, and the other frontwards during the operation, and the female lays its spawn by the so-called blow-hole. And, by the way, some declare that it is at this organ that the coition really takes place. Chapter 7. Custaceans copulate as the crawfish, the lobster, the carid, and the like, just like the epistoretic quadrupants, when the one animal turns up its tail and the other

Starting point is 06:35:26 puts his tail on the other's tail. Copulation takes place in the early spring, nearer. to the shore, and, in fact, the process has often been observed in the case of all these animals. Sometimes it takes place about the time when the figs begin to ripen. Lobsters and carids copulate in like manner. Crabbs copulate at the front parts of one another, belly to belly, throwing their overlapping opercula to meet one another. First, the smaller crab mounts the larger at the rear.

Starting point is 06:36:04 After he has mounted, the larger one turns on one side. Now, the female differs in no respect from the male, except in the circumstance that its operculum is larger, more elevated, and more hairy, and into this operculum it spawns its eggs, and in the same neighborhood is the outlet of the residuum. In the copulative process of these animals, there is no protrusion of a member from one animal into the other. End of Chapter 7. Chapters 8 to 13 of Book 5 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 06:36:56 This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 8 Insects copulate at the hinder end, and the smaller individuals mount the larger, and the smaller individual is the male. The female pushes from underneath her sexual organ into the body of the male above, this being the reverse of the operation observed in other creatures, and this organ, in the case of some insects, appears to be disproportionate, proportionately large when compared to the size of the body, and that too, in very minute creatures.

Starting point is 06:37:39 In some insects, the disproportion is not so striking. This phenomenon may be witnessed if anyone will pull asunder flies that are copulating, and, by the way, these creatures are, under the circumstances, averse to separation, for the intercourse of the sexes in their case is of long duration, as may be observed with common everyday insects, such as the fly and the cantheris. They all copulate in the manner above described. The fly, the canthrus, the spondyle, the phalangium spider,

Starting point is 06:38:20 and any others of the kind that copulate at all. The phalanthia, that is to say, such of the species as spin webs, perform the operation in the following way. The female takes hold of the suspended web at the middle and gives a pole, and the male gives a counterpon. This operation, they repeat,

Starting point is 06:38:43 until they are drawn in together and interlaced at the hinder ends. For, by the way, this mode of copulation suits them in consequence of the rotundity of their stomachs. so much for the modes of sexual intercourse in all animals. But with regard to the same phenomenon, there are definite laws followed as regards the season of the year and the age of the animal.

Starting point is 06:39:09 Animals in general seem naturally disposed to this intercourse at about the same period of the year, and that is when winter is changing into summer. And this is the season of spring in which almost all things that fly or walk or swim take to pairing. Some animals pair and breed in autumn also, and in winter, as is the case with certain aquatic animals and certain burns. Man, pears, and breeds at all seasons, as is the case also with domesticated animals, owing to the shelter and good feeding they enjoy. That is to see,

Starting point is 06:39:48 with those whose period of gestation is also comparatively brief, as the sow and the bitch. And with those birds that breed frequently. Many animals time the season of intercourse with a view to the right nurture subsequently of their young. In the human species, the male is more under sexual excitement in winter, and the female in summer. With birds, the far greater part, as has been said, pair and breed during the spring and early summer, with the exception of the halcyon. The halcyon breeds at the season of the winter solstice. Accordingly, when the season is marked with calm weather, the name of Helcian days is given to the seven days preceding, and to as many following the solstice, as Simonides the poet says. Quote,

Starting point is 06:40:42 God lulls for fourteen days the winds to sleep in winter, and this temperate interlude men call the holy season. When the deep cradles, the mother Halcyon and her brood." And these days are calm, when southerly winds prevail at the solstice, northerly ones having been the accompaniment of the Pleiades. The halcyon is said to take seven days for building her nest, and the other seven for laying and hatching her eggs. In our country, there are not always halcyon days about the time of the winter solstice.

Starting point is 06:41:23 but in the Sicilian seas the season of calm is almost periodical. The bird lays about five eggs. Chapter 9 The Ithea or diver and the Laras or gull lay their eggs on rocks bordering on the sea, two or three at a time. But the gull lays in the summer and the diver at the beginning of spring, just after the winter solstice. and it broods over its eggs as birds do in general,

Starting point is 06:41:57 and neither of these birds resorts to a hiding place. The Hellsian is the most rarely seen of all birds. It is seen only about the time of the setting of the Pleiades and the winter solstice, when ships are lying at anchor in the roads. It will hover about a vessel and then disappear in a moment. And Stesichorus, in one of his poems, alludes to this peculiarity. The nightingale also breeds at the beginning of summer and plays five or six eggs, from autumn until spring it retires to a hiding place. Insects copulate and breed in winter

Starting point is 06:42:39 also, that is, when the weather is fine and south winds prevail. Such I mean as do not hibernate, as the fly and the ant. The greater part of wild animals bring forth once and once only in the year, except in the case of animals like the hare, where the female can become super-feedly impregnated. In like manner, the great majority of fishes breed only once a year, like the shoal fishes, or, in other words, such as are caught in nets, the tony, the plamis, the gray mullet, the chalcis, the mackerel, the cina, the psetta, and the like, with the exception of the labracks or bass, for this fish, alone amongst those mentioned, breeds twice a year, and the second brood is the weaker of the two. The tricias and the rock fishes breed twice a year. The red mullet

Starting point is 06:43:37 breeds thrice a year, and is exceptional in this respect. This conclusion, in regard to the red mullet, is inferred from the spawn, for the spawn of the fish may be seen in certain places at three different times of the year. The Scorpina breeds twice a year. The Sarg breeds twice in the spring and in the autumn. The salp breeds once a year only in the autumn. The female tunny breeds only once a year, but owing to the fact that the fish in some cases spawn early and in others late, it looks as though the fish bred twice over. The first spawning takes place in December before the solstice, and the latter spawning in the spring. The male tony differs from the female in being unprovided with the fin beneath the belly,

Starting point is 06:44:29 which is called apharius. Chapter 10 Of cartilaginous fishes, the rhino or angel fish, is the only one that breeds twice, for it breeds at the beginning of autumn and at the setting of the Pleiades, and of the two seasons it is in better condition in the autumn. It engenders at a birth seven or eight young. Certain of the dogfishes, for example the spotted dog, seem to breed twice a month, and this results from the circumstance that the eggs do not all reach maturity at the same time.

Starting point is 06:45:06 Some fishes breed at all seasons as the marina. This animal lays a great number of eggs at a time, and the young when hatched are very small, but grow with great rapidity, like the young of the Hippurus, for these fishes, from being diminutive at the outset, grow with exceptional rapidity to an exceptional size. Be it observed that the marina breeds at all seasons, but the Hippurus only in the spring. The smyrus differs from the smyrina, for the marina is modelled and weakly, whereas the smyrus is strong, and of one uniform quenna.

Starting point is 06:45:48 color, and the color resembles that of the pine tree, and the animal has teeth inside and out. They say that in this case, as in other similar ones, the one is the male and the other the female of a single species. They come out onto the land and are frequently caught. Fishes, then, as a general rule, attain their full growth with great rapidity, but this is especially the case among small fishes, with the... Korkime or crowfish. It spawns, by the way, near the shore in weedy and tangled spots. The Orphos also, or sea perch, is small at first, and rapidly attains a great size.

Starting point is 06:46:33 The Palamas and the Tunny breed in the Yuxin, and nowhere else. The Kestrius or Mullet, the Chrysophrus or Gilt Head, and the Labracks or Bass, breed best where river run into the sea. The orcas or large-sized tony, the scorpies, and many other species spawn in the open sea. Chapter 11 Fish, for the most part, breed some time or other during the three months between the middle of March and the middle of June. Some few breed in autumn, as, for instance, the salp and the sargous, and such others of this sort as breed short before the autumn equinox. Likewise, the electric ray and the angel fish. Other fishes breed both in winter and in summer,

Starting point is 06:47:27 as was previously observed, as, for instance, in wintertime, the bass, the gray mullet, and the bellone, or pipe fish. And in summertime, from the middle of June to the middle of July, the female tunny, about the time of the summer solstice, and the tunny lays a sack-like enclosure in which are contained a number of small eggs. The Ruedes, or shoal fishes, breed in summer. Of the gray mullets, the cologne begins to be in row between the middle of November and the

Starting point is 06:48:02 middle of December, as also the sarg, and the smuxon or muxon, and the cephalos, and their period of gestation is 30 days. And, by the way, some of the gray mullet species are not produced from copulation, but grow spontaneously from mud and sand. As a general rule, then, fishes are in row in the springtime, while some, as has been said, are so in summer, in autumn or in winter. But whereas the impregnation in the springtime follows a general law, impregnation in the other seasons does not follow the same rule, either throughout or within the limits of one genus. And further, conception in these very variant seasons is not so prolific. And indeed, we must bear this in mind, that just as with

Starting point is 06:48:55 plants and quadrupanes, diversity of locality has much to do not only with general physical health, but also with the comparative frequency of sexual intercourse and generation. So also with regard to fishes, locality of itself has much to do not only in regard to the size and vigor of the creature, but also in regard to its parturition and its copulations, causing the same species to breed oftener in one place and seldomer in another. Chapter 12 The mollusks also breed in spring. Of the marine mollusks, one of the first to breed is the sapia.

Starting point is 06:49:38 It spawns at all times of the day, and its period of gestation is 15 days. After the female has laid her eggs, the male comes and discharges the milt over the eggs, and the eggs thereupon harden, and the two sexes of this animal go about in pairs, side by side, and the male is more modelled and more black, on the back than the female. The octopus pairs in winter and breeds in spring, lying hidden for about two months. Its spawn is shaped like a vine tendril, and resembles, the fruit of the white poplar. The creature is extraordinarily prolific, for the number of individuals that come from the spawn is something incalculable. The male differs from the female in the fact

Starting point is 06:50:27 that its head is longer, and that the organ, called by the fisherman its penis, in the tentacle, is white. The female, after laying her eggs, broods over them, and in consequence gets out of condition by reason of not going in quest of food during the hatching period. The purple muracks breeds about springtime, and the cirricks at the close of the winter. And as a general rule, the testations are found to be furnished with their so-called eggs in springtime, and in autumn, with the exception of the edible urchin. For this animal has the so-called eggs in most abundance in these seasons, but at no season is unfurnished with them, and it is furnished with them in special abundance in warm

Starting point is 06:51:19 weather, or when a full moon is in the sky. Only, by the way, these remarks do not apply to the sea urchin found in the Perian straits, for this urchin is, at its best, for table purposes in the winter, and these urchins are small but full of eggs. Snails are found by observations to become in all cases impregnated about the same season. Chapter 13 Of birds, the wild species as has been stated as a general rule, pear, and breed only once a year. The swallow, however, and the black bird breed twice. With regard to the blackbird, however, its first brood is killed by inclemency of weather,

Starting point is 06:52:08 for it is the earliest of all birds to breed, but the second brood it usually succeeds in rearing. Birds that are domesticated or that are capable of domestication breed frequently, just as the common pigeon breeds all through the summer, and as is seen in the barn-door hen. For the barn-door cock and hen have intercourse, and the hen breeds, at all seasons alike, excepting, by the way, during the days about the winter solstice. Of the pigeon family, there are many diversities, for the peristera or common pigeon is not identical with the Pileus or rock pigeon. In other words, the rock pigeon is smaller than the common pigeon, and is less easily domesticated.

Starting point is 06:52:57 It is also black and small, red-footed and rough-footed, and in consequence of these peculiarities it is neglected by the pigeon fancier. The largest of all the pigeon species is the fata or ring dove, and the next incis is the oinas or stock dove, and the stock dove is a little larger than the common pigeon. The smallest of all the species is the turtle dove. Pigeons breed and hatch at all seasons if they are furnished with a sunny place and all requisites, unless they are so.

Starting point is 06:53:34 so furnished, they breed only in the summer. The spring brood is the best, or the autumn brood. At all events, without doubt, the produce of the hot season, the summer brood is the poorest of the three. And of Chapter 13. Chapters 14 and 15 of Book 5 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 14 Further, animals differ from one another in regard to the time of life that is best adapted for sexual intercourse.

Starting point is 06:54:24 To begin with, in most animals, the secretion of the seminal fluid and its generative capacity are not phenomena simultaneously manifest. but manifested successively. Thus, in all animals, the earliest secretion of sperm is unfruitful, or, if it be fruitful, the issue is comparatively poor and small. And this phenomenon is especially observable in man, in viiparous quadrupeds and in burns. For in the case of man, and the quadruped, the offspring is smaller, and in the case of the bird, the egg. For, animals that copulate of one and the same species, the age for maturity is in most species tolerably uniform, unless it occurs prematurely by reason of abnormality, or is postponed

Starting point is 06:55:19 by physical injury. In man, then, maturity is indicated by a change of the tone of voice, by an increase in size and an alteration in appearance of the sexual organs, as also in an increase of size and alteration in appearance of the breasts, and above all in the hair growth at the the pubis. Man begins to possess seminal fluid about the age of 14, and becomes generatively capable at about the age of 21 years. In other animals there is no hair growth at the pubis, for some animals have no hair at all, and others have none on the belly, or less on the belly than on the back. But still, in some animals, the change of voice is quite obvious, and in some animals other organs give indication of the commencing secretion of the sperm,

Starting point is 06:56:14 and the onset of generative capacity. As a general rule, the female is sharper toned in voice than the male, and the young animal than the elder, for, by the way, the stag has a much deeper toned bay than the hind. Moreover, the male cries chiefly at rutting time, and the female under terror and alarm, and the cry of the female is short, and that of the male prolonged. With dogs also, as they grow old, the tone of the bark gets deeper. There is a difference observable also in the nays of horses, that is to say, the female foal has a thin small neigh, and the male foe, and the male foe a small neigh, yet bigger and deeper toned than that of the female, and a louder one as time goes on.

Starting point is 06:57:07 And when the young male and female are two years old and take to breeding, the neighing of the stallion becomes loud and deep, and that of the mare, louder and shriller than heretofore. And this change goes on until they reach the age of about twenty years. And after this time, the neighing in both sexes becomes weak, and weaker. As a rule, then, as was stated, the voice of the male differs from the voice of the female, in animals where the voice admits of a continuous and prolonged sound, in the fact that the note in the male voice is more deep and base.

Starting point is 06:57:48 Not however in all animals, for the contrary, holds good in the case of some, as for instance in kind. For here, the cow has a deeper note than the bull, and the calves a deeper note than the cattle. And we can thus understand the change of voice in animals that undergo gelding. For male animals that undergo this process assume the characters of the female. The following are the ages at which various animals become capacitated for sexual commerce. The yew and the she-cote are sexually mature when one year old, and this statement is made more confidently in respect to the she-goat than to the yew.

Starting point is 06:58:31 The ram and the he-goat are sexually mature at the same age. The progeny of very young individuals among these animals differs from that of other males, for the males improve in the course of the second year, when they become fully mature. The boar and the sow are capable of intercourse when eight months old, and the female brings forth when one year old, the difference corresponding to her period of gestation. The boar is capable of generation when eight months old, but with a sire under a year and age, the litter is apt to be a poor one. The ages, however, are not invariable. Now and then, the boar and the sow are capable of intercourse when four months old,

Starting point is 06:59:19 and are capable of producing a litter which can be reared when six months old. But at times the boar begins to be capable of intercourse when ten months. He continues sexually mature until he is three years old. The dog and the bitch are, as a rule, sexually capable and sexually receptive when a year old, and sometimes when eight months old. But the priority in date is more common with the dog than with the bitch. The period of gestation with the bitch is 60 days, or 61 or 62, or 63 at the utmost. The period is never under 60 days, or, if it is, the litter comes to no good.

Starting point is 07:00:05 The bitch, after delivering a litter, submits to the mail in six months, but not before. The horse and the mare are, at the earliest, sexually capable and sexually mature, when two years old. The issue, however, of parents of this age is small and poor. As a general rule, these animals are sexually capable when three years old, and they grow better for breeding purposes until they reach 20 years. The stallion is sexually capable up to the age of 33 years, and the mayor up to 40, so that in point of fact the animals are sexually capable all their lives long. The stallion, as a rule, lives for about 35 years, and the mayor for a little over 40, although,

Starting point is 07:00:55 by the way, a horse has been known to live to the age of 75. The ass and the she-ass are sexually capable when 30 months old, but as a rule they are not generatively mature until they are three years old, or three years and a half. An instance has been known of a she-ass, bearing and bringing forth a foe when only a year old. A cow has been known to calf when only a year old, and the calf grew as big as might be expected, but no more. So much for the dates in time, at which these animals attain to generative capacity. In the human species, the male is generative at the longest up to 70 years. and the female up to 50.

Starting point is 07:01:45 But such extended periods are rare. As a rule, the male is generative up to the age of 65, and to the age of 45, the female is capable of conception. The yew bears up to eight years, and if she be carefully tended, up to 11 years. In fact, the ram and the yew are sexually capable, pretty well all their lives long. He goats, if they be fat, are more or less unserviceable for breeding, and this, by the way,

Starting point is 07:02:17 is the reason why country folk say of a vine when it stops bearing that it is running the goat. However, if an overfat he goat be thinned down, he becomes sexually capable and generative. Rams single out the oldest news for copulation and show no regard for the young ones, and, as has been stated, the issue of the younger ewes is poorer than that of the older ones. The boar is good for breeding purposes, until he is three years of age, but after that age, his issue deteriorates, for after that age his vigor is on the decline. The boar is most capable, after a good feed, and with the first sow it mounts. If poorly fed or put to many females, the compilation is abbreviated,

Starting point is 07:03:08 and the litter is comparatively poor. The first litter of the sale is the fewest in number. At the second litter, she is at her prime. The animal, as it grows old, continues to breed, but the sexual desire abates. When they reach 15 years, they become unproductive and are getting old. If a sail be highly fed, it is all the more eager for sexual commerce, whether old or young.

Starting point is 07:03:36 But if it be overfattened in pregnancy, it gives the less milk after parturition. With regard to the age of the parents, the litter is the best, when they are in their prime. But with regard to the seasons of the year, the litter is the best that comes at the beginning of winter, and the summer litter the poorest, consisting as it usually does of animals small and thin and flaccid. The boar, if it be well fed, is sexually capable at all. hours night and day, but otherwise is peculiarly salacious early in the morning. As it grows old, the sexual passion dies away, as we have already remarked. Very often abhor, when more or less impotent from age or debility, finding itself unable to

Starting point is 07:04:25 accomplish the sexual commerce with new speed, and growing fatigued with the standing posture will roll the sow over on the ground, and the pair will conclude the operation. side by side of one another. The sow is sure of conception if it drops its lugs in rutting time. If the ears do not thus drop, it may have to rut a second time before impregnation takes place. Biches do not submit to the male throughout their lives, but only until they reach a certain maturity of years.

Starting point is 07:04:59 As a general rule, they are sexually receptive and conceptive until they are 12 years old, Although, by the way, cases have been known where dogs and bitches have been respectively procreative and conceptive to the ages of 18 and even of 20 years. But as a rule, age diminishes the capability of generation, and of conception with these animals as with all others. The female of the camel is opisterating, and submits to the male in the way above described, and the season for copulation in Arabia is about the month of October.

Starting point is 07:05:37 Its period of gestation is 12 months, and it is never delivered of more than one fall at a time. The female becomes sexually receptive, and the male sexually capable at the age of three years. After parturition, an interval of a year elapses before the female is again receptive to the male. The female elephant becomes sexually receptive when ten years old at the youngest, and when fifteen at the oldest, and the male is sexually capable when five years old or six. The season for intercourse is spring. The male allows an interval of three years to elapse after commerce with a female, and, after it has once impregnated a female, it has no intercourse with her again.

Starting point is 07:06:24 The period of gestation with the female is two years, and only one young animal is produced at a time. In other words, it is uniparous, and the embryo is the size of a calf, two or three months old. Chapter 15 So much for the compilations of such animals is copulate. We now proceed to treat of generation, both with respect to copulating and non-copulating animals, and we shall commence with discussing the subject of generation in the case of the testations.

Starting point is 07:07:02 The testation is almost the only genus that throughout all its species is non-copulative. The porphyry or purple meresies gather together to some one place in the springtime, and deposit the so-called honeycomb. This substance resembles the comb only that it is not so neat and and delicate and looks as though a number of husks of white chickpeas were all stuck together. But none of these structures has any open passage, and the Porfirah does not grow out of them, but these and all other testations grow out of mud and decaying matter. The substance is in fact an excretion of the Porphyra and the Syrix, for it is deposited by the Syracs as well.

Starting point is 07:07:54 Such, then, of the testations as deposit the honeycomb are generated spontaneously, like all other testations, but they certainly come in greater abundance in places where their congeners have been living previously. At the commencement of the process of depositing the honeycomb, they throw off a slippery mucous, and of this the husk-like formations are composed. These formations, then, all melt and deposit their, contents on the ground. And at this spot there are found on the ground a number of minute porphyri, and porphyry are caught at times with these anemalkylae upon them, some of which are too small

Starting point is 07:08:40 to be differentiated in form. If the porphyrii are caught before producing this honeycomb, they sometimes go through the process in fishing creoles, not here and there in the baskets, but gathering to some one spot altogether, just as they do in the sea. And, owing to the narrowness of their new quarters, they cluster together like a bunch of grapes. There are many species of the purple meuraks, and some are large, as those found off Segium and lectum. Others are small, as those found in the Euripus, and on the coast of Caria. And those that are found in bays are large and rough. In most of them, the peculiar bloom, from which their name is derived, is dark to blackness.

Starting point is 07:09:33 In others it is reddish and small in size. Some of the large ones weigh upwards of a minor apiece. But the specimens that are found along the coast and on the rocks are small-sized, and the bloom in their case is of a reddish hue. Further, as a general rule, in northern waters the bloom is blackish, and in southern waters of a reddish hue. The meurix is caught in the springtime, when engaged in the construction of the honeycomb, but it is not caught at any time about the rising of the dog star, for at that period it does not feed but conceals itself and burrows.

Starting point is 07:10:14 The bloom of the animal is situated between the mecon or quasi-liver and the neck, and the co-attachment of these is an intimate one. In color it looks like a white membrane, and this is what people extract, and if it be removed and squeezed, it stains your hand with the color of the bloom. There is a kind of vein that runs through it, and this quasi-vein would appear to be in itself the bloom. and the qualities, by the way of this organ, are astringent. It is after the meurax has constructed the honeycomb that the bloom is at its worst. Small specimens, they break in pieces, shells and all,

Starting point is 07:11:01 for it is no easy matter to extract the organ. But in dealing with the larger ones, they first strip off the shell and then abstract the bloom. For this purpose, the neck and mechon are taken. separated, for the bloom lies in between them above the so-called stomach. Hence the necessity of separating them in abstracting the bloom. Fishermen are anxious always to break the animal in pieces while it is yet alive, for if it die before the process is completed, it vomits out the bloom, and for this reason the fishermen keep the animals in creels until they have collected a sufficient number and can attend to them at their leisure. Fishermen in past times used not to lower

Starting point is 07:11:47 creels or attach them to the bait, so that very often the animal got dropped off in the pulling up. At present, however, they always attach a basket, so that if the animal fall off, it is not lost. The animal is more inclined to slip off the bait if it be full inside. If it be empty, it is difficult to shake it off. Such are the phenomena connected with the Porphyra or Murex. The same phenomena are manifested by the Syriks or trumpet shell, and the seasons are the same in which the phenomena are observable. Both animals also, the Murex and the Syriks, have their opercula similarly situated,

Starting point is 07:12:33 and in fact all the stromboids, and this is congenital with them all, and they feed by protruding the so-called tongue underneath the operculum. The tongue of the Murax is bigger than one's finger, and by means of it it feeds and perforates conchilia and the shells of its own kind. Both the Murax and the Syriks are long-lived. The merex lives for about six years, and the yearly increase is indicated by a distinct interval in the spiral convolution of the shell.

Starting point is 07:13:09 muscle also constructs a honeycomb. With regard to the Limnostriae or Lagoon Oysters, wherever you have slimy mud, there you are sure to find them beginning to grow. Cockles and clams and razorfishes and scallops grow spontaneously in sandy places. The pina grows straight up from its tuft of anchoring fibers in sandy and slimy places. These creatures have inside them a parasite, nicknamed the Pinnagard, in some cases a small carind, and in other cases a little crab. If the Pina be deprived of this Pinnagard, it soon dies. As a general rule then, all testations grow by spontaneous generation in mud, differing from one another according to the differences of the material. Oysters growing in slime and cockles, and the other

Starting point is 07:14:07 testations above mentioned on sandy bottoms, and in the hollows of the rocks the assidian and the barnacle, and common sorts, such as the limpet and the nirites. All these animals grow with great rapidity, especially the meurax and the scallop, for the meurax and the scallop attain their full growth in a year. In some of the testations, white crabs are found very diminutive have in size. They are most numerous in the trough-shaped muscle. In the pinna also is found the so-called pina guard. They are found also in the scallop and in the oyster. These parasites never appear to grow in size. Fishermen declare that the parasite is congenital with the larger animal. Scallops burrow for a time in the sand, like the murex. Shellfish then,

Starting point is 07:15:03 grow in the way above mentioned, and some of them grow in shallow water, some on the sea shore, some in rocky places, some on hard and stony ground, and some in sandy places. Some shift about from place to place, others remain permanent on one spot. Of those that keep to one spot, the pinny are rooted to the ground. The razorfish and the clam keep to the same locality, but are not so rooted, but still, if forcibly removed, they die. The starfish is naturally so warm that whatever it lays hold of is found when suddenly taken away from the animal to have undergone a process like boiling. Fishermen say that the starfish is a great pest in the street of Pira.

Starting point is 07:15:59 In shape it resembles a star as seen in an ordinary drive. The so-called lungs are generated spontaneously. The shells that painter sews are a good deal thicker, and the bloom is outside the shell on the surface. These creatures are mostly found on the coast of Kareo. The hermit crab grows spontaneously out of soil and slime and finds its way into untenanted shells. As it grows, it shifts to a larger shell,

Starting point is 07:16:33 as, for instance, into the shell of the Neurites, or of the strombus, or the like, and very often into the shell of the small syrex. After entering a new shell, it carries it about and begins again to feed, and by and by, as it grows, it shifts again into another larger one. End of chapter 15. Chapter 16 to 18 of Book 5 of History of Animals by Aristotle Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson This Libravox recording is in the public domain

Starting point is 07:17:20 Chapter 16 Moreover, the animals that are unfurnished with shells grow spontaneously like the testations as, for instance, the sea nettles and the sponges in rocky caves. Of the sea nettle, or sea anemone, there are two species, and of these, one species lives in hollows and never loosens its hold upon the rocks, and the other lives on smooth, flat reefs, free and detached, and shifts its position from time to time. Limpets also detach themselves and shift from place to place. In the chambered cavities of sponges,

Starting point is 07:18:08 pinaigards or parasites are found, and over the chambers there is a kind of spider's web, by the opening and closing of which they catch minute fishes, that is to say, they open the web to let the fish get in, and close it again to entrap them. Of sponges, there are three species, The first is of loose porous texture. The second is close textured.

Starting point is 07:18:36 The third, which is nicknamed the sponge of Achilles, is exceptionally fine and close textured and strong. This sponge is used as aligning to helmets and grieves, for the purpose of deadening the sound of the blow, and this is a very scarce species. Of the close textured sponges, such as are particularly hard and rough are nicknamed goats. Sponges grow spontaneously, either attached to a rock or on sea branches, and they get their

Starting point is 07:19:12 nutriment in slime. A proof of this statement is the fact that when they are first secured, they are found to be full of slime. This is characteristic of all living creatures that get their nutriment by close local attachment. And by the way, the close-textured sponges are weaker than the more openly porous ones, because their attachment extends over a smaller area. It is sad that the sponge is sensitive, and as a proof of this statement, they say that if the sponge is made aware of an attempt being made to pluck it from its place of attachment, it draws itself together, and it becomes a difficult task to detach it.

Starting point is 07:19:57 It makes a similar contractile movement in windy and boisterous weather, obviously with the object of tightening its hold. Some persons express doubts as to the truth of this assertion, as, for instance, the people of Torrone. The sponge breeds parasites, worms, and other creatures on which, if they be detached, the rock fishes prey, as they prey also on the... the remaining stumps of the sponge. But if the sponge be broken off, it grows again from the remaining stump, and the place is soon as well covered as before. The largest of all sponges

Starting point is 07:20:36 are the loose textured ones, and these are peculiarly abundant on the coast of Lysia. The softest are the close textured sponges, for, by the way, the so-called sponges of Achilles are harder than these. As a general rule, sponges that are found in deep, calm waters are the softest, for usually windy and stormy weather has a tendency to harden them, as it has to harden all similar growing things, and to arrest their growth. And this accounts for the fact that the sponges found in the hellespont are rough and close textured, and as a general rule, sponges found beyond or inside Cape Malaya are respectively, comparatively soft or comparatively hard. But, by the way, the habitat of the sponge should not be too sheltered and warm,

Starting point is 07:21:33 for it has a tendency to decay like all similar vegetable-like growths. And this accounts for the fact that the sponge is at its best when found in deep water close to shore. For, owing to the depth of the water, they enjoy it. shelter alike from stormy winds and from excessive heat. Whilst they are still alive and before they are washed and cleaned, they are blackish in color. Their attachment is not made at one particular spot, nor is it made all over their bodies, for vacant pore spaces intervene. There is a kind of membrane stretched over the underparts, and in the underparts the points of attachment are the more numerous. On the top most of the pores are closed, but four or five

Starting point is 07:22:21 are open and visible, and we are told by some that it is through these pores that the animal takes its food. There is a particular species that is named the Aplyssia or the unwashable from the circumstance that it cannot be cleaned. This species has the large, open, and visible pores, but all the rest of the body is close textured. And if it be dissected, it is found to be closer and more glutinous than the ordinary sponge, and in a word, something lung-like inconsistency. And on all hands it is allowed that this species is sensitive and long-lived. They are distinguished in the sea from ordinary sponges, from the circumstance that the ordinary sponges are white, while the slime is in them, but that these sponges are, under any circumstances,

Starting point is 07:23:19 black. And so much with regard to sponges and to generation in the testations. Chapter 17 Of crustaceans, the female crawfish, after copulation, conceives and retains its eggs for about three months, from about the middle of May to about the middle of August. They then lay the eggs into the folds underneath the belly, and their eggs grow like grumps. This same phenomenon is observable in mollusks also, and in such fishes as are oviparous, for in all these cases the egg continues to grow. The spawn of the crawfish is of a loose or granular consistency, and is divided into eight parts.

Starting point is 07:24:03 Four, corresponding to each of the flaps on the side there is a grizzly formation, to which the spawn is attached, and the entire structure resembles a cluster of grapes, for each grizzly formation is split into several parts. This is obvious enough if you draw the parts asunder, but at first sight the whole appears to be one and indivisible, and the largest are not those nearest to the outlet, but those in the middle, and the farthest off are the smallest. The size of the small eggs is that of a small seed in a thing. and they are not quite close to the outlet, but placed middleways, for at both ends,

Starting point is 07:24:45 tailwords and trunk words, there are two intervals devoid of eggs, for it is thus that the flaps also grow. The side flaps then cannot close, but by placing the end flap on them, the animal can close up all, and this end flap serves them for a lid. And in the act of flange its eggs, it seems to bring them towards the grizzly formation. by curving the flap of its tail, and then squeezing the eggs towards the said grizzly formations, and maintaining a bent posture, it performs the act of laying. The grizzly formations at the seasons increase in size and become receptive of the eggs. For the animal lays its eggs into these formations, just as the sepia lays its eggs among

Starting point is 07:25:35 twigs and driftwood. It lays its eggs, then, in this moment. manner, and after hatching them for about twenty days it rids itself of them all in one solid lump, as is quite plain from outside. And out of these eggs, crawfish form in about 15 days, and these crawfish are caught at times less than a finger's breadth, or seven-tenths of an inch in length. The animal then lays its eggs before the middle of September, and after the middle of that month throws off its eggs in a lump. With the humped carids or prawns, the time for gestation is four months or thereabouts.

Starting point is 07:26:17 Crawfish are found in rough and rocky places. Lobsters in smooth places, and neither crawfish nor lobsters are found in muddy ones. And this accounts for the fact that lobsters are found in the Hellespont, and on the coast of Thassos, and crawfish in the neighborhood of Seguium and Mount Athos. Fishermen, accordingly, when they want to catch these various creatures out at sea, take bearings on the beach and elsewhere that tell them where the ground at the bottom is stony, and wear soft with slime. In winter, and spring these animals keep in near to land. In summer, they keep in deep water, thus at various times, seeking respectively for warmth or coolness.

Starting point is 07:27:05 The so-called arctus, or bear crab, lays its eggs at about the same time as the crawfish, and consequently, in winter and in the springtime, before laying their eggs, they are at their best, and after laying at their worst. They cast their shell in the springtime, just as serpents shed their so-called old age, or slough, both directly after birth and in later life. This is true, both of crabs and crawfish. And, by the way, all crawfish are long-lived. Chapter 18

Starting point is 07:27:44 Maluscs after pairing and copulation lay a white spawn, into this spawn, as in the case of the testation gets granular in time. The octopus discharges into its hole or into a pot shard, or into any similar cavity, a structure resembling the tendrils of a young vine, or the fruit of the white poplar, as has been previously observed. The eggs, when the female has laid them, are clustered round the sides of the whole. They are so numerous that if they be removed, they suffice to fill a vessel much larger than the animal's body, in which they were contained.

Starting point is 07:28:23 Some fifty days later, the eggs burst, and the little polypuses creep out like little spiders in great numbers. The characteristic form of their limbs is not yet to be discerned, in detail, but their general outline is clear enough. And, by the way, they are so small and helpless that the greater number perish. It is a fact that they have been seen so extremely minute as to be absolutely without organization, but nevertheless, when touched they moved. The eggs of the sepia look like big black myrtleberries, and they are linked altogether like a bunch of grapes, clustered round a centre, and are not easily sundered from one another.

Starting point is 07:29:08 For the male exudes over them some moist, glary stuff which constitutes the sticky gum. These eggs increase in size, and they are white at the outset, but black and larger after the sprinkling of the male seminal fluid. When it has come into being, the young sepia is first distinctly formed inside out of the white substance, and when the egg bursts, it comes out. The inner part is formed as soon as the female lays the egg, something like a hailstone, and out of this substance the young sepia grows by a head attachment, just as young birds grow by a belly attachment.

Starting point is 07:29:51 What is the exact nature of the naval attachment has not yet been observed, except that as the young sepia grows, the white substance grows less and less in size, and at length, as happens with the yoke in the case of burns, the white substance, in the case of the young sepia, disappears. In the case of the young sepia, as in the case of the young of most animals, the eyes at first seem very large. To illustrate this by way of a figure, let A represent the ovum, B and C, the eyes, and the sepidium, or body of the little sepia. The female sepia goes pregnant in the springtime and lays its eggs after 15 days of gestation. After the eggs are laid, there comes in another 15 days something like a bunch of grapes,

Starting point is 07:30:48 and at the bursting of these, the young sepia issue forth. But if, when the young ones are fully formed, you sever, the outer covering a moment too soon. The young creatures eject excrement, and their color changes from white to red in their alarm. Custations then hatch their eggs by brooding over them, as they carry them about beneath their bodies. But the octopus, the sepia, and the like hatch their eggs without stirring from the spot where they may have laid them. And this statement is particularly applicable to the sepia. In fact, the nest of the fiends. female sepia is often seen exposed to view close in to shore. The female octopus at times

Starting point is 07:31:32 sits brooding over her eggs, and at other times squats in front of her hole, stretching out her tentacles on guard. The sepia lays her spawn near to land in the neighborhood of seaweed or reeds, or any off-sweepings, such as brushwood, twigs or stones, and fishermen place heaps of fagots here, and there on purpose, and onto such heaps the female deposits a long continuous row in shape like a vine tendril. It lays or spurts out the spawn with an effort, as though there were difficulty in the process. The female calamary spons at sea, and it emits the spawn as does the sepia in the mass. The calimary and the cuttlefish are short-lived, and with few exceptions. They never see the year out, and the same statement is applicable to the octopus.

Starting point is 07:32:31 From one single egg comes one single sepia, and this is likewise true of the young calomery. The male calomery differs from the female, for if its gill region be dilated and examined, there are found two red formations resembling breasts, with which the male is unprovided. In the sepia, apart from this distinction in the sexes, the male, as has been stated, is more modeled than the female. End of Chapter 18. Chapters 19 and 20 of Book 5 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy, Wentworth-Thompson. This Libre-Fox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 07:33:26 Chapter 19. With regard to insects, that the male is less than the female, and that he mounts upon her back, and how he performs the act of copulation, and the circumstance that he gives over reluctantly, all this has already been set forth. In most cases of insect copulation, this process is speedily followed up by parturition. All insects and gender grubs, with the exception of the exception of the fact that they are not a a species of butterfly, and the female of this species lays a hard egg, resembling the seed of the necus, with a juice inside it. But from the grub, the young animal does not grow out

Starting point is 07:34:12 of a mere portion of it, as a young animal grows from a portion only of an egg, but the grub entire grows, and the animal becomes differentiated out of it. And of insects, some are derived from insect congeners as the venom spider and the common spider from the venom spider and the common spider. And so with the atelibus or locust, the acris or grasshopper and the tetex or cicada. Other insects are not derived from living parentage, but are generated spontaneously. Some out of dew, falling on leaves, ordinarily in springtime, but not as such as a seldom in winter, when there has been a stretch of fair weather and southerly winds. Others grow in decaying mud or dung, others in timber, green or dry.

Starting point is 07:35:10 Some in the hair of animals, some in the flesh of animals, some in excrements, and some from excrement after it has been voided, and some from excrement yet within the living animal, like the hill mints or intestinal worms. And of these intestinal worms, there are three species, one named the flat worm, another the round worm, and the third, the ascorid. These intestinal worms do not in any case propagate their kind. The flatworm, however, in an exceptional way, clings fast to the gut, and lays a thing like a melon seed, by observing which indication the physician concludes that his patient is troubled with the worm. The so-called psyche or butterfly is generated from caterpillars, which grow on green leaves,

Starting point is 07:36:04 chiefly leaves of the raffinous, which some call crambe, or cabbage. At first it is less than a grain of millet. It then grows into a small grub, and in three days it is a tiny caterpillar. After this it grows on and on, and becomes quiescent and changes its shape, and is now called a chrysalis. shell is hard, and the chrysalis moves if you touch it. It attaches itself by cobweb-like filaments, and is unfurnished with mouth or any other apparent organ. After a little while, the outer covering bursts asunder, and outflies the winged creature that we call the

Starting point is 07:36:46 sake or butterfly. At first, when it is a caterpillar, it feeds and ejects excrement. But when it turns into the chrysalis, it neither feeds nor ejects excrement. It neither feeds nor ejects excrement. The same remarks are applicable to all such insects as are developed out of the grub, both such grubs as are derived from the copulation of living animals, and such as are generated without copulation on the part of parents. For the grub of the bee, the anthrina, and the wasp, whilst it is young, takes food and voids excrement. But when it has passed from the grub shape to its defined form and become what is termed a nympha, it ceases to take food and to void excrement, and remains tightly wrapped up and motionless until it has reached its full size,

Starting point is 07:37:39 when it breaks the formation with which the cell is closed, and issues forth. The insects named the hopera and the pinia are derived from similar caterpillars, which move in an unulatory way, progressing with one part and the and then pulling up the hinder parts by a bend of the body. The developed insect in each case takes its peculiar color from the parent caterpillar. From one particular large grub which has, as it were, horns, and in other respects differs from grubs in general, there comes by a metamorphosis of the grub,

Starting point is 07:38:17 first a caterpillar, then the cocoon, then the Nicodalis, and the creature passes through all these transformations within six months. A class of women unwind and reel off the cocoons of these creatures, and afterwards weave a fabric with the threads thus unwound. A cohen woman of the name of Pamphylia, daughter of Plateus, being credited with the first invention of the fabric. After the same fashion, the caribus or stag beetle comes from grubs that live in dry wood. At first the grub is motion. but after a while the shell bursts and the stag beetle issues for us. From the cabbage is engendered the cabbage worm, and from the lake the prosocoris or leakbin.

Starting point is 07:39:09 This creature is also winged. From the flat animal kill that skims over the surface of rivers comes the estrus or gadfly, and this accounts for the fact that gadflies most abound in the neighborhood of waters on whose surface these animal kills are observed. From a certain small, black, and hairy caterpillar comes first a wingless glowworm, and this creature again suffers a metamorphosis, and transforms into a winged insect named the Bostrakus, or hair curl. Nats grow from askerids, and ascarids are engendered in the slime of whales,

Starting point is 07:39:49 or in places where there is a deposit left by the draining off of water. This slime decays, and first turns white, then black, and finally bled red, and at this stage there originate in it, as it were, little tiny bits of red wind, which at first wriggle about all clinging together, and finally break loose and swim in the water, and are hereupon known as Askerids. After a few days they stand straight up on the water motionless and hard, and by and by, the husk breaks off and the gnats are seen sitting upon it, until the sun's heat or a puff of wind sets them in motion when they fly away. With all grubs and all animals that break out from the grub state,

Starting point is 07:40:37 generation is due primarily to the heat of the sun or to wind. Ascorans are more likely to be found and grow with unusual rapidity, in places where there is a deposit of a mixed and heterogeneous kind, as in kitchens and in plowed fields, for the contents of such places are disposed to rapid putrefaction. In autumn also, owing to the drying up of moisture, they grow in unusual numbers. The tick is generated from coach grass,

Starting point is 07:41:10 the cock chiefer from a grub that is generated in the dung of the cow or the ass. The canthras or scarabaeus rolls a piece of dung into a, a ball, mice hidden within it during the winter, and gives birth therein to small grubs, from which grubs come new canthari. Certain winged insects also come from the grubs that are found in pulse, in the same fashion as in the cases described. Flies grow from grubs in the dung that farmers have gathered up into heaps. For those who are engaged in this work assiduously gather up.

Starting point is 07:41:51 the compost, and this they technically term working up the manure. The grub is exceedingly minute to begin with. First, even at this stage, it assumes a reddish color, and then from a quiescent state it takes on the power of motion, as though borne to it. It then becomes a small motionless grub. It then moves again and again relapses into immobility. It then comes out a perfect fly and moves away under the influence of the sun's heat or of a puff of air.

Starting point is 07:42:27 The myops or horsefly is engendered in timber. The Orsodakna or bud bean is a transformed grub, and this grub is engendered in cabbage stalks. The canthras comes from the caterpillars that are found on fig trees or pear trees. for on all these grubs are engendered, and also from caterpillars found on the dog-rose. And the canthras takes eagerly to ill-scented substances, from the fact of its having been engendered in ill-scented woods. The conops comes from a grub that is engendered in the slime of vinegar. And, by the way, living animals are found in substances

Starting point is 07:43:15 that are usually supposed to be incapable of putrefaction. For instance, worms are found in long-lying snow, and snow of this description gets reddish in color, and the grub that is engendered in it is red, as might have been expected, and it is also hairy. The grubs found in the snows of media are large and white, and all such grubs are little disposed to motion. In Cyprus, in places where copper ore is smelted, with heaps of the ore pile, on day after day, an animal is engendered in the fire, somewhat larger than a blue bottle fly, furnished with wings, which can hop or crawl through the fire, and the grubs and these latter animals perish when you keep the one away from the fire, and the other from the snow.

Starting point is 07:44:09 Now the salamander is a clear case in point to show us that animals do actually exist, that fire cannot destroy. this creature, so the story goes, not only walks through the fire, but puts it out in doing so. On the River Hippanis, in the Cimmerian Bosporus, about the time of the summer solstice, there are brought down towards the sea by the stream what look like little sacks rather bigger than grapes, out of which at their bursting issues a winged quadrupad. The insect lives and flies about until the evening, but as the sun goes down it pines away and dies at sunset, having lived just one day, from which circumstance it is called the

Starting point is 07:44:59 ephemeron. As a rule, insects that come from caterpillars and grubs are held at first by filaments resembling the threads of a spider's web. Such is the mode of generation of the insects above enumerated. Chapter 20 The wasps that are nicknamed the ignomens or hunters, less in size, by the way, than the ordinary wasp, kill spiders and carry off the dead bodies to a wall

Starting point is 07:45:29 or some such place with a hole in it. This hole, they smear over with mud, and lay their grubs inside it, and from the grubs come the hunter wasps. Some of the colioptera and of the small, and nameless insects make small holes or cells of mud on a wall or on a gravestone, and there deposit their grubs. With insects, as a general rule, the time of generation from its commencement

Starting point is 07:46:00 to its completion comprises three or four weeks. With grubs and grub-like creatures, the time is usually three weeks, and in the oviparous insects, as a rule, four. But, in the case of oviparous insects, as a rule, four. insects, the egg formation comes at the close of seven days from copulation, and during the remaining three weeks the parent broods over and hatches its young, it est, where this is the result of copulation, as in the case of the spider and its congeners. As a rule, the transformations take place in intervals of three or four days, corresponding to

Starting point is 07:46:40 the lengths of interval at which the crises recur in intermittent fevers. So much for the generation of insects. Their death is due to the shriveling of their organs, just as the larger animals die of all day. Winged insects die in autumn from the shrinking of their wings. The myops dies from dropsy in the eyes. And of chapter 20. Chapters 21 to 27 of Book 5 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 07:47:29 Chapter 21 With regard to the generation of bees, different hypotheses are in vogue. Some affirm that bees neither copulate nor give birth to young, but that they fetch their young, and some say that they fetch their young from the flower of the calentrum. Others assert that they bring them from the flower of the reed, others from the flower of the olive. And in respect to the olive theory, it is stated as a proof that, when the olive harvest is most abundant, the swarms are most numerous. Others declare that they fetch the brood of the drones from such things as above mentioned, but that the working bees are engendered by the rulers of the hive.

Starting point is 07:48:18 Now, of these rulers there are two kinds. The better kind is red in color. The inferior kind is black and variegated. The ruler is double the size of the working bee. These rulers have the abdomen or part below the waist, half as large again, and they are called by some the mothers, from an idea that they bear or generate the bees. And, as a proof of this theory of their motherhood,

Starting point is 07:48:47 they declare that the brood of the drones appears even when there is no ruler bee in the hive, but that the bees do not appear in his absence. Others again assert that these insects copulate, and that the drones are male and the bees female. The ordinary bee is generated in the cells of the comb, but the ruler bees in cells down below attached to the comb, suspended from it, apart from the rest, six or seven in number, and growing in a way quite different from the mode of growth of the ordinary brood. Bees are provided with a sting, but the drones are not so provided. The rulers are provided with stings, but they never use them, and this latter circumstance will account for the belief of some people that they have no stings at all.

Starting point is 07:49:42 Chapter 22 Of bees, there are various species. The best kind is a little round-modelled insect. Another is long and resembles the anthrena. A third is black and flat-bellied, and is nicknamed the robber. A fourth kind is the drone, the largest of all, but stingless and inactive. And this proportionate size of the drone explains why some bee masters place a network in front of the hives,

Starting point is 07:50:14 for the network is put to keep the big drones out, while it lets the little bees go in. Of the king bees there are, this has been stated two kinds. In every hive there are more kings than one, and a hive goes to ruin if there be too few kings, not because of anarchy thereby ensuing, but, as we are told,

Starting point is 07:50:37 because these creatures contribute in some way to the generation of the common bees. The hive will go also to ruin if there be too large a number of kings in it, for the members of the hives are thereby subdivided into too many separate factions. Whenever the springtime is later coming, and when there is drought and mildew,

Starting point is 07:51:00 then the progeny of the hive is small in number. But when the weather is dry, they attend to the honey, and in rainy weather, their attention is concentrated on the brood, and this will account for the coincidence of rich olive harvests and abundant swarms. The bees first work at the honeycomb, and then put the pupae in it. By the mouth say those who hold the theory of their bringing them from elsewhere.

Starting point is 07:51:30 After putting in the pupae, they put in the honey for subsistence, and this they do in the summer and autumn, and, by the way, the autumn honey is the better of the two. The honeycomb is made from flowers, and the materials for the wax they gather from the resinous gum of trees, while honey is distilled from dew, and is deposited chiefly at the risings of the constellations, or when a rainbow is in the sky, and, as a general rule, there is no honey before the rising of the Pleiades. The bee then makes the wax from flowers. The honey, however, it does not make,

Starting point is 07:52:13 but merely gathers what is deposited out of the atmosphere. And as a proof of this statement, we have the known fact that occasionally beekeepers find the hives filled with honey within the space of two or three days. Furthermore, in autumn, flowers are found, but honey, if it be withdrawn, is not replaced. Now, after the withdrawal of the original honey, when no food or very little is in the hives, there would be a fresh stock of honey if the

Starting point is 07:52:46 bees made it from flowers. Honey, if allowed to ripen and mature, gathers consistency, for at first it is like water and remains liquid for several days. If it be drawn off during these days it has no consistency, but it attains consistency in about 20 days. The taste of thyme honey is discernible at once, from its peculiar sweetness and consistency. The bee gathers from every flower that is furnished with a calyx or cup, and from all other flowers that are sweet-tasted, without doing injury to any fruit. And the juices of the flowers, it takes up with the organ that resembles a tongue and carries off to the hive. Swarms are robbed of their honey on the appearance of the wild fig.

Starting point is 07:53:39 They produce the best larvae at the time the honey is a making. The bee carries wax and bees bread round its legs, but vomits the honey into the cell. After depositing its young, it broods over it like a bird. The grub, when it is small, lies slantwise in the comb, but by and by rises up straight by an effort of its own, and takes food, and holds on so tightly to the honeycomb as actually to cling to it. The young of bees and of drones is white, and from the young come the grubs, and the grubs

Starting point is 07:54:19 grow into bees and drones. The egg of the king bee is reddish in color, and its substance is about as consistent as thick honey, and, from the first, it is about as big as the bee that is produced from it. From the young of the king bee there is no intermediate stage. It is said of the grub, but the bee comes at once. Whenever the bee lays an egg in the comb, there is always a drop of honey set against it. The larva of the bee gets feet and wings as soon as the cell has been stopped up with wax, and when it arrives at its completed form, it breaks its membrane and flies away. It ejects excrement in the grub state, but not afterwards. That is, not until it has got out

Starting point is 07:55:09 of the encasing membrane, as we have already described. If you remove the heads from off the larvae, before the coming of the wings, the bees will eat them up, and if you nip off the wings from a drone and let it go, the bees will spontaneously bite off the wings from off all the remaining drones. The bee lives for six years as a rule, as an exception for seven years. If a swarm lasts for nine years or ten, great credit is considered due to its management. In Pontus are found bees exceedingly white in color, and these bees produce their honey twice a month. The bees in Themisgira on the banks of the river Thermodon build honeycombs in the ground and in hives, and these honeycombs are furnished with very little wax, but with honey of great consistency,

Starting point is 07:56:07 and the honeycomb, by the way, is smooth and level. But this is not always the case with these bees, but only in the winter season, for in Pontus the ivy is abundant, and it flowers at this time of the year, and it is from the ivy flower that they derive their honey. A weight and very consistent honey is brought down from the upper country to amissus, which is deposited by bees on trees without the employment of honeycombs, and this kind of honey is produced in other districts in Pontus. There are bees also that construct triple honeycombs in the ground,

Starting point is 07:56:47 and these honeycombs supply honey but never contain grubs. But the honeycombs in these places are not all of this sort, nor do all the bees construct them. Chapter 23 Anthraenai and wasps construct combs for their young. When they have no king, but are wandering about in search of one, the anthraini constructs its comb on some high place, and the wasp inside a hole. When the anthraini and the wasp and the wasp, have a king, they construct their combs underground. Their combs are in all cases hexagonal, like the comb of the bee.

Starting point is 07:57:31 They are composed, however, not of wax, but of a bark-like filamented fiber, and the comb of the anthraini is much neater than the comb of the wasp. Like the bee, they put their young just like a drop of liquid on to the side of the cell, and the egg clings to the wall of the cell. But the eggs are not deposited in the cells simultaneously. On the contrary, in some cells are creatures big enough to fly. In others are nymphie, and in others are mere grubs. As in the case of bees, excrement is observed only in the cells where the grubs are found.

Starting point is 07:58:10 As long as the creatures are in the nymph condition, they are motionless, and the cell is cemented over. In the comb of the anthreni, there is found. in the cell of the young a drop of honey in front of it. The larvae of the enshrini and the wasp make their appearance, not in the spring but in the autumn, and their growth is especially discernible in times of full moon. And, by the way, the eggs and the grubs never rest at the bottom of the cells, but always cling on to the side wall. Chapter 24 There is a kind of humble bee that builds a cone-shaped, nest of clay against a stone, or in some similar situation besmearing the clay with something like

Starting point is 07:58:57 spittle. And this nest or hive is exceedingly thick and hard. In point of fact, one can hardly break it open with a spike. Here the insects lay their eggs, and white grubs are produced wrapped in a black membrane. Apart from the membrane, there is found some wax in the honeycomb, and this wax is much saluer in hue than the wax in the honeycomb of the bee. Chapter 25 Ants copulate and engender grubs, and these grubs attach themselves to nothing in particular, but grow on and on from small and rounded shapes, until they become elongated and defined in shape,

Starting point is 07:59:40 and they are engendered in springtime. Chapter 26 The land scorpion also lays a number of egg-shaped grubs and broods over them. When the hatching is completed, the parent animal, as happens with the parent spider, is ejected and put to death by the young ones. For very often, the young ones are about eleven in number. Chapter 27 Spiders in all cases copulate in the way above mentioned, and generate at first small grubs,

Starting point is 08:00:15 and these grubs metamorphose in their entirety, and not partially into spiders, for, by the way, the grums are round-shaped at the outset, and the spider, when it lays its eggs, broods over them, and in three days the eggs or grubs take definite shape. All spiders lay their eggs in a web, but some spiders lay in a small and fine web, and others in a thick one, and some, as a rule, lay in a round-shaped case or capsule, and some are only partially enveloped in the web. The young grubs are not all developed at one and the same time into young spiders. But the moment the development takes place, the young spider makes a leap and begins to spin his

Starting point is 08:01:04 web. The juice of the grub, if you squeeze it, is the same as the juice found in the spider when young, that is to say it is thick and white. The meadow spiner lays its eggs into a web, one half of which is attached to itself, and the other half is free. And on this the parent broods until the eggs are hatched. The phalanchea lay their eggs in a sort of strong basket,

Starting point is 08:01:32 which they have woven, and brood over it until the eggs are hatched. The smooth spiner is much less prolific than the phalancheum, or hairy spider. These phalanchea, when they grow to full size, very often envelop the mother philangium and eject and kill her. And not seldom they kill the father phalanjum as well, if they catch him,

Starting point is 08:01:56 for, by the way, he has the habit of cooperating with the mother in the hatching. The brood of a single phalangium is sometimes 300 in number. The spider attains its full growth in about four weeks. End of Chapter 27. Chapters 28 to 34 of Book 5 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 28

Starting point is 08:02:39 Grasshoppers or locusts copulate in the same way as other insubes. that is to say, with the lesser covering the larger, for the male is smaller than the female. The females first insert the hollow tube which they have at their tails in the ground, and then lay their eggs. And the male, by the way, is not furnished with this tube. The females lay their eggs all in a lump together, and in one spot, so that the entire lump of eggs resembles a honeycomb. After they have laid their eggs, the eggs assume the shape of oval grumps that are enveloped by a sort of thin clay, like a membrane.

Starting point is 08:03:26 In this membrane-like formation they grow on to maturity. The larva is so soft that it collapses at a touch. The larva is not placed on the surface of the ground, but a little beneath the surface, and, when it reaches maturity, it comes out of its clayy investiture. in the shape of a little black grasshopper by and by. The skin and tegument strips off, and it grows larger and larger. The grasshopper lays its eggs at the close of summer and dies after laying them. The fact is that at the time of laying the eggs, grubs are engendered in the region of the mother grasshopper's neck,

Starting point is 08:04:11 and the male grasshoppers die about the same time. In springtime, they come out of the ground, and, by the way, no grasshoppers are found in mountainous land, or in poor land, but only in flat and loamy land. For the fact is, they lay their eggs in cracks of the soil. During the winter, their eggs remain in the ground, and, with the coming of summer, the last year's larva develops into the perfect grasshopper. Chapter 29 The Telabee, or Locusts, lay their eggs and die in like manner after laying them.

Starting point is 08:04:55 Their eggs are subject to destruction by the autumn rains, when the rains are unusually heavy. But in seasons of drought, the locusts are exceedingly numerous from the absence of any destructive cause, since their destruction seems then to be a matter of accident and to depend on luck. Chapter 30 Of the cicada there are two kinds. One, small in size, the first to come and the last to disappear. The other large, the singing one, it comes last and first disappears. Both in the small and the large species, some are divided at the waste.

Starting point is 08:05:38 To it, the singing ones. and some are undivided, and these latter have no song. The large and singing cicada is by some designated the chirper, and the small cicada, the tedigonium, or cicadele. And, by the way, such of the tedagonia as are divided at the waist, can sing just a little. The cicada is not found where there are no trees, and this accounts for the fact that in the district, surrounding the city of Cyrene, it is not found at all in the plain country, but is found

Starting point is 08:06:15 in great numbers in the neighborhood of the city, and especially where olive trees are growing, for an olive grove is not thickly shaded, and the cicada is not found in cold places, and consequently is not found in any grove that keeps out the sunlight. The large and the small cicada copulate alike, belly to belly, the male discharges sperm into the female, as is the case with insects in general, and the female cicada has a cleft generative organ, and it is the female into which the male discharges the sperm. They lay their eggs in follow lands, boring a hole with the pointed organ they carry in the rear, as do the locusts likewise, for the locust lays its eggs in untilled lands, and this fact may account

Starting point is 08:07:09 for their numbers in the territory adjacent to the city of Sireini. The cicada also lay their eggs in the canes on which husbandmen prop vines, perforating the canes, and also in the stalks of the squill. This brood runs into the ground, and they are most numerous in rainy weather. The grub, on attaining full size in the ground, becomes a tetigometra, or nymph. and the creature is sweetest to the taste at this stage before the husk is broken. When the summer solstice comes, the creature issues from the husk at nighttime, and in a moment, as the husk breaks, the larva becomes the perfect cicada.

Starting point is 08:07:58 The creature also, at once, turns black in color and harder and larger, and takes to singing. In both species, the larger and the smaller, it is the male that sing, and the female that is unvocal. At first, the males are the sweeter eating, but after copulation the females, as they are full then of white eggs. If you make a sudden noise, as they are flying overhead, they let drop something like water. Country people, in regard to this, say that they are avoiding urine, it est that they have an excrement, and that they feed upon do. If you present your finger to a cicada, and bend back the tip of it, and then extend it again. It will endure the presentation more quietly, then, if you were to keep your finger outstretched altogether,

Starting point is 08:08:52 and it will set to climbing your finger, for the creature is so weak-sighted, that it will take to climbing your finger, as though that were a moving leaf. Chapter 31 of insects that are not carnivorous, but that live on the juices of living flesh, such as lice and fleas and bugs, all, without exception, generate what are called nits, and these nits generate nothing. Of these insects, the flea is generated out of the slightest amount of putrefying matter, for wherever there is any dry excrement, a flea is sure to be found. bugs are generated from the moisture of living animals as it dries up outside their bodies.

Starting point is 08:09:40 Lace are generated out of the flesh of animals. When lace are coming, there is a kind of small eruption visible, and accompanied by any discharge of purulent matter, and if you prick an animal, when in this condition, at the spot of eruption, the lace jump out. In some men, the appearance of lace is a disease, in cases where the body is surcharged with moisture, and indeed men have been known to succumb to this louse disease,

Starting point is 08:10:09 as Alkman the poet and the Syrian ferocides are said to have done. Moreover, in certain diseases, lice appear in great abundance. There is also a species of louse called the wild louse, and this is harder than the ordinary louse, and there is exceptional difficulty in getting the skin rid of it. Boy's hands are apt to be lousy, but men's in less degree, and women are more subject to lice than men. But whenever people are troubled with lousy heads,

Starting point is 08:10:45 they are less than ordinarily troubled with headache, and lace are generated in other animals than man, for burns are infested with them, and pheasants, unless they clean themselves, in the dust are actually destroyed by them. All other winged animals that are furnished with feathers are similarly infested, and all hair-coated creatures also, with the single exception of the ass, which is infested neither with lace nor with ticks.

Starting point is 08:11:16 Cattle suffer both from lace and from ticks. Sheep and goats breed ticks, but do not breed lice. Pigs breed lice, large and hard. In dogs are found the flea, peculiar to the animal, the gnoroistes. In all animals that are subject to lice, the latter originate from the animals themselves. Moreover, in animals that bathe at all, mice are more than usually abundant when they change the water in which they bathe. In the sea, mice are found on fishes, but they are generated not out of the fish, but out of slime, and they resemble multipedal wood-lice, only that their tail is flat.

Starting point is 08:12:02 Seelace are uniform in shape and universal in locality, and are particularly numerous on the body of the red mullet. And all these insects are multipedal and devoid of blood. The parasite that feeds on the tony is found in the region of the fins. It resembles a scorpion, and is about the size of a spider. In the seas between Cyrene and Egypt, there is a fish that attends on the dolphin, which is called the dolphin's louse. This fish gets exceedingly fat from enjoying an abundance of food,

Starting point is 08:12:39 while the dolphin is out in pursuit of its prey. Chapter 32 Other and amalgules besides these are generated, as we have already remarked some in wool, or in articles made of wool, as the cess or clothes moth. And these animalcules come in greater numbers if the woolen substances are dusty,

Starting point is 08:13:04 and they come in especially large numbers if a spider be shut up in the cloth or wool, for the creature drinks up any moisture that may be there and dries up the woolen substance. This grub is found also in men's clothes. A creature is also found in wax. long laid by, just as in wood, and it is the smallest of animalcules, and is white in color, and is designated the acary or mite.

Starting point is 08:13:36 In books also other animal cules are found, some resembling the grubs found in garments, and some resembling tailless scorpions, but very small. As a general rule, we may state that such animal cules are found in practically anything, both in dry things that are becoming moist and in moist things that are drying, provided they contain the conditions of life. There is a grub entitled the Fagot Bearer, as strange a creature as is known. Its head projects outside its shell, modeled in color, and its feet are near the end or apex, as is the case with grubs in general. But the rest of its body is cased in a tunic, as it were of spider's web,

Starting point is 08:14:24 and there are little dry twigs about it, that look as though they had stuck by accident to the creature as it went walking about. But these twig-like formations are naturally connected with the tunic, for just as the shell is with the body of the snail, so is the whole superstructure with our grub. And they do not drop off, but can only be torn off,

Starting point is 08:14:48 as though they were all of a piece with him, and the removal of the tunic is as fated, to this grub as the removal of the shell would be to the snail. In course of time, this grub becomes a chrysalis, as is the case with the silkworm, and lives in a motionless condition. But as yet, it is not known into what winged condition it is transformed. The fruit of the wild fig contains the psin, or fig wasp. This creature is a grub at first, but in due time the husk peels off, and the patsk peels off, and the

Starting point is 08:15:24 Senn leaves the husk behind it and flies away, and enters into the fruit of the fig tree through its orifice, and causes the fruit not to drop off. And with a view to this phenomenon, country folk are in the habit of tying wild figs on to fig trees, and of planting wild fig trees near domesticated ones. Chapter 33 In the case of animals that are quadrupeds and red-blooded and oviparous, Generation takes place in the spring, but copulation does not take place in an uniform season. In some cases it takes place in the spring, in others in summertime, and in others in the autumn,

Starting point is 08:16:07 according as the subsequent season may be favorable for the young. The tortoise lays eggs with a hard shell, and of two colors within, like bird's eggs, and after laying them, buries them in the ground, and treads the ground hard over. them. It then broods over the eggs on the surface of the ground and hatches the eggs the next year. The hemis, or freshwater tortoise, leaves the water and lays its eggs. It digs a hole of a cask-like shape and deposits therein the eggs. After rather less than 30 days it digs the eggs up again and hatches them with great rapidity and leads its young at once off to the water. The sea turtle lays on the ground eggs, just like the eggs of domesticated burns, buries the

Starting point is 08:17:00 eggs in the ground, and broods over them in the nighttime. It lays a very great number of eggs amounting at times to 100. Lizards and crocodiles, terrestrial and fluvial, lay eggs on land. The eggs of lizards hatch spontaneously on land, for the lizard does not live on into the next year. In fact, the life of the animal is said not to exceed six months. The river crocodile lays a number of eggs, 60 at the most, white in color, and broods over them for 60 days. For, by the way, the creature is very long-lived, and the disproportion is more marked in this animal than in any other between the smallness of the original egg and the huge

Starting point is 08:17:48 size of the full-grown animal. for the egg is not larger than that of the goose, and the young crocodile is small, answering to the egg in size, but the full-grown animal attains the length of 26 feet. In fact, it is actually stated that the animal goes on growing to the end of its days. Chapter 34 With regard to serpents or snakes, the viper is externally viviparous, having been previously oviparous internally. The egg, as with the egg of fishes, is uniform in color and soft-skinned. The young serpent grows on the surface of the egg, and, like the young of fishes, has no shell

Starting point is 08:18:34 like envelopment. The young of the viper is born inside a membrane that bursts from off the young creature in three days, and at times the young viper eats its way out from the inside of the egg. The mother viper brings forth all its young in one day, twenty in number, and one at a time. The other serpents are externally oviparous, and their inings are strung on to one another like a lady's necklace. After the dam has laid her eggs in the ground, she broods over them and hatches the eggs in the following year.

Starting point is 08:19:13 End of Chapter 34 and end of Book 5. chapters one and two of book six of history of animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 1 So much for the generative processes in snakes and insects, and also in oviparous quadrupanes. Birds, without exception, lay eggs, but the pairing season and the times of parturition are not alike for all. Some birds couple and lay at almost any time in the year, as, for instance, the barn-door hen and the pigeon.

Starting point is 08:20:10 The former of these coupling and laying during the entire year, with the exception of the month before and the month after the winter solstice. Some hens, even in the high breeds, lay a large quantity of eggs before brooding, amounting to as many as sixty, and, by the way, the higher breeds are less prolific than the inferior ones. The Adrian hens are small-sized, but they lay every day. They are cross-tempered, and often kill their chickens. They are of all colors. Some domesticated hens lay twice a day. Indeed, instances have been known where hens, after exhibiting extreme fecundity, have died suddenly. Hens then lay eggs, as has been stated at all times indiscriminately. The pigeon, the ring dove, the turtle dove, and the stock dove lay twice a year, and the pigeon actually lays ten times a year. The great majority of birds lay during the springtime.

Starting point is 08:21:22 Some birds are prolific, and prolific in either of two ways, either by laying often, as the pigeon, or by laying many eggs at a sitting, as the barn door hen. All birds of prey, or birds with crooked talons, are unprolific, except the kestrel. This bird is the most prolific of birds of prey. As many as four eggs have been observed in the nest, and occasionally it lays even more. Birds in general lay their eggs in nests, but such as are disqualified for flight,

Starting point is 08:22:00 as the partridge and the quail do not lay them in nests, but on the ground, and cover them over with loose material. The same is the case with the lark and the tetricks. These birds hatch in sheltered places, but the bird called Merops in Bioschia alone of all birds burrows into holes in the ground and hatches there. Thrushes, like swallows, build nests of clay on high trees, and build them in rows all close together, so that from their continuity the structure resembles a necklace of nests. Of all burns that hatch for themselves, the hoopoe is the only one that builds no nest whatever. It gets into the hollow of the trunk of a tree and lays its eggs there without making any sort of nest.

Starting point is 08:22:55 The circus builds either under a dwelling roof or on cliffs. The tetricks, called Urax in Athens, builds neither on the ground nor on trees, but on low-lying shrubs. Chapter 2. The egg, in the case of all birds alike, is hard-shelled. If it be the produce of copulation, and be laid by a healthy hen, for some hens lay soft eggs. The interior of the egg is of two colors, and the white part is outside, and the yellow part within. The eggs of birds that frequent rivers and marshes differ from those of burns that live on dry land.

Starting point is 08:23:42 That is to say, the eggs of water birds have comparatively more of the yellow or yonk, and less of the white. Eggs vary in color according to their kind. Some eggs are white, as those of the pigeon and of the part trench. Others are yellowish, as the eggs of marsh burns. In some cases, the eggs are modeled as the eggs of the guinea fowl and the pheasant, while the eggs of the castral are red, like vermilion. Eggs are not symmetrically shaped at both ends. In other words, one end is comparatively sharp, and the other end is comparatively blunt,

Starting point is 08:24:25 and it is the latter end that protrudes first at the time of laying. Long and pointed eggs are female. Those that are round or more rounded at the narrow end are male. Eggs are hatched by the incubation of the mother burned. In some cases, as in Egypt, they are hatched spontaneously in the ground by being buried in dung heaps. A story is told of a toper in Syracuse, how he used to put eggs into the ground under his rush mat and to keep on drinking until he hatched them. Instances have occurred of eggs being deposited in warm vessels and getting hatched spontaneously.

Starting point is 08:25:12 The sperm of birds, as of animals, in general, is white. After the female has submitted to the male, she draws up the sperm to underneath her midriff. At first it is little in size and white in color. By and by it is red, the color of blood, as it grows, it becomes pale, and it becomes pale, and yellow all over. When at length it is getting ripe for hatching, it is subject to differentiation of substance, and the yonk gathers together within, and the white settles round it on the outside. When the full time is come, the egg detaches itself and protrudes, changing from soft to hard, with such temporal exactitude that, whereas it is not hard during the process of protrusion,

Starting point is 08:26:01 It hardens immediately after the process is completed. That is, if there be no concomitant pathological circumstances. Cases have occurred where substances resembling the egg at a critical point of its growth, that is, when it is yellow all over, as the yolk is subsequently, have been found in the cock when cut open, underneath his midriff, just where the hen has her eggs, and these are entirely yellow in appearance, and of the same size as ordinary eggs. Such phenomena are regarded as a natural and portentous. Such as affirm that wind eggs are the residua of eggs previously begotten from copulation

Starting point is 08:26:49 are mistaken in this assertion, for we have cases well authenticated, where chickens of the common hen and goose have laid wind eggs without ever having been subjected to copulation. Wind eggs are smaller, less palatable, and more liquid than true eggs, and are produced in greater numbers. When they are put under the mother burned, the liquid contents never coagulate, but both the yellow and the white remain as they were. Wind eggs are laid by a number of birds, as, for instance, by the common hen, the hen partridge, the hen pigeon, the pea hen, the goose, and the vulpanser. Eggs are hatched under brooding hens more rapidly in summer than in winter.

Starting point is 08:27:38 That is to say, hens hatch in 18 days in summer, but occasionally in winter take as many as 25. And, by the way, for brooding purposes, some birds make better mothers than others. If it thunders while a hen bird is brooding, the eggs get addled. Wind eggs that are called by some connoisseur and urea are produced chiefly in summer. Wind eggs are called by some zephyr eggs, because at springtime henbirds are observed to inhale the breezes. They do the same if they be stroked in a peculiar way by hand. Wind eggs can turn into fertile eggs, and eggs due to previous compilation can change breed if before the change of the yellow to the white, the hen that contains wind eggs or eggs begotten of copulation, be trodden by another cock-bird.

Starting point is 08:28:36 Under these circumstances, the wind eggs turn into fertile eggs, and the previously impregnated eggs follow the breed of the impregnator. But if the latter impregnation takes place during the change of the yellow to the white, then no change in the egg takes place. The wind egg does not become a true egg, and the true egg does not take on the breed of the latter impregnator. If, when the egg substance is small, copulation be intermitted, the previously existing egg substance exhibits no increase. But if the hen be again submitted to the male, the increase in size proceeds with rapidity. The yolk, and the white are diverse, not only in color, but also in properties.

Starting point is 08:29:24 Thus the yolk congeals under the influence of cold, whereas the white, instead of congealing, is inclined rather to liquefy. Again, the white stiffens under the influence of fire, whereas the yolk does not stiffen, but unless it be burnt through and through, it remains soft, and in point of fact is inclined to set or to harden more from the boiling than from the roasting of the egg. the yoke and the white are separated by a membrane from one another. The so-called hailstones or treadles that are found at the extremity of the yellow in no way contribute towards generation, as some erroneously suppose.

Starting point is 08:30:08 They are two in number, one below and the other above. If you take out of the shells a number of yolks and a number of whites and pour them into a saucepan and boil them slowly over a low fine, fire, the yolks will gather into the center, and the whites will set all round them. Young hens are the first to lay, and they do so at the beginning of spring, and lay more eggs than the older hens. But the eggs of the younger hens are comparatively small. As a general rule, if hens get no brooding, they pine and sicken.

Starting point is 08:30:49 After copulation, hens shiver and shake themselves, and often kick rubbish about all round them, and this, by the way, they do sometimes after laying, whereas pigeons trail their rumps on the ground, and geese dive under the water. Conception of the true egg and confirmation of the wind-egg take place rapidly with most burns, as, for instance, with the hen partridge when in heat. The fact is that when she stands to windward and within scent of the mail, she conceives, and becomes useless for decoy purposes. For, by the way, the partridge appears to have a very acute sense of smell.

Starting point is 08:31:32 The generation of the egg after copulation, and the generation of the chick from the subsequent hatching of the egg, are not brought about within equal periods for all burns, but differ as to time according to the size of the parent burns. The egg of the common hen after copulation sets and matures in ten days as a general rule, the egg of the pigeon in a somewhat lesser period. Pigeons have the faculty of holding back the egg at the very moment of parturition. If a hen pigeon be put about by anyone, for instance, if it be disturbed on its nest, or have a feather plucked out, or sustain any other annoyance or disturbing,

Starting point is 08:32:19 Then, even though she had made up her mind to lay, she can keep the egg back in abeyance. A singular phenomenon is observed in pigeons with regard to pairing. That is, they kiss one another just when the male is on the point of mounting the female, and without this preliminary, the male would decline to perform his function. With the older males, the preliminary kiss is only given to begin with. And subsequently, he mounts without previously kissing. With younger males, the preliminary is never omitted. Another singularity in these birds is that the hens tread one another

Starting point is 08:33:02 when a cog is not forthcoming, after kissing one another, just as takes place in the normal pairing. No, they do not impregnate one another. They lay more eggs under these than under ordinary circumstances. No chicks, however, result they're from, but all such eggs are wind eggs. End of Chapter 2. Chapters 3 to 9 of Book 6 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth-Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 08:33:49 Chapter 3 Generation from the egg proceeds in an identical manner with all burns, but the full periods, from conception to birth differ, as has been said. With the common hen, after three days and three nights, there is the first indication of the embryo, with larger burns, the interval being longer, with smaller birds shorter. Meanwhile, the yoke comes into being,

Starting point is 08:34:20 rising towards the sharp end, where the primal element of the egg is situated, and where the egg gets hatched, and the heart appears like a speck of blood in the white of the egg. This point beats and moves as though endowed with life, and from it two vein ducks with blood in them trend in a convoluted course as the egg substance goes on growing towards each of the two circumjacent integuments, and a membrane carrying bloody fibers now envelops the yoke, leading off from the veined ducks. A little afterwards, the body is differentiated, at first very small and white. The head is clearly distinguished, and in it the eyes swollen out to a great extent. This condition of the eyes lasts on for a good while, as it is only by degrees that they diminish

Starting point is 08:35:28 in size and collapse. At the outset, the under portion of the body appears insignificant, in comparison with the upper portion. Of the two ducks that lead from the heart, the one proceeds towards the circumjacent integument, and the other like a navel string towards the yoke. The life element of the chick is in the white of the egg, and the nutriment comes through the navel string out of the yoke. When the egg is now ten days old,

Starting point is 08:36:02 the chick and all its parts are distinctly, visible. The head is still larger than the rest of its body, and the eyes larger than the hand, but still devoid of vision. The eyes, if removed about this time, are found to be larger than beans and black. If the cuticle be peeled off them, there is a white and cold liquid inside, quite glittering in the sunlight, but there is no hard substance whatsoever. Such is the condition of the hand and eyes. At this time also, the larger internal organs are visible, as also the stomach and the arrangement of the viscera,

Starting point is 08:36:48 and the veins that seem to proceed from the heart are now close to the navel. From the navel, there stretch a pair of veins, one towards the membrane that envelopes the oak. And, by the way, the oak is now liquid, or more so than is normal, and the other, towards that membrane which envelops collectively the membrane wherein the chick lies, the membrane of the yolk and the intervening liquid. For, as the chick grows little by little, one part of the yolk goes upward, and another part

Starting point is 08:37:25 downward, and the white liquid is between them, and the white of the egg is underneath the lower part of the yoke, as it was at the outset. On the tenth day, the white is at the extreme outer surface, reduced in amount, glutinous, firm in substance, and sallow in color. The disposition of the several constituent parts is as follows. First and outermost comes the membrane of the egg, not that of the shell, but underneath it. Inside this membrane is a white, liquid. Then comes the chick, and a membrane round about it, separating it off so as to keep the chick free from the liquid. Next after the chick comes the yolk, into which one of the two veins was described as leading, the other one leading into the enveloping white substance. A membrane,

Starting point is 08:38:24 with a liquid resembling serum, envelops the entire structure. Then comes another membrane, right round the embryo, as has been described, separating it off against the liquid. Underneath this comes the oak, enveloped in another membrane, into which yolk proceeds the navel string that leads from the heart and the big vein, so as to keep the embryo free of both liquids. About the twentieth day, if you open the egg and touch the chick, it moves inside and chirps, and it is already coming to be covered with down. When, after the twentieth day is passed, the chick begins to break the shell.

Starting point is 08:39:09 The head is situated over the right leg, close to the flank, and the wing is placed over the head, and about this time is plain to be seen the membrane resembling an afterbirth that comes next after the outermost membrane of the shell. into which membrane, the one of the navel strings, was described as leading. And, by the way, the chick in its entirety is now within it. And so also is the other membrane resembling an afterbirth, namely that surrounding the yoke into which the second naval string was described as leading, and both of them were described as being connected with the heart and the big vein.

Starting point is 08:39:56 At this conjuncture, the navel string that leads to the outer afterbirth collapses and becomes detached from the chick, and the membrane that leads into the oak is fastened on to the thin gut of the creature, and by this time a considerable amount of the oak is inside the chick, and a yellow sediment is in its stomach. About this time it discharges residuum, in the direction of the outer afterbirth, and, has residuum inside its stomach, and the outer residuum is white, and there comes a white substance inside. By and by, the oak diminishing gradually in size, at length becomes entirely used up and comprehended within the chick, so that, ten days after hatching, if you cut

Starting point is 08:40:48 open the chick, a small remnant of the oak is still left in connection with the gut. But, it is detached from the navel, and there is nothing in the interval between, but it has been used up entirely. During the period above referred to, the chick sleeps, wakes up, makes a move, and looks up and chirps, and the heart and the navel together palpitate as though the creature were respiring, so much as to generation from the egg in the case of birds. Birds lay some eggs that are unfruitful, even eggs that are the result of copulation, and no life comes from such eggs by incubation, and this phenomenon is observed especially with pigeons. Twin eggs have two yolks.

Starting point is 08:41:43 In some twin eggs, a thin partition of white intervenes to prevent the yolks mixing with each other, but some twin eggs are unprovided with such partition. and the yolks run into one another. There are some hens that lay nothing but twin eggs, and, in their case, the phenomenon regarding the yokes has been observed. For instance, a hen has been known to lay 18 eggs and to hatch twins out of them all, except those that were wind eggs.

Starting point is 08:42:19 The rest were fertile, though, by the way, one of the twins is always bigger than the other. But the eighteenth was abnormal or monstrous. Chapter 4. Birds of the pigeon kind, such as the ring dove and the turtle dove, lay two eggs at a time. That is to say, they do so as a general rule, and they never lay more than three. The pigeon, as has been said, lays at all seasons. The ring dove and the turtle dove lay in the springtime, and they never lay more than twice in the same season. The hen bird lays the second pair of eggs when the first pair happens to have been destroyed, for many of the hen pigeons destroy the first brood. The hen pigeon,

Starting point is 08:43:09 as has been said, occasionally lays three eggs, but it never rears more than two chicks, and sometimes rears only one, and the odd one is always a wind egg. Very few birds propagate within their first year. All birds, after once they have begun laying, keep on having eggs, though in the case of some birds it is difficult to detect the fact from the minute size of the creature. The pigeon, as a rule, lays a male and a female egg, and generally lays the male egg first. After laying it, allows a day's interval to ensue, and then lays the second egg. The male takes its turn of sitting during the daytime. The female sits during the night.

Starting point is 08:43:59 The first laid egg is hatched and brought to birth within 20 days, and the mother bird pecks a hole in the egg the day before she hatches it out. The two parent birds brood for some time over the chicks in the way in which they brooded previously over the eggs. In all, connected with the rearing of the young, the female parent is more cross-tempered than the male, as is the case with most animals after parturition. The hens lay as many as ten times in the year.

Starting point is 08:44:34 Occasional instances have been known of their laying 11 times, and in Egypt they actually lay 12 times. The pigeon, male and female, couples within the year. In fact, it couples when only six months old. Some assert that ring doves and turtle-doves pair and procreate when only three months old, and instance their superabundant numbers by way of proof of the assertion. The hen pigeon carries her eggs 14 days, for as many more days the parent-birds hatch the eggs. By the end of another 14 days, the chicks are so far capable of flight as to be overtaken with difficulty.

Starting point is 08:45:19 The ringed-dove, according to all accounts, lives up to forty years. The partridge lives over sixteen. After one brood, the pigeon is ready for another within thirty days. Chapter 5 The vulture builds its nest on inaccessible cliffs, for which reason its nest and young are rarely seen. And therefore, Herodorus, father of Bryson the saw-fest, that vultures belong to some foreign country unknown to us,

Starting point is 08:45:54 stating as a proof of the assertion that no one has ever seen a vulture's nest, and also that vultures in great numbers make a sudden appearance in the rear of armies. However, difficult as it is to get a sight of it, a vulture's nest has been seen. The vulture lays two eggs. Carnivorous birds in general are observable. served to lay but once a year. The swallow is the only carnivorous bird that builds a nest twice. If you prick out the eyes of swallow chicks while they are yet young,

Starting point is 08:46:32 the birds will get well again and will see by and by. Chapter 6 The eagle lays three eggs and hatches two of them, as it is said in the verses ascribed to Musayas. quote, that lays three, hatches two, and cares for one, close quote. This is the case in most instances, though occasionally a brood of three has been observed. As the young ones grow, the mother becomes wearied with feeding them, and extrudes one of the pair from the nest. At the same time, the bird is said to abstain from food, to avoid harrying

Starting point is 08:47:16 the young of wild animals, that is to say, its wings blanch, and for some days its talons get turned awry. It is, in consequence about this time, cross-tempered to its own young. The fiend is said to rear the young one that has been expelled the nest. The eagle broods for about thirty days. The hatching period is about the same for the larger birds. such as the goose and the great bustard. For the middle-sized birds, it extends over about twenty days, as in the case of the kite and the hawk. The kite, in general, lays two eggs,

Starting point is 08:48:01 but occasionally rears three young ones. The so-called Agulios at times rears four. It is not true that, as some aver, the raven lays only two eggs. It lays a larger number. It broods for about 20 days and then extrudes its young. Other birds perform the same operation. At all events, mother birds that lay several eggs often extrude one of their young.

Starting point is 08:48:33 Birds of the eagle species are not alike in the treatment of their young. The white-tailed eagle is cross. The black eagle is affectionate in the feeding of the young, though, by the way, all birds of prey, when their brood is rather forward in being able to fly, beat and extrude them from the nest. The majority of birds other than birds of prey, as has been said, also act in this manner, and after feeding their young, take no further care of them. But the crow is an exception.

Starting point is 08:49:10 This bird, for a considerable time, takes charge of her young. for even when her young can fly, she flies alongside of them, and supplies them with food. Chapter 7 The cuckoo is said by some to be a hawk transformed, because at the time of the cuckoo's coming, the hawk, which it resembles, is never seen. And indeed, it is only for a few days that you will see hawks about, when the cuckoo's note sounds early in the season. The cuckoo appears only for a short time in summer,

Starting point is 08:49:50 and in winter disappears. The hawk has crooked talons, which the cuckoo has not. Neither, with regard to the head, does the cuckoo resemble the hawk? In point of fact, both as regards the head and the claws, it more resembles the pigeon. However, in color, and in color alone, it does resemble the hawk, only that the markings of the hawk are striped, and of the cuckoo modeled. And, by the way, in size and flight it resembles the smallest of the hawk tribe,

Starting point is 08:50:25 which bird disappears as a rule about the time of the appearance of the cuckoo, though the two have been seen simultaneously. The cuckoo has been seen to be preyed on by the hawk, and this never happens between birds of the same species. They say no one has ever seen the young of the cuckoo. The bird lays eggs but does not build a nest. Sometimes it lays its eggs in the nest of a smaller bird after first devouring the eggs of this bird.

Starting point is 08:51:00 It lays, by preference, in the nest of the ring dove after first devouring the eggs of the pigeon. It occasionally lays two, but usually one. It lays also in the nest of the Huppelay, and the Huppelay hatches and rears the brood. It is about this time that the bird becomes fat and palatable. The young of hawks also get palatable and fat. One species builds a nest in the wilderness, and on sheer and inaccessible cliffs. Chapter 8.

Starting point is 08:51:40 With most birds, as has been said of the pigeon, the hatching is carried on by the male, and the female interns. With some birds, however, the male only sits long enough to allow the female to provide herself with food. In the goose tribe, the female alone incubates, and, after once sitting on the eggs, she continues brooding until they are hatched. The nests of all marsh birds are built in districts, fennie, and well supplied with grass. Consequently, the mother bird, while sitting quiet on her eggs, can provide herself with food without having to submit to absolute fasting. With the crow also,

Starting point is 08:52:28 the female alone broods and broods throughout the whole period. The male bird, The Ports the female, bringing her food and feeding her. The female of the ring dove begins to brood in the afternoon and broods through the entire night until breakfast time of the following day. The male broods during the rest of the time. Partridges build a nest in two compartments. The male broods on the one and the female on the other. After hatching, each of the parent birds rears its brood,

Starting point is 08:53:04 But the male, when he first takes his young out of the nest, treads them. Chapter 9 Pea-fow live for about 25 years, breed about the third year, and at the same time take on their spangled plumage. They hatch their eggs within 30 days, or rather more. The peahen lays but once a year, and lays twelve eggs, or maybe, a slightly lesser number. She does not lay all the eggs there and then, one after the other,

Starting point is 08:53:42 but at intervals of two or three days. Such as lay for the first time lay about eight eggs. The peahen lays wind eggs. They pair in the spring, and laying begins immediately after pairing. The bird, moltes, when the earliest trees, are shedding their leaves, and recovers its plumage when the same trees are recovering their foliage. People, that rear pea-fowl put the eggs under the barn-door hen, owing to the fact that when the peahen is brooding over them, the peacock attacks her and tries to trample on them.

Starting point is 08:54:26 Owing to this circumstance, some birds of wild varieties run away from the males and lay their eggs and brood in solitude. Only two eggs are put under a barn-door hen, for she could not brood over and hatch a large number. They take every precaution, by supplying her with food, to prevent her going off the eggs and discontinuing the brooding. With male birds about pairing time, the testicles are obviously larger than at other times,

Starting point is 08:55:00 and this is conspicuously the case with the more salacious birds, such as the barn doorcock and the cock partrange. The peculiarity is less conspicuous in such birds as are intermittent in regard to pairing. And of chapter 9. Chapters 10 to 13 of Book 6 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy went towards. Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 10. So much for the conception and generation of birds. It has been previously stated that fishes are not all oviparous. Fishes of the cartilaginous genus are viviparous. The rest are oviparous. And cartilaginous fishes

Starting point is 08:56:04 are first oviparous internally, and subsequently viviparous. They rear the embryos internally, the batracus or fishing frog being an exception. Fishes also, as was above stated, are provided with woms, and wombs of diverse kinds. The oviparous genera have wombs bifurcate in shape and low-down in position. The cartilaginous genus have wombs shaped like those of burns. The womb, however, in the cartilaginous fishes, differs in this respect from the womb of burns, that with some cartilaginous fishes, the eggs do not settle close to the diaphragm, but middle ways, along the backbone, and as they grow, they shift their position.

Starting point is 08:56:58 The egg, with all fishes, is not of two colors within. but is of even hue, and the color is nearer to white than to yellow, and that both when the young is inside it and previously as well. Development from the egg in fishes differs from that in birds in this respect, that it does not exhibit that one of the two navel strings that leads off to the membrane that lies close under the shell, while it does exhibit that one of the two that, in the case of birds, leads off to the oak. In a general way, the rest of the development from the egg onwards is identical in birds and fishes. That is to say, development takes place at the upper part of the egg, and the veins extend in like manner,

Starting point is 08:57:53 at first from the heart, and at first the hand, the eyes, and the upper parts are largest, and as the creature grows, the egg substance decreases and eventually disappears and becomes absorbed within the embryo, just as takes place with the yoken burns. The navel string is attached a little way below the aperture of the belly. When the creatures are young, the navel string is long, but as they grow, it diminishes in size. At length it gets small and becomes incorporated. as was described in the case of burns. The embryo and the egg are enveloped by a common membrane,

Starting point is 08:58:38 and just under this is another membrane that envelopes the embryo by itself, and in between the two membranes is a liquid. The food inside the stomach of the little fishes resembles that inside the stomach of young chicks, and is partly white and partly yellow. As regards the shape of the shape of the little, The womb, the reader is referred to my treatise on anatomy.

Starting point is 08:59:04 The womb, however, is diverse in diverse fishes, as, for instance, in the sharks, as compared one with another, or as compared with the skate. That is to say, in some sharks the eggs adhere in the middle of the womb, round about the backbone, as has been stated, and this is the case with the dogfish. As the eggs grow, they shift their place, And since the womb is bifurcate and adheres to the midriff, as in the rest of similar creatures,

Starting point is 08:59:38 the eggs pass into one or other of the two compartments. This womb and the womb of the other sharks exhibit as you go a little way off from the midriff, something resembling white breasts, which never make their appearance unless their beconception. Dogfish and scant have a kind of a sort of air. egg-shell, in the which is found an egg-like liquid. The shape of the egg-shell resembles the tongue of a bagpipe, and herelike ducks are attached to the shell. With the dogfish, which is called by some the dappled shark, the young are born when

Starting point is 09:00:19 the shell formation breaks in pieces and falls out. With the ray, after it has laid in the egg, the shell formation breaks up and the young move out. The spiny dogfish has its eggs close to the midriff above the breast-like formations. When the egg descends, as soon as it gets detached, the young is born. The mode of generation is the same in the case of the fox shark. The so-called smooth shark has its eggs in betwixt the wombs, like the dogfish. These eggs shift into each of the two horns of the womb and descend,

Starting point is 09:01:00 and the young develop with the navel string attached to the womb, so that as the egg substance gets used up, the embryo is sustained to all appearance, just as in the case of quadrupants. The navel string is long, and adheres to the under part of the womb, each navel string being attached, as it were, by a sucker, and also to the center of the embryo,

Starting point is 09:01:26 in the place where the liver is situated. If the embryo be cut open, even though it has the egg substance no longer, the food inside is egg-like in appearance. Each embryo, as in the case of quadrupeds, is provided with a corian and separate membranes. When young, the embryo has its head upwards, but downwards, when it gets strong and is completed in form. males are generated on the left-hand side of the womb, and females on the right-hand side, and males and females on the same side together. If the embryo be cut open, then, as with quadrupeds, such internal organs as it is furnished with, as, for instance, the liver, are found to be large and supplied with blood.

Starting point is 09:02:20 All cartilaginous fishes have at one and at the same time eggs, above, close to the midriff, some larger, some smaller, in considerable numbers, and also embryos lower down. And this circumstance leads many to suppose that fishes of this species pair and bear young every month, inasmuch as they do not produce all their young at once, but now and again and over a lengthened period. But such eggs as have come down below within the womb are simultaneously riped. and completed in growth. Dogfish in general can extrude and take in again their young,

Starting point is 09:03:03 as can also the angel fish and the electric ray. And, by the way, a large electric ray has been seen with about 80 embryos inside it. But the spiny dogfish is an exception to the rule, being prevented by the spine of the young fish from so doing. Of the flat cartilagin, fish, the trigon, and the ray cannot extrude and take in again in consequence of the roughness of the tails of the young. The batrachus, or fishing frog, also is unable to take in its young owing to the size of the head and the prickles. And by the way, as was previously remarked, it is the only one of these fishes that is not

Starting point is 09:03:49 viviparous. So much for the varieties of the cartilaginous species. and, for their modes of generation, from the egg. Chapter 11 At the breeding season, the sperm ducks of the male are filled with sperm, so much so that if they be squeezed, the sperm flows out spontaneously as a white fluid. The ducks are bifurcate, and start from the midriff, and the great vein. About this period, the sperm ducks of the male are quite distinct from the womb of the

Starting point is 09:04:25 But at any other than the actual breeding time, their distinctness is not obvious to a non-expert. The fact is that in certain fishes, at certain times these organs are imperceptible, as was stated regarding the testicles of burns. Among other distinctions observed between the thorac ducks and the womb ducks is the circumstance that the thorac ducks are attached to the loins, while the womb ducks, move about freely and are attached by a thin membrane. The particulars regarding the thorac ducts may be studied by reference to the diagrams in my treatise on anatomy.

Starting point is 09:05:07 Cartilaginous fishes are capable of superfeitation, and their period of gestation is six months at the longest. The so-called starry dogfish bears young the most frequently. In other words, it bears twice a month. The breeding season is in the month of Mymactarian. The dogfish, as a general rule, bear twice in the year, with the exception of the little dogfish, which bears only once a year. Some of them bring force in the springtime.

Starting point is 09:05:43 The rhine, or angel fish, bears its first brood in the springtime, and its second in the autumn, about the winter setting of the Pleiades. The second brood is the stronger of the two. The electric ray brings forth in the late autumn. Cartilaginous fishes come out from the main seas and deep waters towards the shore, and there bring forth their young, and they do so for the sake of warmth, and by way of protection for their young. Observations would lead to the general rule that no one variety of fish pairs with another

Starting point is 09:06:22 variety. The angel fish, however, and the batus or skate, appear to pair with one another, for there is a fish called the rhino-battas with the head and front parts of the skate, and the after parts of the rhine or angel fish, just as though it were made up of both fishes together. Sharks then, and their congeners as the fox shark and the dogfish, and the flat fishes such as the electric ray, the ray, the smooth-skate, and the trigon are first oviparous and then viviparous in the way above mentioned, as are also the sawfish and the ox-ray. Chapter 12 The dolphin, the whale, and all the rest of the cetacea, all, that is to say, that are provided

Starting point is 09:07:16 with a blowhole instead of gills, are viviparous. That is to say, no one of all these fishes is ever seen to be supplied with eggs, but directly with an embryo, from whose differentiation comes the fish, just as in the case of mankind and the viviparous quadrupeds. The dolphin bears one at a time generally, but occasionally two. The whale bears one or at the most two, generally two. The porpoise, in this respect, resembles the dolphin. and, by the way, it is in form like a little dolphin and is found in the yuxen.

Starting point is 09:07:55 It differs, however, from the dolphin as being less in size and broader in the back. Its color is lead and black. Many people are of opinion that the porpoise is a variety of the dolphin. All creatures that have a blowhole respire and inspire, for they are provided with lungs. The dolphin has been seen asleep with his nose above why. and when asleep he snores. The dolphin and the porpoise are provided with milk, and suckle their young. They also take their young, when small, inside them.

Starting point is 09:08:32 The young of the dolphin grows rapidly, being full-grown at ten years of age. Its period of gestation is ten months. It brings forth its young in summer, and never at any other season, and, singularly enough, under the dog-star, it dissoned. appears for about thirty days. Its young accompany it for a considerable period, and in fact the creature is remarkable for the strength of its parental affection. It lives for many years. Some are known to have lived for more than 25, and some for 30 years. The fact is, fishermen nick their tails sometimes, and set them adrift again, and by this expedient

Starting point is 09:09:16 their ages are ascertained. The seal is an amphibious animal, that is to say, it cannot take in water, but breathes and sleeps and brings forth on dry land, only close to the shore, as being an animal furnished with feet. It spends, however, the greater part of its time in the sea, and drives its food from it, so that it must be classed in the category of marine animals. It is viviparous by immediate conception, and brings forth its young alive, and exhibits an afterbirth, and all else just like a yew.

Starting point is 09:09:55 It bears one or two at a time, and three at the most. It has two teats, and suckles its young like a quadrupan. Like the human species, it brings forth at all seasons of the year, but especially at the time when the earliest kids are forthcoming. It conducts its young ones when they are about twelve days old, over and over again during the day down to the sea, accustoming them by slow degrees to the water. It slips down, steep places instead of walking, from the fact that it cannot steady itself by its feet.

Starting point is 09:10:34 It can contract and draw itself in, for it is fleshy and soft, and its bones are grizzly. Owing to the flabbiness of its body, it is difficult to kill a seal by a blow, unless you strike it on the temple. It looks like a cow. The female, in regard to its genital organs, resembles the female of the ray. In all other respects, it resembles the female of the human species. So much for the phenomena of generation and of parturition in animals that live in water and are viviparous, either internally or externally. Chapter 13.

Starting point is 09:11:17 Oveperous fishes have their womb bifurcate, and placed low down, as was said previously. And, by the way, all scaly fish are oviparous, as the bass, the mullet, the gray mullet, and the etylis, and all the so-called white fish, and all the smooth or slippery fish, the eel, and their row is of a crumbling or granular substance. This appearance is due to the fact that the whole womb of such fishes is full of eggs, so that in little fishes there seem to be only a couple of eggs there, for in small fishes the womb is indistinguishable from its diminutive size, and thin texture.

Starting point is 09:12:04 The pairing of fishes has been discussed previously. Fishes, for the most part, are divided into males and females, but one is puzzled to account for the erythrinus and the cana, for specimens of these species are never caught, except in a condition of pregnancy. With such fish as pear, eggs are the result of copulation, but such fish have them also without copulation, and this is shown in the case of some riverfish, for the minnow has eggs when quite small, almost one may say as soon as it is born. These fishes shed their eggs little by little, and, as is stated, the males swallow the greater part of them, and some portion of them goes to

Starting point is 09:12:56 waste in the water. But such of the eggs as the female deposits on the spawning beds are saved. If all the eggs were preserved, each species would be infinite in number. The greater number of these eggs so deposited are not productive, but only those over which the male sheds the milt or sperm. For, when the female has laid her eggs, the male follows and sheds its sperm over them, and, from all the eggs so besprinkled, young fishes proceed, while the rest are left to their fate.

Starting point is 09:13:34 phenomenon is observed in the case of mollusks also, for in the case of the cuttlefish or sepia, after the female has deposited her eggs, the male besprinkles them. It is highly probable that a similar phenomenon takes place in regard to mollusks in general, though up to the present time the phenomenon has been observed only in the case of the cuttlefish. Fishes deposit their eggs close in to shore. the gobi close to stones, and, by the way, the spawn of the gobi is flat and crumbly. Fish in general so deposit their eggs, for the water close in to shore is warm and is better

Starting point is 09:14:17 supplied with food than the outer sea, and serves as a protection to the spawn against the veracity of the larger fish. And it is for this reason that in the yuxen, most fishes spawn near the mouth of the river Thermadon, because the locality is sheltered, genial and supplied with fresh water. Oveperous fish, as a rule, spawn only once a year. The little phycus, or black gobi, is an exception, as it spons twice. The male of the black goby differs from the female as being blacker and having larger scales. Fishes then, in general, produce, their young by copulation, and lay their eggs. But the pipefish, as some call it, when the time of parturition arrives, bursts in two,

Starting point is 09:15:13 and the eggs escape out. For the fish has a diaphysis or clove and growth under the belly and abdomen, like the blind snakes, and after it has spawned by the splitting of this diaphysis, the sides of the split grow together again. Development from the egg takes place similarly with fishes that are oviparous internally, and with fishes that are oviparous externally. That is, to say, the embryo comes at the upper end of the egg and is enveloped in a membrane, and the eyes large and spherical are the first organs visible. From this circumstance it is plain that the assertion is untenable, which is made by some

Starting point is 09:15:57 writers, to wit, that the young of oviparous fishes are generated like the grubs of worms, for the opposite phenomena are observed in the case of these grubs, in that their lower extremities are the larger at the outset, and that the eyes and the head appear later on. After the egg has been used up, the young fishes are like tadpoles in shape, and at first, without taking any nutriment, they grow by sustenance. derived from the juice oozing from the egg. By and by, they are nourished up to full growth by the river waters. When the yuxen is purged, a substance called phycus is carried into the helis pond, and this substance is of a pale yellow color. Some writers aver that it is the flower

Starting point is 09:16:49 of the phycus, from which rouge is made. It comes at the beginning of summer. Oasters and the small fish of these localities feed on this substance, and some of the inhabitants of these maritime districts say that the purple meorex derives its peculiar color from it. And of Chapter 13, chapters 14 to 17 of Book 6 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 14 Marsh fishes and river fishes

Starting point is 09:17:39 conceive at the age of five months as a general rule and deposit their spawn towards the close of the year without exception. And with these fishes, like as with the marine fishes, the female does not void all her eggs at one time. nor the male his sperm, but they are at all times more or less provided, the female with eggs and the male with sperm. The carp spawns as the seasons come round five or six times, and follows in spawning the rising of the greater constellations. The calcassus spawns three times and the other fishes once only in the year. They all spawn in pools left by the overflowing of rivers, and near to reedy places in marshes,

Starting point is 09:18:36 as, for instance, the foxenus, or minnow and the perch. The glanus, or sheetfish, and the perch, deposit their spawn in one continuous string, like the frog. So continuous, in fact, is the convoluted spawn of the perch that by reason of its smoothness, The fishermen in the marshes can unwind it off the reeds like threads off a reel. The larger individuals of the sheetfish spawn in deep waters, some in water of a fathom's depth, the smaller in shallower water, generally close to the roots of the willow, or of some other tree, or close to reeds or to moss.

Starting point is 09:19:26 times these fishes intertwine with one another, a big with a little one, and bring into juxtaposition the ducks, which some writers designate as navels, at the point where they emit the generative products and discharge the egg in the case of the female and the milt in the case of the male. Such eggs as are besprinkled with the milt grow in a day or thereabouts, wider and and larger, and in a little while afterwards, the fish's eyes become visible. For these organs in all fishes, as for that matter in all other animals, are early conspicuous and seem disproportionately big. But such eggs as the milk fails to touch remain as with marine fishes, useless and infertile.

Starting point is 09:20:24 From the fertile eggs, as the little fish grow, a kind of sheath detaches itself. This is a membrane that envelops the egg, and the young fish. When the milk has mingled with the eggs, the resulting product becomes very sticky or viscous, and adheres to the roots of trees, or wherever it may have been laid. The male keeps on guard at the principal spawning place, and the female, after spawning, goes away. In the case of the sheetfish, the growth from the egg is exceptionally slow, and in consequence, the male has to keep watch for 40 or 50 days

Starting point is 09:21:09 to prevent the spawn being devoured by such little fishes as chance to come by. Next, in point of slowness, is the generation of the carp. As with fishes in general, so even, Even with these, the spawn, thus protected, disappears and gets lost rapidly. In the case of some of the smaller fishes, when they are only three days old, young fishes are generated. Eggs, touched by the male sperm, take on increase, both the same day and also later. The egg of the sheetfish is as big as a veach seed.

Starting point is 09:21:51 The egg of the carp and of the carp species. species as big as a millet seed. These fishes then spawn and generate in the way here described. The calcis, however, spons in deep water, in dense shoals of fish, and the so-called tylon spons near to beaches in sheltered spots, in shoals likewise. The carp, the baleros, and fishes in general push eagerly into the shell. shallows, for the purpose of spawning, and very often 13 or 14 males are seen following a single female. When the female deposits her spawn and departs, the males follow on and shed the milt. The greater portion of the spawn gets wasted, because, owing to the fact that the female

Starting point is 09:22:45 moves about while spawning, the spawn scatters, or so much of it, as is caught in the stream, and does not get entangled with some rubbish. For, with the exception of the sheetfish, no fish keeps on guard, unless, by the way, it be the carp, which is said to remain on guard, if it so happen that its spawn lies in a solid mass. All male fishes are supplied with milk,

Starting point is 09:23:14 excepting the eel. With the eel, the male is devoid of milk, and the female of spawn, The mullet goes up from the sea to marshes and rivers. The eels, on the contrary, make their way down from the marshes and rivers to the sea. Chapter 15 The great majority of fish then, as has been stated, proceed from eggs. However, there are some fish that proceed from mud and sand, even of those kinds that proceed

Starting point is 09:23:51 also from pairing and the egg. This occurs in ponds here and there, and especially in a pond in the neighborhood of Nidus. This pond, it is sad, at one time, ran dry about the rising of the dog star, and the mud had all dried up. At the first fall of the rains there was a show of water in the pond, and, on the first appearance of the water, shone, of tiny fish were found in the pond. The fish in question was a kind of mullet, one which does not proceed from normal pairing, about the size of a small sprat,

Starting point is 09:24:35 and not one of these fishes was provided with either spawn or milk. There are found also in Asia Minor, in rivers, not communicating with the sea, little fishes like white bait, differing from the small fron, found near Nidas, but found under similar circumstances. Some writers actually aver that mullet all grow spontaneously. In this assertion they are mistaken, for the female of the fish is found provided with spawn,

Starting point is 09:25:10 and the male with milt. However, there is a species of mullet that grows spontaneously out of mud and sand. From the facts above enumerated it is quite proved that certain fishes come spontaneously into existence, not being derived from eggs or from copulation. Such fish as are neither oviparous nor viviprous arise all from one of two sources, from mud, or from sand and from decayed matter that rises as a scum. For instance, the so-called froth of the small fry comes out of sandy ground. This fry is incapable of growth and of propagating its kind. After living for a while, it dies away and another creature takes its place. And so, with short intervals accepted, it may be said to last the whole year through. At all events it lasts from the autumn-rise

Starting point is 09:26:18 of Arcturus up to the springtime. As a proof that these fish occasionally come out of the ground, we have the fact that in cold weather they are not caught, and that they are caught in warm weather, obviously coming up out of the ground to catch the heat. Also, when the fishermen use dredges and the ground is scraped up fairly often, the fishes appear in larger numbers and of superior quality. All other small fry are inferior in quality, owing to rapidity of growth.

Starting point is 09:27:00 The fry are found in sheltered and marshy districts, when, after a spell of fine weather, the ground is getting warmer, as, for instance, in the neighborhood of Athens, at Salamis, and near the tomb of Themistocles, and that marathon, for in these districts the froth is found. It appears then in such districts and during such weather, and occasionally appears after a heavy fall of rain in the froth that is thrown up by the falling rain, from which circumstance the substance derives its specific name. Foam is occasionally brought in on the surface of the sea,

Starting point is 09:27:46 in fair weather, and in this, where it has formed on the surface the so-called froth collects, as grubs swarm in manure, for which reason this fry is often brought in from the open sea. The fish is at its best in quality and quantity in moist, warm weather. The ordinary fry is the normal issue of parent fishes. the so-called gudgeon fry of small, insignificant gudgeon-like fish that burrow under the ground. From the philoric fry comes the membras, from the membras the trickus, from the trickus the trickiest, and from one particular sort of fry, to which from that found in the harbor of Athens comes what is called the encrasiculus or anchovy.

Starting point is 09:28:43 There is another fry derived from the minus and the mullet. The unfurtile fry is watery and keeps only a short time, as has been stated, for at last only head and eyes are left. However, the fishermen of late have hit upon a method of transporting it to a distance, as, when salted it keeps for a considerable time. Chapter 16 Eels are not the issue of pairing. Neither are they oviparous.

Starting point is 09:29:24 Nor was an eel ever found supplied with either milt or spawn. Nor are they, when cut open, found to have within them passages for spawn or for eggs. In point of fact, this entire species of blood, animals proceeds neither from pairing nor from the egg. There can be no doubt that the case is so, for in some standing pools, after the water has been drained off and the mud has been dredged away, the eels appear again after a fall of rain.

Starting point is 09:30:01 In time of drought, they do not appear even in stagnant ponds, for the simple reason that their existence and sustenance, is derived from rainwater. There is no doubt, then, that they proceed neither from pairing nor from an egg. Some writers, however, are of opinion that they generate their kind, because in some eels little worms are found, from which they suppose that eels are derived. But this opinion is not founded on fact. Eels are derived from the so-called earth's guts.

Starting point is 09:30:39 that grow spontaneously in mud and in humid ground. In fact, eels have at times been seen to emerge out of such earthworms, and on other occasions have been rendered visible when the earthworms were laid open by either scraping or cutting. Such earthworms are found both in the sea and in rivers, especially where there is decayed matter. in the sea, in places where seaweed abounds, and in rivers and marshes, near to the edge, for it is near to the water's edge that sun heat has its chief power, and produces putrefaction.

Starting point is 09:31:24 So much for the generation of the eel. Chapter 17 Fish, do not all bring forth their young at the same season, nor all in like manner. Neither is the period of gestation for all of the same duration. Before pairing, the males and females gather together in shoals. At the time for copulation and parturition, they pair off. With some fishes, the time of gestation is not longer than 30 days. With others, it is a lesser period. But with all, it extends over a number of days divisible by seven. The longest period of gestation is that of the species which some call a marinus.

Starting point is 09:32:15 The sarg conceives during the month of Poseidon, or December, and carries its spawn for 30 days, and the species of mullet, named by some the kelon and the muxon go with spawn at the same period and over the same length of time. All fish suffer greatly during the period of gestation, and are in consequence very apt to be thrown up on shore at this time. In some cases they are driven frantic with pain, and throw themselves on land. At all events, they are throughout this time continually in motion until parturition is over. being especially true of the mullet, and after parturition, they are in repose.

Starting point is 09:33:09 With many fish, the time for parturition terminates on the appearance of grubs within the belly. For small living grubs get generated there, and eat up the spawn. With shoal fishes, parturition takes place in the spring, and indeed with most fishes about the time of the spring equinox. With others it is at different times in summer with some and with others about the autumn equinox. The first of shoal fishes to spawn is the atherin, and it spawns close to land. The last is the Kefellus, and this is inferred from the fact that the brood of the atherin appears, first of all, and the brood of the Kefalus last. The mullet also spawns early.

Starting point is 09:34:04 The salp spawns usually at the beginning of summer, but occasionally in the autumn. The allopias, which some call the antheus, spawns in the summer. Next, in order of spawning, comes the chrysophrus, or gilt head, the bass, the mormiras, and in general such fish as are nicknamed runners. latest in order of the shoalfish come the red mullet and the choracine. These spawn in autumn. The red mullet spawns on mud, and consequently, as the mud continues cold for a long while, spons late in the year.

Starting point is 09:34:47 The choracine carries its spawn for a long time, but as it lives usually on rocky ground, it goes to a distance and spawns in places abounding in seaweed, at a period later than the red mullet. The minus spons about the winter solstice. Of the others, such as are pelagic, spawned for the most part in summer, which fact is proved by they're not being caught by fishermen during this period. Of ordinary fishes, the most prolific is the sprat. Of cartilaginous fishes, the fishing for,

Starting point is 09:35:27 frog. Species, however, of the fishing frog are rare from the facility with which the young are destroyed, as the female lays her spawn all in a lump close in to shore. As a rule, cartilaginous fish are less prolific than other fish owing to their being viviparous, and their young, by reason of their size, have a better chance of escaping destruction. The so-called needlefish, or pipefish, is laden spawning, and the greater portion of them are burst asunder by the eggs before spawning, and the eggs are not so many in number as large in size. The young fish cluster round the parent like so many young spiders, for the fish spawns on to herself, and if anyone touch the young, they swim away. The atherin spons by rubbing its belly

Starting point is 09:36:27 against the sand. Tonefish also burst asunder by reason of their fat. They live for two years, and the fishermen infer this age from the circumstance that once, when there was a failure of the young tony fish, for a year there was a failure of the full-grown tony the next summer. They are of opinion that the tony is a fish a year older than the pelimid. The ternus. The tony is a fish a year older than the pelimid. and the mackerel peer about the close of the month of Elaphiboleon and spawn about the commencement of the month of Hecatombion. They deposit their spawn in a sort of bag. The growth of the young tunny is rapid.

Starting point is 09:37:15 After the females have spawned in the yuxin, there comes from the egg what some call scordylai, but what the Byzantines nicknamed the oxides or growers, from the fiends from their growing to a considerable size in a few days. These fish go out of the Pontus in autumn along with the young tunnies, and enter Pontus in the spring as pelamids. Fishes, as a rule, take on growth with rapidity, but this is peculiarly the case with all species of fish found in the Pontus. The growth, for instance, of the amia tony is quite visible. from day to day. To resume, we must bear in mind that the same fish in the same localities have not the same season for pairing, for conception, for parturition, or for

Starting point is 09:38:13 favoring weather. The corcine, for instance, in some places spawns about wheat harvest. The statements here given pretend only to give the results of general observation. The conquer also spons, but the fact is not equally obvious in all localities, nor is the spawn plainly visible owing to the fat of the fish. For the spawn is lanky in shape, as it is with serpents. However, if it be put on the fire, it shows its nature, for the fat evaporates and melts, while the eggs dance about and explode with a crack. Further, if you touch the substances and rub them with your fingers, the fat feels smooth and the egg rough. Some congers are provided with fat, but not with any spawn.

Starting point is 09:39:10 Others are unprovided with fat, but have egg spawn, as here described. And of chapter 17. Chapter 18 to 20 of Book 6 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy, went towards Thompson. This Libre Vox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 18 We have then treated pretty fully of the animals that fly in the air or swim in the water, and of such of those that walk on dry land as are oviparous, to wit of their pairing, conception, and the like phenomena.

Starting point is 09:40:02 It now remains to treat of the same phenomena in connection with viviparous land animals and with man. The statements made, in regard to the pairing of the sexes, apply partly to the particular kinds of animal, and partly to all in general. It is common to all animals to be most excited by the desire of one sex for the other, and by the pleasure derived from compulation. The female is most cross-tempered just after parturition, the male during the time of pairing. For instance, stallions at this period bite one another,

Starting point is 09:40:44 throw their riders and chase them. Wild boers, though usually enfeebled at, this time as the result of copulation, are now unusually fierce, and fight with one another in an extraordinary way, clothing themselves with defensive armor, or in other words, deliberately thickening their hide by rubbing against trees, or by coating themselves repeatedly all over with mud, and then drying themselves in the sun. They drive one another away from the swine pastures, and fight with such fury that very often both combatants succumb.

Starting point is 09:41:27 The case is similar with bulls, rams, and e-goats, for though at ordinary times they herd together, at breeding time they hold aloof from and quarrel with one another. The male camel also is cross-tempered at peering time if either a man or a camel comes near him. As for a horse, a camel is ready to fight him at any time. It is the same with wild animals. The bear, the wolf, and the lion are all at this time ferocious towards such as come in their way. But the males of these animals are less given to fight with one another from the fact that they are at no time gregarious. The she-bearer is, fierce after cubbing, and the bitch after ppping.

Starting point is 09:42:21 Male elephants get savage about pairing time, and for this reason it is stated that men who have charge of elephants in India never allow the males to have intercourse with the females, on the ground that the males go wild at this time and turn topsy-turvy the dwellings of their keepers, lightly constructed as they are, and commit all kinds. of havoc. They also state that abundancy of food has a tendency to tame the males. They further introduce other elephants amongst the wild ones, and punish and break them in by setting on the newcomers to chastise the others. Animals that pair frequently, and not at a single specific season, as, for instance animals domesticated by man, such as swine and dogs, are fans.

Starting point is 09:43:16 to indulge in such freaks, to a lesser degree, owing to the frequency of their sexual intercourse. Of female animals, the mare is the most sexually wanton, and next in order comes the cow. In fact, the mayor is said to go a horsing, and the term derived from the habits of this one animal serves as a term of abuse applicable to such females of the human species as are unbridled in the way of sexual appetite. This is the common phenomenon, as observed in the sow, when she is said to go abhorring. The mayor is said also about this time to get wind impregnated, if not impregnated by the stallion, and for this reason, in Crete they never remove the stallion from the mares, for when the mayor gets into this condition she runs away from all other horses. The mares,

Starting point is 09:44:16 the circumstances fly invariably either northwards or southwards, and never towards either east or west. When this complaint is on them, they allow no one to approach until either they are exhausted with fatigue or have reached the sea. Under either of the circumstances, they discharge a certain substance called hippomanus, the title given to a growth on a newborn full. This resembles the sow virus, and is in great request amongst women who deal in drugs and potions.

Starting point is 09:44:55 About horsing time, the mares huddle closer together, are continually switching their tails. Their knee is abnormal in sound, and from the sexual organ there flows a liquid resembling genital sperm, but much thinner than the sperm of the male. It is this substance that some call hippomanus, instead of the growth found on the full. They say it is extremely difficult to get, as it oozes out only in small drops at a time. Mears also, when in heat, discharge urine frequently, and frisk with one another. Such are the phenomena connected with the horse. go a bowling, and so completely are they under the influence of the sexual excitement,

Starting point is 09:45:47 that the herdsmen have no control over them, and cannot catch hold of them in the fields. Mears and kine alike, when in heat, indicate the fact by the upraising of their genital organs, and by continually voiding urine. Further, kine mount the bulls, follow them about, and keep standing beside, them. The younger females, both with horses and oxen, are the first to get in heat, and their sexual appetites are all the keener if the weather be warm, and their bodily condition be healthy. Mears, when clipped of their coat, have the sexual feeling checked, and assume a downcast drooping appearance. The stallion recognizes by the scent the mares that form his company, even though they

Starting point is 09:46:40 have been together only a few days before breeding time. If they get mixed up with other mares, the stallion bites and drives away the interlopers. He feeds apart, accompanied by his own troop of mares. Each stallion has assigned to him about 30 mares, or even somewhat more. When a strange stallion approaches, he huddles his mares into a close ring, runs round them, then advances to the encounter of the newcomer. If one of the mares make a movement, he bites her and drives her back. The bull in breeding time begins to graze with the cows, and fights with other bulls having hitherto grazed with them,

Starting point is 09:47:26 which is termed by grazers herds burning. Often in a pyrus, a bull disappears for three months together. In a general way, one may state, that of male animals, either none or few heard with their respective females before breeding time, but they keep separate after reaching maturity, and the two sexes feed apart. Sows, when they are moved by sexual desire, or are, as it is called a boring, will attack even human beings. With bitches, the same sexual condition is termed getting into heat. The sexual organ rises at this time, and there is a moisture about the parts.

Starting point is 09:48:12 Mairs drip with a white liquid at this season. Female animals are subject to menstrual discharges, but never in such abundance as is the female of the human species. With ewes and she-goats, there are signs of menstruation in breeding time, just before the time for submitting to the male. After copulation also the signs are manifest, and then cease for an interval until the period of parturition arrives. The process then supervenes, and it is by the supervention that the shepherd knows that such and such and you is about to bring forth. After parturition comes copious menstruation, not at first much tinged with blood, but deeply

Starting point is 09:49:02 died with it by and by. With the cow, the she-ass, and the mare, the discharge is more copious, actually owing to their greater bulk, but proportionally to the greater bulk it is far less copious. The cow, for instance, when in heat, exhibits a small discharge to the extent of a quarter of a pint of liquid or a little less, and the time when this discharge takes place is the best time for her to be covered by the bull. Of all quadrupan's, the mare is the most easily delivered of its young, exhibits the least amount of discharge after parturition, and emits the least amount of blood,

Starting point is 09:49:45 that is to say, of all animals in proportion to size. With kine and mares, menstruation usually manifest itself at intervals of two, four, and six months. But unless one be constantly attending to and thoroughly acquainted with such animals, it is difficult to verify the circumstance, and the result is that many people are under the belief that the process never takes place with these animals at all. With mules, menstruation never takes place, but the urine of the female is thicker than the

Starting point is 09:50:20 urine of the male. As a general rule, the discharge from the bladder in the case of quadrupanes is thicker than it is in the human species, and this discharge with ewe, and she-goats is thicker than with rams and he-goats. But the urine of the jackass is thicker than the urine of the she-ass, and the urine of the bull is more pungent than the urine of the cow. After parturition, the urine of all quadrupanes becomes thicker, especially with such animals as exhibit comparatively slight discharges.

Starting point is 09:50:55 At breeding time, the milk becomes purulent, but after parturition, it becomes wholesome, During pregnancy, ewes and she-goats get fatter and eat more, as is also the case with cows, and indeed with the females of all quadru pads. In general, the sexual appetites of animals are keenest in springtime. The time of pairing, however, is not the same for all, but is adapted so as to ensure the rearing of the young at a convenient season. Domesticated swine carry their young for four.

Starting point is 09:51:32 four months, and bring forth a litter of twenty at the utmost, and, by the way, if the litter be exceedingly numerous, they cannot rear all the young. As the sow grows old, she continues to bear, but grows indifferent to the boar. She conceives after a single copulation, but they have to put the boar to her repeatedly, owing to her dropping after intercourse what is called the sow virus. This incident befall all sows, but some of them discharge the genital sperm as well. During conception, any one of the litter that gets injured or dwarfed is called an after-pig or scut. Such injury may occur at any part of the womb. After littering, the mother offers the foremost teat to the first-born. When the

Starting point is 09:52:24 sow is in heat, she must not at once be put to the boar, but only after she lets her lugs drop. For she's apt to get into heat again. If she be put to the boar, when in full condition of heat, one copulation, as has been said, is sufficient. It is as well to supply the boar at the period of copulation with barley, and the sow at the time of parturition with boiled barley. Some swine give fine litters, only at the beginning. With others the litters improve as the mothers grow in age,

Starting point is 09:53:02 and size. It is sad that a sow, if she have one of her eyes knocked out, is almost sure to die soon afterwards. Swine, for the most part, live for 15 years, but some fall little short of the 20. Chapter 19 U's conceive after three or four compilations, with the ram. If rain falls after intercourse, the ram impregnates the U again. and it is the same with the she-goat. The yew bears usually two lambs, sometimes three or four. Both yew and she-goat carry their young for five months.

Starting point is 09:53:45 Consequently, wherever a district is sunny and the animals are used to comfort and well-fanned, they bear twice in the year. The goat lives for eight years, and the sheep for ten, but in most cases not so long. The Bellwether, however, lives to 15 years. In every flock they train one of the rams for bellwether. When he is called on by name by the shepherd, he takes the lead of the flock, and to this duty the creature is trained from its earliest years. Sheep in Ethiopia live for 12 or 13 years, goats for 10 or 11.

Starting point is 09:54:28 In the case of the sheep and the goat, the two-suffes, sexes have intercourse all their lives long. Twins with sheep and goats may be due to richness of pasturage, or to the fact that either the ram or the he-goat is a twin begetter, or that the yew or the she-goat is a twin-bearer. Of these animals, some give birth to males and others to females, and the difference in this respect depends on the waters they drink, and also on the sires.

Starting point is 09:54:59 and if they submit to the male, when north winds are blowing, they're apt to bear males, if when south winds are blowing females. Such as bear females may get to bear males, due regard being paid to their looking northwards when put to the male. You, accustomed to be put to the ram early,

Starting point is 09:55:22 will refuse him if he attempt to mount them late. lambs are born white and black, according as white or black veins are under the ram's tongue. The lambs are white if the veins are white, and black if the veins are black, and white and black, and white and black, and rand if the veins are rand. The females that drink salted waters are the first to take the male. The water should be salted before and after parturition. and again in the springtime. With goats, the shepherds appoint no bellwether,

Starting point is 09:56:03 as the animal is not capable of repose, but frisky and apt to ramble. If, at the appointed season, the elders of the flock are eager for intercourse, the shepherds say that it bodes well for the flock, if the younger ones, that the flock is going to be bad. Chapter 20 Of dogs, there are so,

Starting point is 09:56:26 several breeds. Of these, the Laconian hound of either sex is fit for breeding purposes when eight months old. At about the same age, some dogs lift the leg when voiding urine. The bitch conceives with one lining. This is clearly seen in the case where a dog contrives to line a bitch by stealth, as they impregnate after mounting only once. The Laconian bitch carries her young the sixth part of a year or 60 days, or more by one, two, or three, or less by one. The pups are blind for 12 days after birth. After pumping, the bitch gets in heat again in six months, but not before. Some bitches carry their young for the fifth part of the year or for 72 days.

Starting point is 09:57:22 and their pups are blind for 14 days. Other bitches carry their young for a quarter of a year or for three whole months, and the whelps of these are blind for 17 days. The bitch appears to go in heat for the same length of time. Monstration continues for seven days, and a swelling of the genital organ occurs simultaneously. It is not during this period that the bitch is disposed to submit to the dog, but in the seven days that follow. The bitch, as a rule, goes in heat for 14 days, but occasionally for 16.

Starting point is 09:58:05 The birth discharge occurs simultaneously with the delivery of the whelps, and the substance of it is thick and mucus. The falling off, in bulk, on the part of the mother, is not so great as might have been inferred from the size of her frame. The bitch is usually supplied with milk five days before partrition, some seven days previously, some four, and the milk is serviceable immediately after birth. The Laconian bitch is supplied with milk 30 days after lining. The milk at first is thickish, but gets thinner by degrees. With the bitch, the milk is thicker than with the female of any other animal excepting the sow and the hair. When the bitch arrives at full growth, an indication is given of her capacity for the male,

Starting point is 09:59:03 that is to say, just as occurs in the female of the human species, A swelling takes place in the teats of the breasts, and the breasts take on grizzle. This incident, however, it is difficult for any but an expert to detect, as the part that gives the indication is inconsiderable. The preceding statements relate to the female, and not one of them to the male. The male, as a rule, lifts his leg to void urine when six months. old, some at a later period, when eight months old, some before they reach six months. In a general way, one me, put it, that they do so when they are out of puppyhood.

Starting point is 09:59:52 The bitch squats down when she voids urine. It is a rare exception that she lifts the leg to do so. The bitch bears twelve pups at the most, but usually five or six. Occasionally a bitch will bear one only. The bitch of the Laconian breed generally bears ain't. The two sexes have intercourse with each other at all periods of life. A very remarkable phenomenon is observed in the case of the Laconian hound. In other words, he is found to be more vigorous in commerce with the female after being hard-worked then when allowed to live idle.

Starting point is 10:00:34 The dog of the Laconian breed laconian breed, lives ten years, and the bitch twelve. The bitch of other breeds usually lives for fourteen or fifteen years, but some live to twenty, and for this reason certain critics consider that Homer did well in representing the dog of Ulysses as having died in his twentieth year. With the laconian hound owing to the hardships to which the male is put, he is less long-lived than the female. With other braids, the distinction as to longevity is not very apparent, though, as a general rule, the male is the longer lived. The dog sheds no teeth except the so-called canines.

Starting point is 10:01:21 These, a dog of either sex sheds, when four months old. As they shed these only, many people are in doubt as to the fact, and some people, owing to their shedding but two, and it's being hard to hit upon the time when they do so, fancy that the animal sheds no teeth at all. Others, after observing the shedding of two, come to the conclusion that the creature sheds the rest in due turn. Men discern the age of a dog by inspection of its teeth.

Starting point is 10:01:57 With young dogs, the teeth are white and sharp pointed, with old dogs black and blunted. And of Chapter 20, Chapters 21 to 28 of Book 6 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libre-Fox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 21 The bull impregnates the cow at a single mount, and mounts with such vigor as to weigh down the cow. If his effort be unsuccessful, the cow must be allowed an interval of 20 days before being again submitted.

Starting point is 10:02:46 Bulls of mature age decline to mount the same cow several times on one day, except by the way at considerable intervals. Young bulls, by reason of their vigor, are enabled to mount the same cow several times in one day, and a good many cows besides. The bull is the least salacious of male animals. The victor among the bulls is the one that mounts the females. When he gets exhausted by his amorous efforts, his beaten antagonist sets on him, and very often gets the better of the conflict. The bull and the cow are about a year old when it is possible for them to have commerce with chance of offspring.

Starting point is 10:03:34 As a rule, however, they are about 20 months old, but it is universally allowed that they are capable, in this respect, at the age of two years. The cow goes with calf for nine months, and she calves in the tenth month. Some maintain that they go in calf for ten months to the very day. A calf delivered before the times here specified is an abortion, and never lives. However, little premature its birth may have been, as its hooves are weak and imperfect. The cow, as a rule, bears but one calf, very seldom, too. She submits to the bowl and bears as long as she lives. Cows live for about fifteen years, and to the bulls, too.

Starting point is 10:04:28 If they have been castrated, but some live for twenty years or even more, if their bodily constitutions be sound. The herdsmen team the castrated bulls, and give them an office in the herd analogous to the office of the bellwether in a flock. And these bulls live to an exceptionally advanced age, owing to their exemption from hardship and to their browsing on pasture of good quality. The bull is in fullest vigor when five years old, which leads the critics to commend Homer for our,

Starting point is 10:05:04 applying to the bull the epithets of, quote, five-year-old, close quote, or, quote, of nine seasons, close quote, which epithets are alike in meaning. The ox sheds his teeth at the age of two years, not altogether, but just as the horse sheds his. When the animal suffers from pedagra, it does not shed the hoof, but is subject to a painful swelling in the feet. The milk of the cow is serviceable after parturition, and before parturition there is no milk at all. The milk that first presents itself becomes as hard as stone when it clots. This result ensues unless it be previously diluted with water. Oxen, younger than a year old, do not copulate unless, under circumstances of an unnatural

Starting point is 10:05:59 and portentious kind. Instances have been recorded of copulation in both sexes at the age of four months. Kine in general begin to submit to the mail about the month of Thurgillian or of Skerephorian. Some, however, are capable of conception right on to the autumn. When Kine, in large numbers, receive the bull and conceive, it is looked upon as prognostic of rain and stormy weather. Kynne, herd together like mares, but in lesser degree. 22.

Starting point is 10:06:41 In the case of horses, the stallion, and the mare are first fitted for breeding purposes when two years old. Instances, however, of such maturity are rare, and their young are exceptionally small and weak. The ordinary age for sexuality. maturity is three years, and from that age to 20, the two sexes go on improving in the quality of their offspring. The mare carries her full for 11 months, and casts it in the 12th. It is not a fixed number of days that the stallion takes to impregnate the mare. It may be one, two, three, or more. An ass in covering will impregnate more expeditiously than a

Starting point is 10:07:27 stallion. The act of intercourse with horses is not laborious, as it is with oxen. In both sexes, the horse is the most salacious of animals next after the human species. The breeding faculties of the younger horses may be stimulated beyond their years if they be supplied with good feeding in abundance. The mayor, as a rule, bears only one full. Occasionally she has two, but never more. A mare has been known to cast two mules, but such a circumstance was regarded as a natural and portentous. The horse, then, is first fitted for breeding purposes at the age of two and a half years, but achieves full sexual maturity when it has ceased to shed teeth, except it be naturally infertile. It must be added, however, that some horses have been known to

Starting point is 10:08:25 impregnate the mare while the teeth were in process of shedding. The horse has 40 teeth. It sheds its first set of four, two from the upper jaw, and two from the lower, when two and a half years old. After a year's interval, it sheds another set of four in like manner, and another set of four after yet another year's interval. After arriving at the age of four years and six months, it sheds no more. An instance has occurred where a horse shed all his teeth at once, and another instance of a horse shedding all his teeth with his last set of four. But such instances are very rare.

Starting point is 10:09:10 It consequently happens that a horse, when four and a half years old, is in excellent condition for breeding purposes. The older horses, whether of the male or female, are the more generatively productive. Horses will cover mares from which they have been fold, and mares which they have begotten. And indeed, a troop of horses is only considered perfect when such promiscuity of intercourse occurs.

Starting point is 10:09:40 Scythians use pregnant mares for riding when the embryo has turned rather soon in the womb, and they assert that thereby the mothers have all the easier delivery. Quadrupanes, as a rule, lie down for parturition, and, in consequence, the young of them, all come out of the womb sideways. The mere, however, when the time for parturition arrives, stands erect, and in that posture casts its fall. The horse in general lives for 18 or 20 years. Some horses live for 25 or even 30, and if a horse be treated with extreme care, it may

Starting point is 10:10:20 last on to the age of 50 years. A horse, however, when it reaches 30 years, is regarded as exceptionally old. The mayor lives usually for 25 years, though instances have occurred of their attaining the age of 40. The male is less long-lived than the female by reason of the sexual service he is called on to render, and horses that are reared in a private stable live longer than such as are reared in troops. The mare attains her full length and height at five years old, the stallion at six. In another six years, the animal reaches its full bulk, and goes on improving until it is twenty years old. The female, then, reaches maturity more rapidly than the male, but in the womb the case is

Starting point is 10:11:11 reversed, just as is observed in regard to the sexes of the human species, and the same phenomenon is observed in the case of all animals that bear several young. The mare is said to suckle a mule-full for six months, but not to allow its approach for any longer on account of the pain it is put to by the hard tugging of the young. An ordinary fool it allows to suck for a longer period. Horse and mule are at their best after the shedding of the teeth. After they have shed them all, it is not easy to distinguish their age. Hence they are said to carry their mark before the shedding, but not after.

Starting point is 10:11:56 However, even after the shedding, their age is pretty well recognized by the aid of the canines. For, in the case of horses, much ridden, these teeth are worn away by attrition caused by the insertion of the bit. In the case of horses not ridden, teeth are large and detached. and in young horses they are sharp and small. The male of the horse will breed at all seasons, and during its whole life, the mare can take the horse all its life long, but is not thus ready to pair at all seasons,

Starting point is 10:12:32 unless it be held in check by a halter, or some other compulsion be brought to bear. There is no fixed time, at which intercourse of the two sexes cannot take place, and accordingly intercourse may change, to take place at a time that may render difficult the rearing of the future progeny. In a stable, in Opus, there was a stallion that used to serve Mears when 40 years old. His forelings had to be lifted up for the operation.

Starting point is 10:13:02 Mears first take the horse in the springtime. After a mare has foiled, she does not get impregnated at once again, but only after a considerable interval. In fact, the foals will be all the better if the interval extend over four or five years. It is at all events absolutely necessary to allow an interval of one year, and for that period to let her lie follow. A mare then breeds at intervals. A she-ass breeds on and on without intermission.

Starting point is 10:13:39 Of mares, some are absolutely sterile, others are capable of conception, but incapable of bringing the full-to-full term. It is said to be an indication of this condition in a mirror that her full, if dissected, is found to have other kidney-shaped substances round about its kidneys, presenting the appearance of having four kidneys. After parturition, the mirror at once swallows the afterbirth, and bites off the growth, called the hippomanage. that is found on the forehead of the full.

Starting point is 10:14:16 This growth is somewhat smaller than a dried thing, and in shape is broad and round, and in color black. If any bystander gets possession of it before the mare, and the mare gets a smell of it, she goes wild and frantic at the smell. And it is for this reason that vendors of drugs and simples holds the substance in high request and include it among their stores. If an ass cover a mare after the mare has been covered by a horse,

Starting point is 10:14:49 the ass will destroy the previously formed embryo. Horse trainers do not appoint a horse as leader to a troop, as herdsmen appoint a bull as leader to a herd, and for this reason that the horse is not steady, but quick-tempered and skittish. 23. The ass of both sexes is capable of breeding and sheds its first teeth at the age of two and a half years. It sheds its second teeth within six months, its third within another six months, and the fourth, after the like interval. These fourth teeth are termed the nomads or age indicators. A she-ass has been known to conceive when a year old, and the foal to be reared. After intercourse with the male, it will discharge the genital sperm, unless it be hindered,

Starting point is 10:15:47 and for this reason it is usually beaten after such intercourse and chased about. It casts its young in the 12th month. It usually bears but one full, and that is its natural number. Occasionally, however, it bears twins. The ass, if it cover a mare, destroys, as has been said, the embryo previously begotten by the horse. But, after the mare has been covered by the ass, the horse supervening will not spoil the embryo. The she-ass has milk in the tenth month of pregnancy. Seven days after casting a foal, the she-ass submits to the male, and is also,

Starting point is 10:16:32 almost sure to conceive if put to the mail on this particular day. The same result, however, is quite possible later on. The she-ass will refuse to cast her full with anyone looking on, or in the daylight, and just before folling, she has to be led away into a dark place. If the she-ass has had young before the shedding of the index teeth, she will bear all her life through. but if not, then she will neither conceive nor bear for the rest of her days. The ass lives for more than 30 years, and the she-ass lives longer than the male.

Starting point is 10:17:13 When there is a cross between a horse and a she-ass, or a jack-ass and a mare, there is much greater chance of a miscarriage than when the commerce is normal. The period for gestation in the case of a cross depends on the male, and is just what it would have been if the male had had commerce with a female of his own kind. In regard to size, looks and vigor, the foal is more apt to resemble the mother than the sire. If such hybrid connections be continued without intermittence, the female will soon go sterile, and for this reason, trainers always allow of intervals between breeding times. A mare will not take the ass, nor a she-ass the horse, unless the ass or she-ass shall have been suckled by a mare.

Starting point is 10:18:07 And for this reason trainers put foals of the she-ass under mares, which foals are technically spoken of as mare-suckled. These asses, thus reared, mount the mares in the open pastures, mastering them by force as the stallions do. 24. A mule is fitted for commerce with the female after the first shedding of its teeth, and at the age of seven, will impregnate effectually, and where connection has taken place with a mare, a hini has been known to be produced. After the seventh year, it has no further intercourse with the female. A female mule has been known to be impregnated, but without the impregnation being followed up by parturition. In Cyrofenicia, she-mules submit to the mule and bear young, but the breed, though it resembles the ordinary one, is different and specific. The hini,

Starting point is 10:19:10 or stunted mule, is fooled by a mare when she has gone sick during gestation, and corresponds to the dwarf in the human species, and to the after-pig or scut in stut in swine, and, as is the case with dwarfs, the sexual organ of the hini is abnormally large. The mule lives for a number of years. There are, on record, cases of mules living to the age of 80, as did one in Athens at the time of the building of the temple. This mule, on account of its age, was let go free, but continued to assist in dragging burdens, and would go side by side with the other draft beasts and stimulate them to their work. And in consequence, a public decree was passed, forbidding any baker driving the creature away from his bread tray. The she-mule grows old

Starting point is 10:20:09 more slowly than the mule. Some assert that the she-mule menstruates by the act of voiding her urine, and that the mule owes the prematurity of his decay to his habit of smelling at the urine. so much for the modes of generation in connection with these animals. 25. Breeders and trainers can distinguish between young and old quadrupanes. If, when drawn back from the jaw, the skin at once goes back to its place, the animal is young. If it remains long wrinkled up, the animal is old. 26.

Starting point is 10:20:49 The camel carries its young for ten months, and bears but one. at a time, and never more. The young camel is removed from the mother when a year old. The animal lives for a long period, more than 50 years. It bears in springtime and gives milk until the time of the next conception. Its flesh and milk are exceptionally palatable. The milk is drunk, mixed with water in the proportion of either two to one or three to one. 27. The elephant of either sex is fitted for breeding before reaching the age of 20. The female carries her young according to some accounts for two and a half years, according to others for three years, and the discrepancy in the assigned periods is due to the fact that there are never

Starting point is 10:21:42 human eyewitnesses to the commerce between the sexes. The female settles down on its rear to cast its young, and obviously, suffers greatly during the process. The young one immediately after birth sucks the mother, not with its trunk but with the mouth, and can walk about and see distinctly the moment it is born. 28. The wild sow submits to the boar at the beginning of winter, and, in the springtime, retreats for parturition to a lair in some district inaccessible to intrusion. hemmed in with sheer cliffs and chasms, and overshadowed by trees, the boar usually remains by the sow for thirty days. The number of the litter and the period of gestation is the same

Starting point is 10:22:35 as in the case of the domesticated congenre. The sound of the grunt also is similar, only that the sow grunts continually and the boar but seldom. Of the wild boars, such as are castrated, grow to the largest size and become fiercest, to which circumstance Homer alludes when he says, quote, he reared against him a wild, castrated boar. It was not like a food-devouring brute, but like a forest-clad promontory, close quote. Wild boars become castrated, owing to an itch, befalling them in early life in the region of the testicles, and the caustacles. And the castration is superinduced by their rubbing themselves against the trunks of trees. And of Chapter 28.

Starting point is 10:23:35 Chapters 29 to 37 of Book 6 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth-Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. 29. The hind, as has been stated, submits to the stag as a rule only under compulsion, as she is unable to endure the male often owing to the rigidity of the penis. However, they do occasionally submit to the stag as the U submits to the ram, and when they are in heat, the hinds avoid one another. The stag is not constant to one particular hind, but after a while quits one and meets with others.

Starting point is 10:24:22 The breeding time is after the rising of Arcturus during the months of boidromian and Mimactarian. The period of gestation lasts for eight months. Conception comes on a few days after intercourse, and a number of hinds can be impregnated by a single male. The hind, as a rule, bears but one fawn, although instances have been known of her casting, too, Out of dread of wild beasts, she casts her young by the side of the high road. The young fawn grows with rapidity. Menstruation occurs at no other time with the hind. It takes place only after partrition, and the substance is phlegm-like.

Starting point is 10:25:13 The hind leads the fawn to her lair. This is her place of refuge, a cave with a single inlet. which she shelters herself against attack. Fabulous stories are told concerning the longevity of the animal, but the stories have never been verified, and the brevity of the period of gestation and the rapidity of growth in the fawn would not lead one to attribute extreme longevity to this creature. In the mountain called Elephois, or Deer Mountain, which is in Argynusa in Asia Minor, the place, by the way, where Alcibiades was assassinated, all the hinds have the ear split,

Starting point is 10:25:59 so that if they stray to a distance, they can be recognized by this mark, and the embryo actually has the mark, while yet in the womb of the mother. The hind has four teats like the cow. After the hinds have become pregnant, the males all segregate one by one, and in consequence of the violence of their sexual passions, they keep each one to himself, dig a hole in the ground, and bellow from time to time. In all these particulars, they resemble the goat,

Starting point is 10:26:33 and their forehands from getting wedded become black, as is also the case with the goat. In this way, they pass the time until the rain falls, after which time they turn to pasture. The animal acts in this way owing to its sexual wantonness, and also to its obesity, for in summertime it becomes so exceptionally fat as to be unable to run. In fact, at this period, they can be overtaken by the hunters, that pursue them on foot in the second or third run, and, by the way, in consequence of the heat of the weather and

Starting point is 10:27:11 they're getting out of breath, they always make for water in their runs. In the running season, the flesh of the deer is unsavory and rank, like the flesh of the he-goat. In winter-time, the deer becomes thin and weak, but towards the approach of the spring he is at his best for running. When, on the run, the deer keeps pausing from time to time, and waits until his pursuer draws upon him, whereupon he starts off again. This habit appears due to some internal pain.

Starting point is 10:27:46 At all events, the gut is so slender and weak that, if you strike the animal ever so softly, it is apt to break asunder, though the hide of the animal remains sound and uninjured. 30. Bears, as has been previously stated, do not copulate with the male mounting the back of the female, but with the female lying down under the male. The she-bear goes with young for thirty days. She brings forth sometimes one cub, sometimes two cubs, and at most five. Of all animals, the newly born cub of the she-bear is the smallest in proportion to the size

Starting point is 10:28:25 of the mother. That is to say, it is larger than a mouse, but smaller than a weasel. It is also smooth and blind, and its legs, and most of its organs are as yet inarticulate. Pairing takes place in the month of Lafaboleon and Parturition. about the time for retiring into winter quarters. About this time, the bear and the she-bear are at the fattest. After the she-bear has reared her young, she comes out of her winter lair in the third month,

Starting point is 10:28:59 when it is already spring. The female porcupine, by the way, hibernates and goes with young, the same number of days as the she-bear, and in all respects, as to parturition, resembles this animal. When a she-bear is with young, it is a very hard task to catch her. 31. It has already been stated that the lion and lioness copulate rear-warns, and that these animals are uphysteretic. They do not copulate, nor bring forth at all seasons indiscriminately, but once in the year only.

Starting point is 10:29:37 The lioness brings forth in the spring, generally two cubs at a time, and six at the very most, but sometimes only one. The story about the lioness discharging her womb in the act of partition is a pure fable, and was merely invented, to account for the scarcity of the animal. For the animal is, as is well known, a rare animal, and is not found in many countries. In fact, in the whole of Europe, it is only found in the strip between the rivers Akeloas and Nessus. The cubs of the lioness, when newly born, are exceedingly small, and can scarcely walk when two months old. The Syrian lion bears cubs five times, five cubs at the first litter, then four, then three, then two, and lastly one. After this, the lioness ceases to bear for the rest of her days.

Starting point is 10:30:35 The lioness has no mane, but this appendage is peculiar to the lion. The lion sheds only the four so-called canines, two in the upper jaw and two in the lower, and it sheds them when it is six months old. 32. The hyena in color resembles the wolf, but is more shaggy and is furnished with a mean running all along the spine. What is recounted concerning its genital organs, to the effect that every hyena is furnished with the organ both of the and the female is untrue. The fact is that the sexual organ of the male hyena resembles the same organ in the wolf and

Starting point is 10:31:18 in the dog. The part resembling the female genital organ lies underneath the tail, and does to some extent resemble the female organ, but it is unprovided with duct or passage, and the passage for the residuum comes underneath it. The female hyena has the part that resembles the organ of the male, and, as in the case of the male, has it underneath her tail, unprovided with duct or passage, and after it the passage for the residuum, and underneath this, the true female genital organ. The female hyena has a womb, like all other female animals of the same kind.

Starting point is 10:32:02 It is an exceedingly rare circumstance to meet with a female hyena. At least, a hunter said that out of 11 hyenas he had caught, only one was a female. 33. Hears copulate in a rearward posture, as has been stated, for the animal is epithoretic. They breed and bear at all seasons, superfeetate during pregnancy, and bear young young, every month. They do not give birth to their young ones altogether at one time, but bring them forth at intervals over as many days as the circumstances of each case may require. The female is supplied with milk before parturition, and after bearing submits immediately to the male,

Starting point is 10:32:51 and is capable of conception while suckling her young. The milk, inconsistency, resembles sow's milk. The young are born blind, as is the case with the greater part of the Fisopeds, or Toad Animals. 34. The fox mounts the vixen in copulation, and the vixen bears young like the she-bear. In fact, her young ones are even more inarticulately formed. Before parturition, she retires to sequestered places, so that it is a great rarity for a vixen to be caught while pregnant. After parturition, she warms her young, and gets them into sheep by licking them. She bears four at most at a birth. Thirty-five. The wolf resembles the dog in regard to the time of conception and partrition, the number of the litter and the blindness of the

Starting point is 10:33:50 newborn young. The sexes couple at one special period, and the female brings forth at the beginning of the summer. There is an account given of the partrition of the she-wolf that borders on the fabulous, to the effect that she confines her lying in to within twelve particular days of the year, and they give the reason for this in the form of a myth. We did Ilicat, that when they transported Lido in so many days from the land of the Hyperboreans to the island of Delos, she assumed the form of a she-wolf to escape the anger. of Hera. Whether the account be correct or not has not yet been verified. I give it merely as it is currently told. There is no more of truth in the current statement that the she-wolf

Starting point is 10:34:40 bears once and only once in her lifetime. The cat and the ignoomen bear as many young as the dog, and live on the same food. They live about six years. The cubs of the panther are born blind, like those of the wolf, and the female bears four at the most at one birth. The particulars of conception are the same for the thos or sivant, as for the dog. The cubs of the animal are born blind, and the female bears two or three or four at a birth. It is long in the body and low in stature, but notwithstanding the shortness of its legs, it is exceptionally fleet of foot, owing to the suppleness of its frame and its capacity for leaping. 36.

Starting point is 10:35:32 There is found in Syria a so-called mule. It is not the same as the cross between the horse and ass, but resembles it, just as a wild ass resembles the domesticated congener, and derives its name from the resemblance. Like the wild ass, this wild mule is remarkable for its speed. The animals of this species interbreed with one another, and a proof of this statement may be gathered from the fact that a certain number of them were brought into for Gia in the time of Farnassus, the father of Farnabazus, and the animal is there still. The number originally introduced was nine, and there are three there at the present day.

Starting point is 10:36:16 37. The phenomena of generation in regard to the mouse are the most astonishing. both for the number of the young and for the rapidity of recurrence in the births. On one occasion a she-mouse in a state of pregnancy was shut up by accident in a jar containing millet seed, and after a little while the lid of the jar was removed, and upwards of 120 mice were found inside it. The rate of propagation of field mice in country places, and the destruction that they cause, are beyond all telling. In many places their number is so incalculable that but very little

Starting point is 10:36:56 of the corn crop is left to the farmer, and so rapid is their mode of proceeding that sometimes a small farmer will one day observe that it is time for reaping, and on the following morning, when he takes his reapers a field, he finds his entire crop devoured. Their disappearance is unaccountable. In a few days, not a mouse will there be to be seen. And yet, in the time before these few days, men failed to keep down their numbers by fumigating and unearthing them, or by regularly hunting them and turning in swine upon them. For pigs, by the way, turn up the mouse holes by rooting with their snouts. Foxes also hunt them, and the wild ferrets in particular destroy them, but they make no way against the prolific qualities of the animal and the rapidity

Starting point is 10:37:50 of its breeding. When they are superabundant, nothing succeeds in thinning them down except the rain, but after heavy rains they disappear rapidly. In a certain district of Persia, when a female mouse is dissected, the female embryos appear to be pregnant. Some people assert and positively assert that a female mouse by licking salt can become pregnant without the intervention of the male. Mice in Egypt are covered with bristles like the hedgehog. There is also a different breed of mice that walk on their two hind legs. Their front legs are small and their hind legs long. The breed is exceedingly numerous. There are many other breeds of mice then are here referred to. End of Chapter 37 and end of Book 6.

Starting point is 10:38:52 Chapters 1 to 3 of Book 7 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Lieber Fox recording is in the public domain. 1. As to man's growth, first within his mother's womb and afterward to old age, the course of nature, insofar as man is specially concerned, is after the following manner. And, by the way, the difference of male and female, and of their respective organs has been dealt with heretofore. When twice seven years old, in the most of cases, the male begins to engender seed, and at the same time, hair appears upon the pubis in like manner, so,

Starting point is 10:39:46 alchmian of croton remarks, as plants first blossom and then seed. About the same time, the voice begins to alter, getting harsher and more uneven, neither shrill as formerly, nor deep as afterward, nor yet of any even tone, but like an instrument whose strings are frayed and out of tune. And it is called, by way of byword, the bleat of the billy-goat. Now, this breaking of the voice is the more apparent in those who are making trial of their sexual powers. For in those who are prone to lustfulness, the voice turns into the voice of a man,

Starting point is 10:40:30 but not so in the continent. For if a lad strive diligently to hinder his voice from breaking, as some do of those who devote themselves to music, the voice lasts a long while unbroken, and may even persist with little change. And the breasts swell, and likewise the private parts, altering in size and shape. And by the way, at this time of life, those who try by friction to provoke emission of seed are apt to experience pain as well as voluptuous sensations. At the same age in the female, the breasts swell, and the so-called catamania commenced to flow, and this fluid resembles fresh blood. There is another discharge, a white one, by the way, which occurs in girls even at a very

Starting point is 10:41:24 early age, more especially if their diet be largely of a fluid nature. And this malady causes a rest of growth and loss of flesh. In the majority of cases, the catamina are noticed by the time the breasts have grown to the height of two fingers' breadth. In girls too, About this time, the voice changes to a deeper note, for while in general the woman's voice is higher than the man's, so also the voices of girls are pitched in a higher key than the elder women's, just as the boys are higher than the men's, and the girls' voices are shriller than the boys, and a maid's flute is tuned sharper than a lads. girls of this age have much need of surveillance.

Starting point is 10:42:16 For then, in particular, they feel a natural impulse to make usage of the sexual faculties that are developing in them, so that unless they guard against any further impulse beyond that inevitable one, which their bodily development of itself supplies, even in the case of those who abstain altogether from passionate indulgence, they contract habits which are apt to to continue into later life. For girls who give way to wantonness grow more and more wanton, and the same is true of boys, unless they be safeguarded from one temptation and another. For the passages become dilated, and set up a local flux or running, and besides this,

Starting point is 10:42:59 the recollection of pleasure associated with former indulgence creates a longing for its repetition. Some men are congenitally impotent, owing to structural defect, and in like manner women also may suffer from congenital incapacity. Both men and women are liable to constitutional change, growing healthier or more sickly, or altering in the way of leanness, stoutness, and vigor. Thus after puberty, some lads who were thin before grow stout and healthy, and the converse also happens, and the same is equally true of girls. For when in boy or girl, the body is loaded with superfluous matter, then, when such superfluities are got rid of in the spermatic or

Starting point is 10:43:48 catameneal discharge, their bodies improve in health and condition, owing to the removal of what had acted as an impediment to health and proper nutrition. But in such as are of opposite habit, their bodies become emaciated and out of health, for then the spermatic discharge in the one case and the cataminal flow in the other take place at the cost of natural healthy conditions. Furthermore, in the case of maidens, the condition of the breasts is diverse in different individuals, for they are sometimes quite big and sometimes little, and as a general rule, their size depends on whether or no the body was berthened, in childhood with superfluous material.

Starting point is 10:44:36 For, when the signs of womanhood are nigh, but not come, the more there be of moisture, the more will it cause the breasts to swell, even to the bursting point, and the result is that the breasts remain during afterlife of the bulk that they then acquired. And among men, the breasts grow more conspicuous and more like to those of women, both in young men and old, when the individual temperament is moist and sleek, and the reverse of sinewy, and, all the more, among the dark complexion than the fair. At the outset until the age of one and twenty, the spermatic discharge is devoid of fecundity. Afterwards it becomes fertile.

Starting point is 10:45:21 But young men and women produce undersized and imperfect progeny, as is the case also with the common run of animals. young women conceive readily, but having conceived their labour in childbed is apt to be difficult. The frame fails of reaching its full development, and ages quickly in men of intemperate lusts, and in women who become mothers of many children, for it appears to be the case that growth ceases when the woman has given birth to three children. Women of a lascivious disposition grow more sedate and virtuous after they have, have born several children. After the age of 21, women are fully rape for childbearing, but men

Starting point is 10:46:05 go on increasing in vigor. When the spermatic fluid is of a thin consistency, it is infertile, when granular, it is fertile and likely to produce male children, but when thin and unclotted, it is apt to produce female offspring. And it is about this time of life that in men the beard makes its appearance. 2. The onset of the catamina in women takes place towards the end of the month, and on this account the wise acres assert that the moon is feminine, because the discharge in women and the waning of the moon happen at one and the same time, and after the wane and the discharge, both one and the other grow whole again. In some women, the catamania occur regularly, but sparsely every month, and more abundantly every third month. With those in whom the ailment lasts,

Starting point is 10:46:59 but a little while, two days or three, recovery is easy. But where the duration is longer, the ailment is more troublesome, for women are ailing during these days, and sometimes the discharge is sudden, and sometimes gradual, but in all cases alike there is bodily distress until the attack be over. In many cases at the commencement of the attack, when the discharge is about to appear, there occur spasms and rumbling noises within the womb until such time as the discharge manifests itself.

Starting point is 10:47:33 Under natural conditions, it is, after recovery from these symptoms, that conception takes place in women, and women, in whom the signs do not manifest themselves for the most part remain childless. But the rule is not without exception, for some conceive in spite of the absence of these symptoms, and these are cases in which a secretion accumulates, not in such a way as actually to issue forth, but an amount equal to the residuum left in the case of childbearing women after the normal discharge has taken place.

Starting point is 10:48:09 And some conceive, while the signs are on, but not afterwards, those, namely in whom the womb closes up immediately after the discharge. In some cases, the mensis persist during pregnancy up to the very last, but the result in these cases is that the offspring are poor and either fail to survive or grow up weakly. In many cases, owing to excessive desire arising either from youthful impetuosity or from lengthened abstinence, prolaption of the womb, takes place, and the catamania appear repeatedly, thrice in the month until conception occurs,

Starting point is 10:48:51 and then the womb withdraws upwards again to its proper place. As we have remarked above, the discharge is want to be more abundant in women than in the females of any other animals. In creatures that do not bring forth their young alive, nothing of the sort manifests itself. This particular superfluity being converted into bodily subsubility. And, by the way, in such animals, the females are sometimes larger than the males. And moreover, the material is used up sometimes for scutes, and sometimes for scales, and sometimes for the abundant covering of feathers.

Starting point is 10:49:30 Whereas in the viviparra possessed of limbs, it is turned into hair and into bodily substance. For men alone among them is smooth-skinned, and into urine. For this excretion is in the majority of such animals thick and copious. Only in the case of women is the superfluity turned into a discharge instead of being utilized in these other ways. There is something similar to be remarked of men, for in proportion to his size man emits more seminal fluid than any other animal, for which reason man is the smoothest of animals. Especially such men as are of a moist habit and not over-corpulent, and fair men in greater degree than dark.

Starting point is 10:50:18 It is likewise with women, for in the stout, great part of the excretion goes to nourish the body. In the act of intercourse, women of a fair complexion discharge a more plent secretion than the dark, and, furthermore, a watery and pungent diet conduces to this phenomenon. 3. It is a sign of conception in women when the places dry immediately after intercourse. If the lips of the orifice be smooth, conception is difficult, for the matter slips off, and if they be thick it is also difficult. But if, on digital examination, the lips feel somewhat rough and adherent, and if they be likewise thin, then the chances are in favour of conception. Accordingly, if conception be desired, we must bring the parts into such a condition as we have

Starting point is 10:51:11 just described. But if, on the contrary, we want to avoid conception, then we must bring about a contrary disposition. Wherefore, since if the parts be smooth, conception is prevented, some anoint that part of the womb on which the seed falls with oil of cedar, or with ointment of lead, or with frankincense, commingled with olive oil. If the seed remain within for seven days, then it is certain that conception has taken place, for it is during that period that what is known as affliction takes place. In most cases the menstrual discharge recurs for some time after conception has taken place, its duration being mostly 30 days in the case of a female, and about 40 days

Starting point is 10:52:00 in the case of a male child. After parturition also, it is common for the discharge to be withheld for an equal number of days, but not in all cases with equal exactitude. After conception and when the above-mentioned days are passed, the discharge no longer takes its natural course, but finds its way to the breasts and turns to milk. The first appearance of milk in the breasts is scant in quantity and, so to speak, cobwebby, or interspersely, with little threads. And when conception has taken place, there is apt to be a sort of feeling in the region of the flanks, which in some cases quickly swell up a little, especially in thin persons and also

Starting point is 10:52:43 in the groin. In the case of male children, the first movement usually occurs on the right-hand side of the womb, and about the fortieth day. But if the child be a female, then on the left-hand side and about the 90th day. However, we must by no means assume this to be an accurate statement of fact, for there are many exceptions in which the movement is manifested on the right-hand side though a female child be coming, and on the left-hand side, though the infant be a male. And in short, these and all such-like phenomena are usually subject to differences that may

Starting point is 10:53:23 be summed up as differences of degree. About this period, the embryo begins to resolve into distinct parts, it having hitherto consisted of a flesh-like substance without distinction of parts. What is called effliction is a destruction of the embryo within the first week, while abortion occurs up to the 40th day, and the greater number of such embryos as perish do so within the space of these 40 days. In the case of a male embryo aborted at the 40th day, if it be placed in cold water, it holds together in a sort of membrane, but if it be placed in any other fluid, it dissolves and

Starting point is 10:54:05 disappears. If the membrane be pulled to bence, the embryo is revealed, as big as one of the large kind of ants, and all the limbs are plain to see, including the penis and the eyes also, which, as in other animals, are of great size. But the female embryo, if it suffer abortion during the first three months, is as a rule found to be undifferentiated. If, however, it reached the fourth month, it comes to be subdivided and quickly attains further differentiation.

Starting point is 10:54:39 In short, while within the womb, the female infant accomplishes the whole development of its parts more slowly than the male, and more frequently than the man-child takes ten months to come to perfection. But after birth, the females pass more quickly than the males through youth and maturity and age, and this is especially true of those that bear many children, as indeed I have already said. And of chapter three, chapters four to six of book seven, of history of animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson, This Libravox recording is in the public domain. 4.

Starting point is 10:55:32 When the womb has conceived the seed, straightway in the majority of cases it closes up until seven months are fulfilled, but in the eight month it opens, and the embryo, if it be fertile, descends in the eighth month. But such embryos as are not fertile, but are devoid of breath, at eight months old, their mothers do not bring into the world by parturition at eight months. Neither does the embryo descend within the womb at that period, nor does the womb open. And it is a sign that the embryo is not capable of life if it be formed without the above-named

Starting point is 10:56:17 circumstances taking place. After conception, women are prone to a feeling of heaviness in all parts of their bodies, and, for instance, they experience a sensation of darkness in front of the eyes and suffer also from headache. These symptoms appear sooner or later, sometimes as early as the tenth day, according as the patient be more or less berthened with superfluous humours. Nausea also and sickness affect the most of women, and especially such as those that we have just now mentioned, after the menstrual discharge has ceased, and before it is yet turned in the direction of the breasts. Moreover, some women suffer most at the beginning of their pregnancy,

Starting point is 10:57:09 and some at a later period when the embryo has had time to grow, and in some women it is a common occurrence to suffer from stringy towards the end of their time. As a general rule, women who are pregnant of a male child escape comparatively easily and retain a comparatively healthy look. But it is otherwise with those whose infant is a female. For these latter look as a rule paler and suffer more pain, and in many cases they are subject to swellings of the legs and eruptions on the body. Nevertheless, the rule is subject to exceptions. women in pregnancy are a prey to all sorts of longings and to rapid changes of mood,

Starting point is 10:58:00 and some folks call this the ivy sickness. And with the mothers of female infants, the longings are more acute, and they are less contented when they have got what they desired. In a certain few cases, the patient feels unusually well during pregnancy. The worst time of all is just when the child's hair is beginning to grow. In pregnant women, their own natural hair is inclined to grow thin and fall out. But on the other hand, hair tends to grow on parts of the body where it was not want to be. As a general rule, a man-child is more prone to movement within its mother's womb than a female child,

Starting point is 10:58:46 and it is usually born sooner. And labor, in the case of female children, is apt to be protracted and sluggish, while in the case of male children it is acute, and by a long way more difficult. Women who have connection with their husbands, shortly before childbirth, are delivered all the more quickly. Occasionally, women seem to be in the pains of labor, though labor has not, in fact, commenced. What seemed like the commencement of labor, being really the result of the fetus turning its head. Now, all other animals bring the time of pregnancy to an end in a uniform way.

Starting point is 10:59:31 In other words, one single term of pregnancy is defined for each of them. But in the case of mankind alone, of all animals, the times are diverse. For pregnancy may be of seven months duration, or of eight months, or of nine, and still more commonly of ten lunar months, while some few women go even into the 11th month. Children that come into the world before seven months can under no circumstances survive. The seven months children are the earliest that are capable of life, and most of them are weekly, for which reason by the way it is customary to swaddle them in wool, and many of them are born with some of the orifices of the body imperforate,

Starting point is 11:00:19 for instance the ears or the nostrils. But as they get bigger, they become more perfectly developed, and many of them grow up. In Egypt and in some other places where the women are fruitful and are wont to bear and bring forth many children without difficulty, and where the children, when born, are capable of living, even if they be born subject to deformity. In these places the eight-months children live and are brought up.

Starting point is 11:00:50 But in Greece, it is only a few of them that survive while most perish. And this being the general experience, when such a child does happen to survive, the mother is apt to think that it was not an eight-month child after all, but that she had conceived at an earlier period without being aware of it. Women suffer most pain about the fourth and the eighth months, and if the fetus perishes in the fourth or in the eighth month, the mother also succumbs as a general rule, so that not only do the eight months children not live, but when they die their mothers are

Starting point is 11:01:30 in great danger of their own lives. In like manner, children that are apparently born at a later term than eleven months are held to be in doubtful case, inasmuch as with them also, the beginning of conception may have escaped the notice of the mother. What I mean to say is that often the womb gets filled with wind, and, then, when at a later period, connection and conception take place, they think that the former circumstance was the beginning of conception, from the similarity of the symptoms that they experienced. such then are the differences between mankind and other animals in regard to the many various modes of completion of the term of pregnancy.

Starting point is 11:02:17 Furthermore, some animals produce one, and some produce many at a birth, but the human species does sometimes the one and sometimes the other. As a general rule, and among most nations, the women bear one child at a birth, but frequently, and in many lands, they bear twins, as for instance in Egypt especially. Sometimes women bring forth three and even four children, and especially in certain parts of the world, as has already been stated. The largest number ever brought forth is five,

Starting point is 11:02:52 and such an occurrence has been witnessed on several occasions. There was once upon a time a certain woman who had 20 children at four births, each time she had five, and most of them grew up. Now, among other animals, if a pair of twins happen to be male and female, they have as good a chance of surviving as though both had been males or both females. But among mankind, very few twins survive, if one happen to be a boy and the other a girl. Of all animals, the woman and the mayor, are most inclined to receive the commerce of the male during pregnancy, while all other animals when they are pregnant avoid the male, save those in which the phenomenon of superfetation occurs, such as the hare. Unlike that animal, the mare, after once conceiving,

Starting point is 11:03:47 cannot be rendered pregnant again, but brings forth one foe only, at least as a general rule. In the human species, cases of superfutation are rare, but they do happen now and then. An embryo conceived some considerable time after a previous conception does not come to perfection, but gives rise to pain, and causes the destruction of the earlier embryo. And, by the way, a case has been known to occur where, owing to this destructive influence, no less than twelve embryos conceived by superfutation, have been discharged. But if the second conception take place at a short interval, then the mother bears that which was later conceived,

Starting point is 11:04:37 and brings force the two children like actual twins, as happened, according to the legend, in the case of Iphocles and Hercules. The following also is a striking example. A certain woman, having committed adultery, brought force the one child resembling her husband, and the other resembling the other resembling the, adulterous lover. The case has also occurred where a woman, being pregnant of twins,

Starting point is 11:05:05 has subsequently conceived a third child, and in course of time she brought forth the twins perfect and at full term. But the third, a five-month child, and this last died there and then. And in another case it happened that the woman was first delivered of a seven-months child, and then of two, which were of full term, and of these the first died, and the other two survived. Some also have been known to conceive while about to miscarry, and they have lost the one child, and been delivered of the other. If women, while going with child, cohabit after the eighth month, the child is in most cases born covered over with a slimy fluid.

Starting point is 11:05:53 Often also the child is found to be replete with food, of which the mother had partaken. When women have partaken of salt in over abundance, their children are apt to be born destitute of nails. 5. Milk that is produced earlier than the seventh month is unfit for use. But as soon as the child is fit to live, the milk is fit to use. The first of the milk is saltish, as it is likewise with sheep. Most women are sensibly affected by wine during pregnancy, for if they partake of it, they grow relaxed and debilitated. The beginning of childbearing in women and of the capacity to procreate in men, and

Starting point is 11:06:40 the cessation of these functions in both cases coincide in the one case with the emission of seed, and in the other with the discharge of the catamina. with this qualification that there is a lack of fertility at the commencement of these symptoms, and again towards their clothes, when the emissions become scanty and weak. The age at which the sexual powers begin has been related already, as for their end the menstrual discharge ceases in most women about their fortieth year, but with those in whom it goes on longer it lasts even to the 50th year, and women of that age have been known to bear children, but beyond that age there is no case on record.

Starting point is 11:07:27 6. Men in most cases continue to be sexually competent until they are 60 years old, and if that limit be overpassed, then until 70 years, and men have been actually known to procreate children at 70 years of age. With many men and many women, it so happens that they are unethicaled. unable to produce children to one another, while they are able to do so in union with other individuals. The same thing happens, with regard to the production of male and female offspring. For sometimes men and women in union with one another produce male children or female,

Starting point is 11:08:07 as the case may be, but children of the opposite sex when otherwise mated. And they are apt to change in this respect with advancing age. For sometimes a husband and one while they are young, produce female children, and in later life, male children, and in other cases the very contrary occurs. And just the same thing is true in regard to the generative faculty. For some, while young, are childless, but have children when they grow older, and some have children to begin with, and later on no more. There are certain women who conceive with difficulty, but if they do conceive, bring the child to maturity, while others again conceive readily, but are unable to bring the child to birth. Furthermore, some men and some women

Starting point is 11:08:58 produce female offspring, and some male, as, for instance, in the story of Hercules, who among all his two and seventy children is said to have begotten but one girl. Those women who are unable to conceive, save with the help of medical treatment, or some other adventitious circumstance, or as a general rule, apt to bear female children rather than male. It is a common thing with men to be at first sexually competent, and afterwards impotent, and then again to revert to their former powers. From deformed parents come deformed children, lame from lame, and blind from blind, and speaking generally, children often inherit anything that is peculiar in their parents, and are born with similar marks, such as pimples or scars.

Starting point is 11:09:51 Such things have been known to be handed down through three generations. For instance, a certain man had a mark on his arm, which his son did not possess, but his grandson had it in the same spot, though not very distinct. Such cases, however, are few, for the children of cripples are mostly sound, and there is no hard and fast rule regarding them. While children mostly resemble their parents or their ancestors, it sometimes happens that no such resemblance is to be traced. But parents may pass on resemblance after several generations, as in the case of the woman in Ellis, who committed adultery with a negro. In this case, it was not the woman's own daughter, but the daughter's

Starting point is 11:10:39 child that was a blackamore. As a rule, the daughters, the daughters, have a tendency to take after the mother, and the boys after the father, but sometimes it is the other way, the boys taking after the mother, and the girls after the father, and they may resemble both parents in particular features. There have been known cases of twins that had no resemblance to one another, but they are like as a general rule. There was once upon a time a woman who had intercourse with her husband a week after giving birth to a child, and she conceived and bore a second child as like the first as any twin. Some women have a tendency to produce children that take after themselves,

Starting point is 11:11:27 and others children that take after the husband, and this latter case is like that of the celebrated mare in Farsalis that got the name of the honest wife. End of Chapter 6. Chapter 7 to 12 of Book 7 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. 7.

Starting point is 11:12:04 In the emission of sperm, there is a preliminary discharge of air, and the outflow is manifestly caused by a blast of air. for nothing is cast to a distance save by pneumatic pressure. After the seed reaches the womb and remains there for a while, a membrane forms around it. For, when it happens to escape before it is distinctly formed, it looks like an egg enveloped in its membrane after removal of the egg shell, and the membrane is full of veins. All animals whatsoever, whether they fly or so,

Starting point is 11:12:43 swim or walk upon dry land, whether they bring force their young alive or in the egg develop in the same way, save only that some have the navel attached to the womb, namely the viviparous animals, and some have it attached to the egg, and some to both parts alike, as in a certain sort of fishes. And in some cases, membranous envelopes surround the egg. and in other cases the corian surrounds it. And, first of all, the animal develops within the innermost envelope, and then another membrane appears around the former one, which latter is for the most part attached to the womb,

Starting point is 11:13:29 but is in part separated from it and contains fluid. In between is a watery or sanguineous fluid, which the womenfolk call the forewaters. 8. All animals, or all such as have a nevel, grow by the nevel, and the neval is attached to the codyden in all such as possess cotelidons, and to the womb itself by a vein, in all such as have the womb smooth. And, as regards their shape within the womb, the four-footed animals all lie stretched down, and the footless animals lie on their sides, as, for instance, fishes.

Starting point is 11:14:12 But two-legged animals lie in a bent position, as, for instance, birds, and human embryos lie bent, with nose between the knees and eyes upon the knees, and the ears free at the sides. All animals alike have the head upwards to begin with, but as they grow and approach the term of egress, from the whim they turn downwards, and birth in the natural course of things takes place in all animals' head foremost. But in abnormal cases, it may take place in a bent position or feet foremost. The young of quadrupans, when they are near their full time, contain excrements, both liquid and in the form of solid lumps, the latter in the lower part of the bowel, and the urine in the bladder. In those animals that have Cotolidans in the womb,

Starting point is 11:15:07 the Cotolidins grow less as the embryo grows bigger, and at length they disappear altogether. The navel string is a sheath wrapped about blood vessels, which have their origin in the womb, from the Cotelidans in those animals which possess them, and from a blood vessel in those which do not. In the larger animals, such as the embryos of oxen, the vessels are four in number, and in smaller animals too. In the very little ones, such as fowls, one vessel only. Of the four vessels that run into the embryo, two pass through the liver, where the so-called gates or porti are, running in the direction of the great vein,

Starting point is 11:15:52 and the other two run in the direction of the aorta towards the point where it divined. and becomes two vessels instead of one. Around each pair of blood vessels are membranes, and surrounding these membranes is the nevel string itself, after the manner of a sheath. And as the embryo grows, the veins themselves tend more and more to dwindle in size. And also, as the embryo matures,

Starting point is 11:16:20 it comes down into the hollow of the womb, and is observed to move here and sometimes rolls over in the vicinity of the groin. 9. When women are in labor, their pains determine towards many diverse parts of the body, and in most cases, to one or other of the thighs.

Starting point is 11:16:41 Those are the quickest to be delivered who experience severe pains in the region of the belly, and parturition is difficult in those who begin by suffering pain in the loins, and speedy when the pain is abdominal. If the child about to be born be a male, the preliminary flood is watery and pale in color. But if a girl, it is tinged with blood, though still watery. In some cases of labor, these latter phenomena do not occur, either one way or the other.

Starting point is 11:17:14 In other animals, parturition is unaccompanied by pain, and the dam is plainly seen to suffer, but moderate inconvenience. In women, however, the pains are more severe, and this is especially the case in persons of sedentary habits, and in those who are weak-chested and short of breath. Labor is apt to be especially difficult if during the process, the woman, while exerting force with her breath, fails to hold it in. First of all, when the embryo starts to move, and the membranes burst, their issues forth the watery flood.

Starting point is 11:17:53 Then afterwards comes the embryo, while the womb avert and the afterbirth comes out from within. Ten. The cutting of the naval string, which is the nurse's duty, is a matter calling for no little care and skill. For not only, in cases of difficult labor, must she be able to render assistance with skillful hand, but she must also have her wits about her in all,

Starting point is 11:18:19 contingencies, and especially in the operation of tying the cord. For if the afterbirth have come away, the navel is ligatured off from the afterbirth with a woollen thread, and is then cut above the ligature, and at the place where it has been tied it heals up, and the remaining portion drops off. If the ligature come loose, the child dies from loss of blood. But if the afterbirth has not yet come away but remains after after the child itself is extruded, it is cut away within, after the ligatureing of the cord. It often happens that the child appears to have been born dead, when it is merely weak,

Starting point is 11:19:03 and when before the umbilical cord has been ligatured, the blood has run out into the cord and its surroundings. But experienced midwives have been known to squeeze back the blood into the child's body from the cord, and immediately the child, that a moment before was bloodless, came back to life again. It is the natural rule, as we have mentioned above, for all animals to come into the world hand foremost, and children, moreover, have their hands stretched out by their sides. And the child gives a cry, and puts its hands up to its mouth as soon as it issues forth. Moreover, the child voids excrement sometimes at once, sometimes a little later, but in all cases during the first day, and this excrement is unduly copious in comparison with the size

Starting point is 11:19:55 of the child. It is what the midwives call the maconium or poppy juice. In color it resembles blood, extremely dark and pitch-like, but later on it becomes milky, for the child takes at once to the breast. Before birth, the child makes no sound, even though in difficult labor, it put forth its hand while the rest of the body remains within. In cases where flooding takes place rather before its time, it is apt to be followed by difficult parturition.

Starting point is 11:20:30 But if discharge take place after birth in small quantity, and in cases where it only takes place at the beginning, and does not continue till the fortieth thing, then, In such cases, women make a better recovery, and are the sooner ready to conceive again. Until the child is 40 days old, it neither laughs nor weeps during waking hours, but of nights it sometimes does both, and for the most part, it does not even notice being tickled, but passes most of its time in sleep. As it keeps on growing, it gets more and more wakeful, and moreover, it shows signs of dreaming, though it is long afterwards before it remembers what it dreams.

Starting point is 11:21:15 In other animals there is no contrasting difference between one bone and another, but all are properly formed. But in children, the front part of the head is soft and late of ossifying. And, by the way, some animals are born with teeth, but children begin to cut their teeth in the seventh month. And the front teeth are the first to come through. sometimes the upper and sometimes the lower ones, and the warmer the nurse's milk, so much the quicker are the children's teeth to come.

Starting point is 11:21:49 11. After parturition and the cleansing flood, the milk comes in plenty, and in some women it flows, not only from the nipples, but at diverse parts of the breasts, and in some cases even from the armpits. And for some time afterwards there continue to be certain indurated parts of the breasts of the of the breast called stranglesides or knots, which occur when it so happens that the moisture is not concocted, or when it finds no outlet but accumulates within. For the whole breast is so spongy that if a woman in drinking happen to swallow a hair,

Starting point is 11:22:28 she gets a pain in her breast, which ailment is called trichia, and the pain lasts till the hair either find its own way out or be sucked out with the milk. Women continue to have milk until their next conception, and then the milk stops coming and goes dry, alike in the human species and in the quadrupedal vivipera. So long as there is a flow of milk the menstrual purgations do not take place, at least as a general rule, though the discharge has been known to occur during the period of suckling. For speaking generally, a determination of moisture does not take place at one and the same time, in several directions, as, for instance, the menstrual purgations tend to be scanty in person's

Starting point is 11:23:15 suffering from haemorrhoids. And in some women, the like happens owing to their suffering from varicies, when the fluents issue from the pelvic region before entering into the womb, and patients who, during suppression of the mencies, happen to vomit blood, are no whit the worse. 12. Children are very commonly subject to convulsions. More especially, such of them as are more than ordinarily well-nourished on rich or unusually plentiful milk from a stout nurse. Wine is bad for infants, in that it tends to excite this malady, and red wine is worse than white, especially when taken undiluted, and most things that tend to induce flatulency are also bad, and constipation too is prejudicial. The majority of deaths in infancy occur before the child

Starting point is 11:24:13 is a week old. Hence, it is customary to name the child at that age from a belief that it has now a better chance of survival. This malady is worst at the full of the moon, and by the way, it is a dangerous symptom when the spasms begin in the child's back. End of Chapter 12 and End of Book 7. Chapters 1 and 2 of Book 8 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth-Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain. 1.

Starting point is 11:25:03 We have now discussed the physical characteristics of animals and their methods of generation, Their habits and their modes of living vary according to their character and their food. In the great majority of animals, there are traces of psychical qualities or attitudes, which qualities are more markedly differentiated in the case of human beings. For just, as we pointed out, resemblances in the physical organs, so in a number of animals we observe gentleness or fierceness, mildness or cross-temper, courage or timidity, fear or confidence, high spirit or low cunning,

Starting point is 11:25:45 and with regard to intelligence, something equivalent to sagacity. Some of these qualities in man, as compared with the corresponding qualities in animals, differ only quantitatively. That is to say, a man has more or less of this quality, and an animal has more or less of some other. Other qualities in man are represented by analogous and not identical qualities. For instance, just as in man we find knowledge, wisdom, and sagacity, so in certain animals there exists some other natural potentiality akin to these. The truth of this statement will be the more clearly apprehended if we have regard to the phenomena of childhood.

Starting point is 11:26:31 foreign children may be observed the traces and scenes of what will one day be settled psychological habits, though psychologically a child hardly differs for the time being from an animal, so that one is quite justified in saying that, as regards man and animals, certain psychical qualities are identical with one another, whilst others resemble and others are analogous to each other. Nature proceeds little by little, from things lifeless to animal life, in such a way that it is impossible to determine the exact line of demarcation, nor on which side thereof an intermediate form should lie. Thus, next, after lifeless things, in the upward scale comes the plant,

Starting point is 11:27:18 and of plants one will differ from another, as to its amount of apparent vitality, And, in a word, the whole genus of plants, whilst it is devoid of life as compared with an animal, is endowed with life as compared with other corporeal entities. Indeed, as we just remarked, there is observed in plants a continuous scale of ascent towards the animal. So, in the sea, there are certain objects concerning which one would be at a loss to determine whether they be animal or vegetable. For instance, certain of these objects are fairly rooted, and in several cases perish if attached. Thus the pinna is rooted to a particular spot, and the Solon or Razor shell cannot survive

Starting point is 11:28:05 withdrawal from its burrow. Indeed, broadly speaking, the entire genus of testations have a resemblance to vegetables, if they be contrasted with such animals as are capable of progression. In regard to sensibility, some animals give no indication whatsoever of it, whilst others indicate it but indistinctly. Further, the substance of some of these intermediate creatures is flesh-like, as is the case with the so-called tethia or assidians, and the caliphai or sea anemones. But the sponge is in every respect like a vegetable. And so, throughout the entire animal scale, there is a graduated differentiation in amount of vitality, and in capacity for motion. A similar statement holds good with regard to habits of life. Thus of plants that spring from seed, the one function seems to be the reproduction of their own particular species,

Starting point is 11:29:06 and the sphere of action with certain animals is similarly limited. The faculty of reproduction then is common to all alike. If sensibility be superadded, then their lives will differ from one another in respect to sexual intercourse through the varying amount of pleasure derived therefrom, and also in regard to modes of parturition and ways of rearing their young. Some animals, like plants, simply procreate their own species at definite seasons. Other animals busy themselves also in procuring food. for their young, and, after they are reared, quit them, and have no further dealings with them.

Starting point is 11:29:47 Other animals are more intelligent and endowed with memory, and they live with their offspring for a longer period and on a more social footing. The life of animals, then, may be divided into two acts, procreation and feeding, for on these two acts all their interests and life concentrate. Their food depends chiefly. on the substance of which they are severally constituted, for the source of their growth in all cases will be this substance, and whatsoever is in conformity with nature is pleasant, and all animals pursue pleasure in keeping with their nature. 2. Animals are also differentiated locally, that is to say, some live upon dry land,

Starting point is 11:30:34 while others live in the water, and this differentiation may be interpreted in two different ways. Thus, some animals are termed terrestrial as inhaling air, and others aquatic, as taking in water, and there are others which do not actually take in these elements, but nevertheless are constitutionally adapted to the cooling influence, so far as is needful to them, of one element or the other, and hence are called terrestrial or aquatic, though they neither breathe air nor take in water. Again, other animals are so-called from their finding their food and fixing their habitat on land or in water.

Starting point is 11:31:18 For many animals, although they inhale air and breed on land, yet derive their food from the water, and live in water for the greater part of their lives. And these are the only animals to which, as living in and on two elements, the term amphibious, is applicable. There is no animal ticking in water that is terrestrial or aerial or that drives its food from the land, whereas of the great number of land animals inhaling air, many get their food from the water. Moreover, some are so peculiarly organized that if they be shut off altogether from the water, they cannot possibly live, as, for instance, the so-called sea-turnal, the crocodile,

Starting point is 11:32:06 the hippopotamus, the seal, and some of the smaller creatures, such as the freshwater tortoise and the frog. Now, all these animals choke or drown if they do not from time to time breathe atmospheric air. They breed and rear their young on dry land, or near the land, but they pass their lives in water. But the dolphin is equipped in the most remarkable way of all animals, the dolphin and other similar aquatic animals, including the other cetaceans which resemble it, that is to say the whale, and all the other creatures that are furnished with a blowhole. One can hardly allow that such an animal is terrestrial and terrestrial only, or aquatic

Starting point is 11:32:51 and aquatic only, if by terrestrial we mean an animal that inhales air, and if by aquatic we mean an animal that takes in water. For the fact is, the dolphin performs both these processes. He takes in water and discharges it by his blowhole, and he also inhales air into his lungs. For, by the way, the creature is furnished with this organ, and respires thereby, and accordingly, when caught in the nets, he is quickly suffocated for lack of air. He can also live for a considerable while out of the water, but all this while he keeps up a dull moaning sound, corresponding to the noise made by air-breathing animals in general.

Starting point is 11:33:35 Furthermore, when sleeping, the animal keeps his nose above water, and he does so that he may breathe the air. Now it would be unreasonable to assign one and the same class of animals to both categories, terrestrial and aquatic, seeing that these categories are more or less exclusive of one another. We must accordingly supplement our definition. of the term aquatic or marine. For the fact is, some aquatic animals take in water and discharge it again, for the same reason that leads air-breathing animals to inhale air. In other words, with the object of cooling the blood.

Starting point is 11:34:17 Others take in water as incidental to their mode of feeding, for as they get their food in the water, they cannot but take in water along with their food, and if they take in water, they must be provided with some organ for discharging it. Those blooded animals, then, that use water for a purpose analogous to respiration, are provided with gills, and such as take in water when catching their prey with the blowhole. Similar remarks are applicable to mollusks and crustaceans, for again it is by way of procuring food that these creatures, take in water. Aquatic in different ways, the differences, depending on bodily relation to external

Starting point is 11:35:05 temperature and on habit of life, are such animals, on the one hand, as take in air but live in water, and such, on the other hand, as take in water, and are furnished with gills, but go upon dry land and get their living there. At present, only one animal of the latter kind is known, the so-called cordillus, or water-nout. This creature is furnished not with lungs, but with gills. But for all that, it is a quadruped and fitted for walking on dry land. In the case of all these animals, their nature appears in some kind of way to have got warped, just as some male animals get to resemble the female, and some female animals the male. The fact is that animals, if they be subjected to a modification in minute organs are liable to immense modifications

Starting point is 11:35:59 in their general configuration. This phenomenon may be observed in the case of gilded animals. Only a minute organ of the animal is mutilated, and the creature passes from the male to the female form. We may infer then that if in the primary confirmation of the embryo, an infinitesimally minute but absolutely essential organ, sustain a change of magnitude one way or the other, the animal will, in one case, turn to male, and in the other to female, and also that if the said organ be obliterated altogether, the animal will be of neither one sex nor the other. And so, by the

Starting point is 11:36:41 occurrence of modification in minute organs, it comes to pass that one animal is terrestrial and another aquatic, in both senses of these terms. And again, some animals are amphibious, whilst other animals are not amphibious, owing to the circumstance that in their confirmation, while in the embryonic condition, there got intermixed into them some portion of the matter of which their subsequent food is constituted. For, as was said above, what is in conformity with nature is to every single animal, pleasant and Agreeable. Animals, then, have been categorized into terrestrial and aquatic in three ways, according

Starting point is 11:37:25 to their assumption of air or of water. The temperament of their bodies, or the character of their food, and the mode of life of an animal corresponds to the category in which it is found. That is to see, in some cases the animal depends for its terrestrial or aquatic nature on temperament and diet combined, as well as upon its method of respiration, and sometimes on temperament and habits alone. Of testations, some that are incapable of motion subsist on fresh water, for, as the seawater dissolves into its constituents, the fresh water from its greater thinness percolates through the grosser parts. In fact, they live on fresh water, just as they were

Starting point is 11:38:15 originally engendered from the same. Now that fresh water is contained in the sea, and can be strained off from it, can be proved in a thoroughly practical way. Take a thin vessel of molded wax, attach a cord to it, and let it down quite empty into the sea. In 24 hours, will be found to contain a quantity of water, and the water will be fresh and drinkable. Sea, anemones, feed on such small fishes as come in their way. The mouth of this creature is in the middle of its body, and this fact may be clearly observed in the case of the larger varieties. Like the oyster, it has a duct for the outlet of the residuum, and this duct is at the top

Starting point is 11:39:06 of the animal. In other words, the sea anemone corresponds to the inner-fleshy part of the oyster, and the stone to which the one creature clings corresponds to the shell which encases the other. The limpet detaches itself from the rock and goes about in quest of food. Of shellfish that are mobile, some are carnivorous and live on little fishes, as, for instance, the purple muranks. And there can be no doubt that the purple murax is carnivorous, As it is caught by a bait of fish.

Starting point is 11:39:40 Others are carnivorous, but feed also on marine vegetation. The sea turtles feed on shellfish, for, by the way, their mouths are extraordinarily hard. Whatever object it sees us, stone, or other, it crunches into bits. But when it leaves the water for dry land, it browses on grass. These creatures suffer greatly and oftentimes die, when they lie on the surface of the water exposed to a scorching sun. For, when once they have risen to the surface, they find a difficulty in sinking again. Crustations feed in like manner.

Starting point is 11:40:21 They are omnivorous, that is to say, they live on stones, slime, seaweed, and excrement, as, for instance, the rock crab, and are also carnivorous. The crawfish or spiny lobster can get to the best, better of fishes, even of the larger species, though in some of them it occasionally finds more than its match. Thus this animal is so overmastered and cowed by the octopus that it dies of terror if it become aware of an octopus in the same net with itself. The crawfish can master the conger eel, for owing to the rough spines of the crawfish,

Starting point is 11:41:03 the eel cannot slip away and elude its hold. The conger eel, however, devours the octopus, for owing to the slipperiness of its antagonist, the octopus can make nothing of it. The crawfish feeds on little fish, capturing them beside its hole or dwelling place, for, by the way, it is found out at sea on rough and stony bottoms, and in such places it makes its den. Whatever it catches, it puts into its mouth with its pincere-like claws. like the common crab.

Starting point is 11:41:39 Its nature is to walk straight forward when it has nothing to fear, with its feelers hanging sideways. If it be frightened, it makes its escape backwards, darting off to a great distance. These animals fight one another with their claws, just as rams fight with their horns,

Starting point is 11:41:59 raising them and striking their opponents. They are often also seen crowded together in herds. so much for the mode of life of the crustacean. Mollusks are all carnivorous, and of mollusks, the calamary and the sapia are more than a match for fishes even of the large species. The octopus, for the most part, gathers shellfish, extracts the flesh and feeds on that. In fact, fishermen recognize their holes by the number of shells lying about. Some say that the octopus devours its own species, but this statement is incorrect.

Starting point is 11:42:43 It is doubtless founded on the fact that the creature is often found with its tentacles removed, which tentacles have really been eaten off by the conger. Fishes, all without exception, feed on spawn in the spawning season, but in other respects the food varies with the varying species. Some fishes are exclusively carnivorous. as the cartilaginous genus, the conger, the cana or seranus, the tunny, the bass, the synodon, or dentex, the amia, the sea perch, and the morina. The red mullet is carnivorous, but feeds also on seaweed, on shellfish and on mud. The grey mullet feeds on mud, the dascalis on mud and ophon.

Starting point is 11:43:36 the scarus or parrot fish and the malenurus on seaweed, the salp on ophal and seaweed. The soup feeds also on zostera, and is the only fish that is captured with a gourd. All fishes devour their own species, with the single exception of the Kestrius or mullet, and the conquer is especially ravenous in this respect. The cephalus and the mullet in general are the only fish that eat no flesh. This may be inferred from the facts that when caught they are never found with flesh in their intestines, and that the bait used to catch them is not flesh, but barley king. Every fish of the mullet kind lives on seaweed and sand.

Starting point is 11:44:28 The cephalus, called by some the chelon, keeps near into the shore. The parias keeps out at a distance from it, and feeds on a mucus substance exuding from itself, and consequently is always in a starved condition. The cephalus lives in mud, and is in consequence heavy and slimy. It never feeds on any other fish. As it lives in mud, it has, every now and then, to make a leap upwards out of the mud, so as to wash the slime from off its body. There is no creature known to prey upon the spawn of the cephalus,

Starting point is 11:45:12 so that this species is exceedingly numerous. When, however, the fish is full grown, it is preyed upon by a number of fishes, and especially by the acarnus or bass. Of all fishes, the mullet is the most, voracious and insatiable, and in consequence its belly is kept at full stretch. Whenever it is not starving, it may be considered as out of condition. When it is frightened, it hides its head in mud under the notion that it is hiding its whole body.

Starting point is 11:45:47 The synodon is carnivorous and feeds on mollusks. Very often the synodon and the cana cast up their stomachs, while chernodon, and the cana, passed up their stomachs, while chasing smaller fishes. For be it remembered, fishes have their stomachs close to the mouth, and are not furnished with a gullet. Some fishes then, as has been stated, are carnivorous and carnivorous only, as the dolphin, the synodon, the gilt-head, the Salachians, and the mollusks. Other fishes feed habitually on mud or seaweed, or sea-moss, or the so-called stockweed, or growing plants, as, for instance, the phycus, the gobi, and the rockfish,

Starting point is 11:46:34 and, by the way, the only meat that the phicus will touch is that of prawns. Very often, however, as has been stated, they devour one another, and especially do the larger ones devour the smaller. The proof of their being carnivorous is the fact that they can be caught with flesh for a bait. The mackerel, the tunny, and the bass are for the most part carnivorous, but they do occasionally feed on seaweed. The sarg feeds on the leavings of the trigle or red mullet. The red mullet burrows in the mud, and when it sets the mud in motion and quits its haunt,

Starting point is 11:47:15 the sarg settles down into the place and feeds on what is left behind, and prevents any smaller fish from settling in the immediate vicinity. Of all fishes, the so-called scarus, or parrot-rass, is the only one known to chew the cud like a quadrupad. As a general rule, the larger fishes catch the smaller ones in their mouths, whilst swimming straight after them in the ordinary position. But the Slakians, the dolphin, and all the cetacea must first turn over on their backs, as their mouths are placed down below.

Starting point is 11:47:55 This allows a fair chance of escape to the smaller fishes, and indeed, if it were not so, there would be very few of the little fishes left, for the speed and veracity of the dolphin is something marvelous. Of eels, a few here and there, feed on mud and on chance morsels of food thrown to them. The greater part of them subsist on fresh water. eel breeders are particularly careful to have the water kept perfectly clear, by it's perpetually

Starting point is 11:48:27 flowing on to flat slabs of stone, and then flowing off again. Sometimes they coat the eel tanks with plaster. The fact is that the eel will soon choke if the water is not clear, as his gills are peculiarly small. On this account, when fishing for eels, they disturb the water, In the river Strymon, eel-fishing takes place at the rising of the Pleiades, because at this period the water is troubled, and the mud raised up by contrary winds. Unless the water be in this condition, it is as well to leave the eels alone.

Starting point is 11:49:08 When dead the eel, unlike the majority of fishes, neither floats on nor rises to the surface, and this is owing to the smallness of the stomach. A few eels are supplied with fat, but the greater part have no fat whatsoever. When removed from the water, they can live for five or six days. For a longer period, if north winds prevail. For a shorter if south winds. If they are removed in summer from the pools to the tanks, they will die, but not so if removed in the winter.

Starting point is 11:49:43 They are not capable of holding out against any abrupt change. Consequently, they often die in the winter. large numbers when men engaged in transporting them from one place to another dip them into water particularly cold. They will also die of suffocation if they be kept in a scanty supply of water. This same remark will hold good for fishes in general, for they are suffocated if they be long confined in a short supply of water, with the water kept unchanged. Just as animals that respire are suffocated if they be shut up with a scanty supply of air. The eel in some cases lives for seven or eight years. The river eel feeds on his own species, on grass or on roots,

Starting point is 11:50:31 or on any chance food found in the mud. Their usual feeding time is at night, and during the daytime, they retreat into deep water. And so much for the food of fishes. End of Chapter 2. Chapter 3 to 10 of Book 8 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain. 3. Of birds, such as have crooked talons, are carnivorous without exception, and cannot swallow

Starting point is 11:51:18 corn or bread food, even if. it be put into their bills in tit-bits, as, for instance, the eagle of every variety, the kite, the two species of hawks, to it the dove-hawk and the sparrowhawk. And, by the way, these two hawks differ greatly in size from one another, and the buzzard. The buzzard is of the same size as the kite, and is visible at all seasons of the year. There is also the fiend, or lammergire, and the vulture. The fiend is larger than the common eagle, and is ashen in color. Of the vulture there are two varieties, one small and white ash,

Starting point is 11:52:05 the other comparatively large and rather more ashen colored than white. Further, of birds that fly by night, some have crooked talons, such as the night raven, the owl and the eagle owl. The eagle owl resembles the common owl in shape, but it is quite as large as the eagle. Again, there is the Elyus, the Igolean owl, and the little horned owl. Of these birds, the Elleus is somewhat larger than the barn door cock, and the Igolean owl is of about the same size as the Elleus, and both these birds hunt the J.

Starting point is 11:52:47 The little horned owl is smaller than the common owl. All these three burns are alike in appearance, and all three are carnivorous. Again, of birds that have not crooked talons, some are carnivorous, such as the swallow. Others feed on grubs, such as the chaffinch, the sparrow, the baddest, the green linnet, and the titmouse. Of the titmouse there are three varieties. The largest is the finch titmouse, for it is about the size of a finch. The second has a long tail, and from its habitat is called the hill-tit-mouse. The third resembles the other two in appearance, but is less in size than either of them.

Starting point is 11:53:32 Then come the Becalfico, the black cap, the bullfinch, the robin, the epilace, the midget bird, and the golden-crested wren. This wren is little larger than a locust, has a crest of bright red gold, and is in every way a and graceful little bird. Then the anthus, a bird about the size of a finch, and the mountain finch, which resembles a finch and is of much the same size, but its neck is blue, and it is named from its habitat, and lastly, the wren and the rook.

Starting point is 11:54:10 The above enumerated birds, and the like of them, feed either wholly or for the most part on grubs. But the following, and the like feed on thistle. To it, the linnet, the throuppus, and the goldfinch. All these birds feed on thistles, but never on grubs or any living thing whatever. They live and roost also on the plants from which they derive their food. There are other burns whose favorite food consists of insects, found beneath the bark of trees. As, for instance, the great and the small pie, which are nicknamed the woodpeckers.

Starting point is 11:54:49 These two birds resemble one another in plumage and a note, only that the note of the larger bird is the louder of the two. They both frequent the trunks of trees in quest of food. There is also the green pie, a bird about the size of a turtle dove, green-colored all over that pecks at the bark of trees with extraordinary vigor, lives generally on the branch of a tree, has a loud note and is mostly found in the Peloponnese. There is another bird called the grubpecker, or tree creeper, about as small as the penduline titmouse,

Starting point is 11:55:28 with speckled plumage of an ashen color, and with a poor note. It is a variety of the woodpecker. There are other burns that live on fruit and herbage, such as the wild pigeon or ring dove, a common pigeon, the rock dove and the turtle dove. The ring dove and the common pigeon are visible at all. seasons. The turtle dove only in the summer, for in winter it lurks in some hole or other and is never seen. The rock dove is chiefly visible in the autumn and is caught at that season. It is larger than the common pigeon, but smaller than the wild one. It is generally caught

Starting point is 11:56:08 while drinking. These pigeons bring their young ones with them when they visit this country. All our other birds come to us in the early summer and build their next. here, and the greater part of them rear their young on animal food, with the sole exception of the pigeon and its varieties. The whole genus of burns may be pretty well divided into such as procure their food on dry land, such as frequent rivers and lakes, and such as live on or by the sea. Of water burns, such as our web-footed live actually on the water, while such as are split-footed live by the edge of it.

Starting point is 11:56:49 And, by the way, water birds that are not carnivorous live on water plants, but most of them live on fish, like the heron and the spoon-bill that frequent the banks of lakes and rivers. And the spoon-bill, by the way, is less than the common heron and has a long flat bill. There are furthermore the stork and the seymew, and the seamu, by the way, is ashen-colored. There is also the Squoenilus, the Kinklas, and the white rum. Of the smaller birds, the last mentioned is the largest, being about the size of the common thrush. All three may be described as wag-tails. Then there is the scalydrus, with plumage ashen-gray but speckled.

Starting point is 11:57:36 Moreover, the family of the Alcyans or kingfishers live by the water side. Of kingfishers, there are two varieties. one that sits on reeds and sings. The other, the larger of the two, is without a note. Both these varieties are blue on the back. There is also the tronculus or sandpaper. The halcyon also, including a variety termed the carolus, is found near the seaside. The crow also feeds on such animal life as is cast up on the beach, for the bird is omnivorous. There are also the white gull, the kepfuss, the Aithea, and the Cradrhus. Of web-footed birds, the larger species live on the banks of rivers and lakes,

Starting point is 11:58:26 as the swan, the duck, the coot, the grebe, and the teal, a bird resembling the duck but less in size, and the water-raven or cormorant. This bird is the size of a stork, only that its legs are short. It is web-footed and is a good swimmer. Its plumage is black. It roosts on trees, and is the only one of all such birds as these that is found to build its nest in a tree. Further, there is the large goose, the little gregarious goose, the Volpanzer, the horned grebe, and the penelopes. The sea eagle lives in the neighborhood of the sea, and seeks its quarry in lagoons. A great number of birds are omnivorous.

Starting point is 11:59:15 Birds of prey feed on any animal or bird other than a bird of prey that they may catch. These birds never touch one of their own genus, whereas fishes often devour members actually of their own species. Birds, as a rule, are very spare drinkers. In fact, birds of prey never drink at all, excepting a very few, and these drink very rarely. and this last observation is peculiarly applicable to the castral. The kite has been seen to drink, but he certainly drinks very seldom. 4. Animals that are coated with tessalots, such as the lizard and the other quadrupeds,

Starting point is 11:59:59 and the serpents are omnivorous. At all events, they are carnivorous and gramminivorous, and serpents, by the way, are of all animals the greatest glutton. Tessalated animals are spare drinkers, as are also all such animals as have a spongy lung, and such a lung, scantily supplied with blood, is found in all oviparous animals. Serpents, by the by, have an insatiate appetite for wine. Consequently, at times, men hunt for snakes by pouring wine into saucers and putting them into the interstices of walls.

Starting point is 12:00:40 and the creatures are caught when inebriated. Serpents are carnivorous, and whenever they catch an animal, they extract all its juices and eject the creature whole. And, by the way, this is done by all other creatures of similar habits, as, for instance, the spider only that the spider sucks out the juices of its prey outside, and the serpent does so in its belly. The serpent takes any food presented to him. birds and animals, and swallows eggs and tire.

Starting point is 12:01:15 But after taking his prey, he stretches himself until he stands straight out to the very tip, and then he contracts and squeezes himself into little compass, so that the swallowed mass may pass down his outstretched body. And this action, on his part, is due to the tenuity and length of his gullet. and snakes can both go without food for a long time, and this remark may be verified by observation of specimens kept alive in the shops of the apothecaries. 5. Of vivorous quadrupeds, such as are fierce and jag-toast, are without exception carnivorous,

Starting point is 12:01:58 though, by the way, it is stated of the wolf, but of no other animal, that in extremity of hunger it will eat a certain kind of earth. carnivorous animals never eat grass except when they are sick, just as dogs bring on a vomit by eating grass and thereby purge themselves. The solitary wolf is more apt to attack man than the wolf that goes with a pack. The animal called glanus by some and hyena by others is as large as a wolf, with a mean like a horse, only that the hair is stiffer and longer, and extends over the entire length of the chine. It will lie in wait for a man and chase him,

Starting point is 12:02:42 and will inveigle a dog within its reach by making a noise that resembles the retching noise of a man vomiting. It is exceedingly fond of putrefied flesh, and will burrow in a graveyard to gratify this propensity. The bear is omnivorous. It eats fruit and is enabled by the suppleness of its body to climb a tree. It also eats vegetables, and it will break up a hive to get at the honey. It eats crabs and ants also, and is in a general way carnivorous.

Starting point is 12:03:15 It is so powerful that it will attack not only the deer, but the wild boar, if it can take it unawares, and also the bull. After coming to close quarters with the bull, it falls on its back in front of the animal, and, when the bull proceeds to butt, the bear seizes hold of the bull's horns, with its front paws, fastens its teeth into his shoulder, and drags him down to the ground. For a short time together, it can walk erect on its hind legs. All the flesh it eats, it first allows to become carrion. The lion, like all other savage and jag-toothed animals, is carnivorous.

Starting point is 12:03:57 It devours its food greedily, and fiercely, and often swallows its prey and tire, without rending it at all. It will then go fasting for two or three days together, being rendered capable of this abstinence by its previous surfeit. It is a spare drinker. It discharges the solid residuum in small quantities about every other day or at irregular intervals, and the substance of it is hard and dry,

Starting point is 12:04:26 like the excrement of a dog. The wind discharged from off its stomach is pungent, and its urine emits a strong odor, a phenomenon which, in the case of dogs, accounts for their habit of sniffing at trees. For, by the way, the lion, like the dog, lifts its leg to void its urine. It infects the food it eats with a strong smell by breathing on it,

Starting point is 12:04:52 and when the animal is cut open, an overpowering vapor exhales from its inside. Some wild quadrupeds feed in lakes and rivers, The seal is the only one that gets its living on the sea. To the former class of animals belong the so-called castor, the satirium, the otter, and the so-called latex or beaver. The beaver is flatter than the otter and has strong teeth. It often at night-time emerges from the water and goes nibbling at the bark of the aspens

Starting point is 12:05:26 that fringe the riversides. The otter will bite a man, and it is sand that whenever it bites, it is, It will never let go until it hears a bone crack. The hair of the beaver is rough, intermediate in appearance between the hair of the seal and the hair of the deer. 6. Jag-toothed animals drink by lapping, as do also some animals with teeth differently formed as the mouse.

Starting point is 12:05:54 Animals whose upper and lower teeth meet evenly drink by suction, as the horse and the ox. The bear neither laps nor sucks, but gulps down his drink. Birds, as a rule, drink by suction, but the long-necked birds stop and elevate their hands at intervals. The purple coot is the only one of the long-necked birds that swallows water by gulps. Horned animals, domesticated or wild, and all such as are not jag-toothed, are all frugivorous and craminivorous.

Starting point is 12:06:31 save under great stress of hunger. The pig is an exception. It cares little for grass or fruit, but of all animals it is the fondest of roots, owing to the fact that its snout is peculiarly adapted for digging them out of the ground. It is also, of all animals, the most easily pleased in the matter of food.

Starting point is 12:06:54 It takes on fat more rapidly in proportion to its size than any other animal. In fact, a pig can be able to be able to be able. be fattened for the market in 60 days. Pig dealers can tell the amount of flesh taken on by having first weighed the animal while it was being starved. Before the fattening process begins, the creature must be starved for three days. And, by the way, animals in general will take on fat if subjected previously to a course of starvation. After the three days of starvation, pig breeders feed the animal lavishly. Breeders in Thrace when fattening pigs give them a drink on the first day. Then they miss one,

Starting point is 12:07:38 and then two days, then three and four, until the interval extends over seven days. The pig's meat used for fattening is composed of barley, millet, figs, acorns, wild pears, and cucumbers. These animals, and other animals that have warm bellies, are fattened by repose. Pigs also fatten the better by being allowed to wallow in mud. They like to feed in batches of the same age. A pig will give battle even to a wolf. If a pig be weighed when living, you may calculate that after death its flesh will weigh five-sixths of that weight, and the hair, the blood, and the rest will weigh the other

Starting point is 12:08:25 sixth. When suckling their young, swine, like all other animals, get attenuated. So much for these animals. 7. Cattle feed on corn and grass, and fatten on vegetables that tend to cause flatulency, such as a bitter-vech or bruised beans or beanstalks. The older ones also will fatten if they be fed up after an incision has been made into their hide and air blown therein too.

Starting point is 12:08:58 Cattle will fatten also on barley in its natural state, or on barley finely winnowed, or on sweet food such as fings, or pulp from the wine press, or on elm leaves. But nothing is so fattening as the heat of the sun and wallowing in warm waters. If the horns of young cattle be smeared with hot wax, you may mould them to any shape you please, and cattle are less subject to disease of the hoof if you smear the horny parts with wax, pitch or olive oil. Herded cattle suffer more when they are forced to change their pasture ground by frost than when snow is the cause of change.

Starting point is 12:09:43 Cattle grow all the more in size when they are kept from sexual commerce over a number of years. And it is, with a view to growth in size, that in epirus, the so-called Pyrrhic kind are not allowed intercourse with the bull until they are nine years old, from which circumstance they are nicknamed the unbold kind. Of these Pyrrhic cattle, by the way, they say that there are only about 400 in the world, that they are the private property of the Epirate royal family, that they cannot thrive out of Epirus, and, that people elsewhere have tried to rear them but without success. 8. Horses, mules, and asses feed on corn and grass, but are fattened chiefly by drink.

Starting point is 12:10:31 Just in proportion as beasts of burden drink water, so will they more or less enjoy their food, and a place will give good or bad feeding according as the water is good or bad. Green corn, while ripening, will give a smooth coat, but so, so. such corn is injurious if the spikes are too stiff and sharp. The first crop of clover is unwholesome, and so is clover over which ill-scented water runs, for the clover is sure to get the taint of the water. Cattle, like clear water for drinking, but the horse in this respect resembles the camel, for the camel likes turbid and thick water,

Starting point is 12:11:11 and will never drink from a stream until he has trampled it into a turbid condition. And, by the way, the camel can go without water for as much as four days, but after that, when he drinks, he drinks in immense quantities. 9. The elephant, at the most, can eat nine Macedonian medimni of fodder, at one meal, but so large an amount is unwholesome. As a general rule, it can take six or seven medimni of fodder, five medimni of wheat, and five maries of wine, six cattoli going to the maries. An elephant has been known to drink

Starting point is 12:11:52 right off 14 Macedonian metrity of water, and another eight metri tea later in the day. Camels live for about 30 years. In some exceptional cases they live much longer, and instances have been known of their living to the age of 100. The elephant is said by some to live for about 200 years, by others for 300. 10. Sheep and goats are graminivorous, but sheep browse assiduously and steadily, whereas goats shift their ground rapidly, and browse only on the tips of the herbage. Sheep are much improved in condition by drinking, and accordingly they give the flocks salt

Starting point is 12:12:36 every five days in summer, to the extent of one medimus to the hundred sheep, and the This is found to render a flock healthier and fatter. In fact, they mix salt with the greater part of their food. A large amount of salt is mixed into their bran, for the reason that they drink more when thirsty, and in autumn they get cucumbers with a sprinkling of salt on them. This add mixture of salt in their food tends also to increase the quantity of milk in the use. If sheep be kept on the move at midday,

Starting point is 12:13:11 they will drink more copiously towards evening, and if the ewes be fanned with salted food, as the lambing season draws near, they will get larger udders. Sheep are fattened by twigs of the olive or of the oleaster, by vetch, and bran of every kind, and these articles of food fatten all the more if they be first sprinkled with brine. Sheep will take on flesh all the better, if they be first put for three days, through a process of starving. In autumn, water from the north is more wholesome for sheep than water from the south. Pasture grounds are all the better if they have a westerly aspect. Sheep will lose flesh if they be kept overmuch on the move or be subjected to any hardship.

Starting point is 12:14:02 In wintertime, shepherds can easily distinguish the vigorous sheep from the weekly, from the fact that the vigorous sheep are covered with hoar frost, while the weakly ones are quite free of it. The fact being that the weakly ones, feeling oppressed with the burden, shake themselves, and so get rid of it. The flesh of all quadrupeds deteriorates in marshy pastures, and is the better on high grounds. Sheep that have flat tails can stand the winter better than long-tailed sheep,

Starting point is 12:14:34 and short-fleeced sheep than the shaggy fleeced, and sheep with crisp wool stand the rigor of winter very poorly. Sheep are healthier than goats, but goats are stronger than sheep. The fleeces and the wool of sheep that have been killed by wolves, as also the clothes made from them, are exceptionally infested with lice. And of chapter 10, chapters 11 to 13 of book 8, of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain. 11.

Starting point is 12:15:25 Of insects, such as have teeth are omnivorous, such as have a tongue, feed on liquids only, extracting with that organ juices from all quarters. And, of these latter, some may be called omnivorous inasmuch as they feed on every kind of juice, as, for instance, the common fly. Others are bloodsuckers, such as the gadfly and the horsefly. Others again live on the juices of fruits and plants. The bee is the only insect that invariably eschews,

Starting point is 12:16:02 whatever is rotten. It will touch no article of food unless it have a sweet-tasting juice, and it is particularly fond of drinking water if it be found bubbling up clear from a spring underground. So much for the food of animals of the leading genera. 12. The habits of animals are all connected with either breeding and the rearing of young, or with the procuring a due supply of food. And these habits are modified, so as to suit cold and heat, and the variations of the seasons.

Starting point is 12:16:40 For all animals have an instinctive perception of the changes of temperature, and just as men seek shelter in houses in winter, whereas men of great possessions spend their summer in cool places, and their winter in sunny ones, so also all animals that can do so shift their habitat at various seasons. Some creatures can make provision against change without stirring from their ordinary haunts. Others migrate, quitting Pontus and the cold countries after the autumnal equinox, to avoid the approaching winter, and after the spring equinox, migrating from warm lands to cool lands to avoid the coming heat.

Starting point is 12:17:26 In some cases they migrate from places near at hand. In others, they may be said to cut. come from the ends of the world, as in the case of the crane. For these birds migrate from the steps of Scythia to the marshlands south of Egypt, where the Nile has its source. And it is here, by the way, that they are said to fight with the pygmies, and the story is not fabulous, but there is in reality a race of dwarfish men, and the horses are little in proportion, and the men live in caves underground. Pelicans also migrate and fly from the Streiman to the Istre and breed on the banks of this river.

Starting point is 12:18:11 They depart in flocks, and the birds in front wait for those in the rear, owing to the fact that when the flock is passing over the intervening mountain range, the birds in the rear lose sight of their companions in the van. Fish also, in a similar manner, shift their habitat now out of the yuxen, and now into it. In winter, they move from the outer sea in towards land in quest of heat. In summer, they shift from shallow waters to the deep sea to escape the heat. Weekly burns in winter and in frosty weather come down to the plains for warmth,

Starting point is 12:18:51 and in summer migrate to the hills for coolness. The more weakly an animal is, the greater hurry will it be in to migrate on account of extremes of temperature, either hot or cold. Thus the mackerel migrates in advance of the tunnies, and the quail in advance of the cranes. The former migrates in the month of boidromian, and the latter in the month of mimactarian. All creatures are fatter in migrating from cold to heat, than in migrating from heat to cold. Thus the quail is fatter when he emigrates in autumn, then when he arrives in spring. The migration from cold countries is contemporaneous with the close of the hot season.

Starting point is 12:19:38 Animals are in better trim for breeding purposes in springtime, when they change from hot to cool lands. Of birds, the crane, as has been said, migrates from one end of the world to the other. They fly against the wind. The story about the stone is untrue, to wit that the bird so the story, story goes, carries in its inside a stone by way of ballast, and that the stone when vomited up is a touchstone for gold. The Cushet and the rock dove migrate, and never winter in our country, as is the case also with

Starting point is 12:20:15 the turtle dove. The common pigeon, however, stays behind. The quail also migrates, only, by the way, a few quails and turtle doves may stay behind here and there in sunny districts. Cushets and turtle doves flock together, both when they arrive and when the season for migration comes round again. When quails come to land, if it be fair weather, or if a north wind is blowing,

Starting point is 12:20:43 they will pare off and manage pretty comfortably. But if a southerly wind prevail, they are greatly distressed, owing to the difficulties in the way of flight. For a southerly wind is wet, and violent. For this reason, bird catchers are never on the alert for these birds during fine weather, but only during the prevalence of southerly winds, when the bird from the violence of the wind is unable to fly. And, by the way, it is owing to the distress occasioned

Starting point is 12:21:15 by the bulkiness of its body that the bird always screams while flying, for the labor is severe. When the quails come from abroad, They have no leaders, but when they migrate hence, the glottis flits along with them, as does also the land rail, and the eared owl and the corncrank. The corncrank calls them in the night, and when the bird-catchers hear the croak of the bird in the nighttime, they know that the quails are on the move. The land-rail is like a marsh bird,

Starting point is 12:21:52 and the glottis has a tongue that can project far out of its meat. The eared owl is like an ordinary owl, only that it has feathers about its ears. By some it is called the Knight Raven. It is a great rogue of a bird, and is a capital mimic. A bird catcher will dance before it, and while the bird is mimicking his gestures, the accomplice comes behind and catches it. The common owl is caught by a similar trick. As a general rule, all birds with crooked talons are short-necked, flat-tongued, and disposed to mimicry.

Starting point is 12:22:33 The Indian bird, the parrot, which is said to have a man's tongue, answers to this description. And, by the way, after drinking wine, the parrot becomes more saucy than ever. Of birds, the following are migratory. The crane, the swan, the pelican, and the lesser goose. 13. A fish as some, as has been observed, migrate from the outer seas in towards shore, and from the shore towards the outer seas to avoid the extremes of cold and heat. Fish, living near to the shore, are better eating than deep sea fish. The fact is, they have more abundant and better feeding.

Starting point is 12:23:17 For wherever the sun's heat can reach, vegetation is more abundant, better in quality, and more delicate, as is seen in any ordinary garden. Further, the black shore weed grows near to shore. The other shore weed is like wild weed. Besides, the parts of the sea near to shore are subjected to a more equable temperature, and consequently the flesh of shallow water fishes is firm and consistent, whereas the flesh of deep water fishes is flaccid and watery. The following fishes are found near into shore.

Starting point is 12:23:57 The synodon, the black bream, the meru, the gilt hand, the mullet, the red mullet, the rass, the weaver, the callionamus, the gobi, and rock fishes of all kinds. The following are deep-sea fishes, the trigon, the cartilaginous fishes, the white conger, the seranus, the erythrinus, and the glaucus. The braze, the sea scorpion, the black conger, the marina, and the piper or sea cuckoo, are found alike in shallow and deep waters. These fishes, however, vary for various localities. For instance, the gobi and all rockfish are fat off the coast of Crete.

Starting point is 12:24:45 Again, the tony is out of season in summer, when it is being preyed on by its own peculiar louse parasite. But, after the rising of Arcturus, when the parasite has left it, it comes into season again. A number of fish also are found in sea estuaries, such as the sump, the gilt hand, the red mullet, and in point of fact the greater part of the gregarious fishes. The Benito also is found in such waters, as, for instance, off the coast of Alopecanes, and most species of fishes are found in Lake Bistonis. The coli-macral, Nazarul, does not enter the yucson, but passes the summer in the propontas,

Starting point is 12:25:31 where it spons, and winters in the Aegean. The tony proper, the pelimus, and the Benito penetrate into the yuxin in summer, and pass the summer there, as to also the greater part of such fish as swim in shoals, with the currents, or congregate in shoals together, and most fish congregate in shoals. and shoal fishes in all cases have leaders. Fish penetrate into the yuxin for two reasons, and firstly for food, for the feeding is more abundant and better in quality,

Starting point is 12:26:07 owing to the amount of fresh river water that discharges into the sea, and moreover, the large fishes of this inland sea are smaller than the large fishes of the outer sea. In point of fact, there is no large fish in the yuxan, accepting the dolphin and the porpoise, and the dolphin is a small variety. But as soon as you get into the outer sea, the big fishes are on the big scale. Furthermore, fish penetrate into the sea for the purpose of breeding, for there are recesses there, favourable for spawning,

Starting point is 12:26:41 and the fresh and exceptionally sweet water has an invigorating effect upon the spawn. After spawning, when the young fishes have attained some size, The parent fish swim out of the Uxen immediately after the rising of the Pleiades. If winter comes in with a southerly wind, they swim out with more or less of deliberation. But if a north wind be blowing, they swim out with greater rapidity from the fact that the breeze is favorable to their own course. And, by the way, the young fish are caught about this time in the neighborhood of Byzantium, very small in size, as might have been expected from the shortness of their sojourn in the yuxen. The shoals in general are visible both as they quit and enter the yuxen.

Starting point is 12:27:35 The trichae, however, only can be caught during their entry, but are never visible during their exit. In point of fact, when a tricchia is caught running outwards in the neighborhood of Byzantium, the fishermen are particularly careful to cleanse their nets, as the circumstance is so singular and exceptional. The way of accounting for this phenomenon is that this fish and this one only swims northwards into the Danube, and then, at the point of its bifurcation, swims down southwards into the Adriatic.

Starting point is 12:28:13 And, as a proof that this theory is correct, the very opposite phenomenon, presents itself in the Adriatic. That is to say, they are not caught in that sea during their entry, but are caught during their exit. Tunny fish swim into the yuxin, keeping the shore on their right and swim out of it with the shore upon their left. It is stated that they do so as being naturally weak-sighted and seeing better with the right eye.

Starting point is 12:28:44 During the daytime, shoalfish continue on their way, but during the night they rest and feed. But if there be moonlight, they continue their journey without resting at all. Some people accustomed to sea life assert that shoelfish at the period of the winter solstice never move at all, but keep perfectly still wherever they may happen to have been overtaken by the solstice, and this lasts until the equinox. the coli-macro is caught more frequently on entering than on quitting the yuxen, and in the propontes the fish is at its best before the spawning season. Shoal fish, as a rule, are caught in greater quantities as they leave the yuxen,

Starting point is 12:29:32 and at that season they are in the best condition. At the time of their entrance, they are caught in very plump condition close to shore, but those are in comparatively poor condition that are caught farther out to sea. Very often when the coli mackerel and the mackerel are met by a south wind in their exit, there are better catches to the southward than in the neighborhood of Byzantium. So much then for the phenomenon of migration of fishes. Now, the same phenomenon is observed in fishes as in terrestrial animals in regard to hibernation. In other words, during winter, fishes take to concealing themselves in, out-of-the-way places,

Starting point is 12:30:19 and quit their places of concealment in the warmer season. But, by the way, animals go into concealment by way of refuge against extreme heat, as well as against extreme cold. Sometimes an entire genus will thus seek concealment. In other cases, some species will do so, and others will not. For instance, the shellfish seek concealment without exception, as is seen in the case of those dwelling in the sea, the purple merix, the syricks, and all such like. But though in the case of the detached species the phenomenon is obvious, for they hide

Starting point is 12:31:01 themselves as is seen in the scallop, or they are provided with an operculum on the free surface as in the case of land snails, in the case of the non-detached, the concealment is not so clearly observed. They do not go into hiding at one and the same season, but the snails go in winter, the purple murex and the syrux for about 30 days at the rising of the dog star, and the scallop at about the same period. But for the most part, they go into concealment when the weather is either extremely cold or extremely hot. And of Chapter 13. Chapter 14 to 20 of Book 8 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 12:31:58 This Libravox recording is in the public domain. 14. Insects almost all go into hiding, with the exception of such of them, as live in human habitations or perish before the completion of the year. They hide in the winter, some of them for several days, others for only the coldest days as the bee. For the bee also goes into hiding, and the proof that it does so is that during a certain period, bees never touch the food set before them, and if a bee creeps out of the hive, it is quite transparent with nothing whatsoever in its stomach.

Starting point is 12:32:38 And the period of its rest and hiding lasts from the setting of the pleiades, until springtime. Animals take their winter sleep or summer sleep by concealing themselves in warm places, or in places where they have been used to lie concealed. 15. Several blooded animals take this sleep, such as the phallidots or tessalates, namely the serpent, the lizard, the gecko, and the river crocodile, all of which go into hiding for, for four months in the depth of winter, and during that time eat nothing. Serpents in general burrow underground for this purpose. The viper conceals itself under a stone.

Starting point is 12:33:26 A great number of fishes also take this sleep, and notably the hippurus and corakinas in wintertime. For whereas fish in general may be caught at all periods of the year, more or less, there is this singularity observed in these fishes, that they are caught within a certain fixed period of the year, and never by any chance out of it. The marina also hides, and the orifice or sea perch, and the conger. Rockfish pair off, male and female, for hiding, just as for breeding, as is observed in the case of the species of rass, called the thrush and the owesel,

Starting point is 12:34:09 and in the perch. The tony also takes asleep in winter, in deep waters, and gets exceedingly fat after the sleep. The fishing season for the tunny begins at the rising of the Pleiades, and lasts at the longest down to the setting of Arcturus. During the rest of the year, they are hid and enjoying immunity. About the time of hibernation, a few tunnies or other hibernating fishes are caught while swimming about. in particularly warm localities and in exceptionally fine weather, or on nights of full moon.

Starting point is 12:34:46 For the fishes are induced by the warmth or the light to emerge for a while from their lair in quest of food. Most fishes are at their best for the table during the summer or winter sleep. The primus tony conceals itself in the mud. This may be inferred from the fact that during a particular period, the fish is never caught, and that when it is caught, after that period, it is covered with mud and has its fins damaged. In the spring, these tunnies get in motion and proceed towards the coast, coupling and breeding, and the females are now caught full of spawn.

Starting point is 12:35:27 At this time, they are considered as in season, but in autumn and in winter as of inferior quality. At this time also, the males are full of milk. When the spawn is small, the fish is hard to catch, but it is easily caught when the spawn gets large, as the fish is then infested by its parasite. Some fish burrow for sleep in the sand, and some in mud, just keeping their mouths outside. Most fishes hide then during the winter only, but crustaceans, the rockfish, the ray, and the cartilaginous species hide only during extremely severe weather.

Starting point is 12:36:08 and this may be inferred from the fact that these fishes are never, by any chance, caught when the weather is extremely cold. Some fishes, however, hide during the summer, as the glaucus or greyback. This fish hides in summer for about 60 days. The hank also, and the gilt-head hide, and we infer that the hank hides over a lengthened period from the fact that it is only caught at long intervals. We are led also to infer that fishes hide in summer from the circumstance that the takes of certain fish are made between the rise and setting of certain constellations of the dog star in particular,

Starting point is 12:36:49 the sea at this period being upturned from the lower depths. This phenomenon may be observed to best advantage in the Bosporus, for the mud is there brought up to the surface, and the fish are brought up along with it. They say also that very often, when the sea bottom is drenched, more fish will be caught by the second hall than by the first one. Furthermore, after very heavy rains, numerous specimens become visible of creatures that at other times are never seen at all, or seen only at intervals. 16. A great number of birds also go into hiding. They do not all migrate, as is generally supposed to warmer countries. Thus certain birds, as the kite and the swallow, when they are not

Starting point is 12:37:39 far off from places of this kind, in which they have their permanent abode, betake themselves thither. Others that are at a distance from such places decline the trouble of migration, and simply hide themselves where they are. Swallows, for instance, have been often found in holes, quite denuded of their feathers, and the kite on its own. first emergence from torpidity, has been seen to fly from out some such hiding place. And with regard to this phenomenon of periodic torpor, there is no distinction observed, whether the talons of a bird be crooked or strait. For instance, the stork, the owl, the turtle dove, and the lark all go into hiding.

Starting point is 12:38:24 The case of the turtle dove is the most notorious of all, for we would defy anyone to assert that he had anywhere seen a turtle dove in winter time. At the beginning of the hiding time, it is exceedingly plump, and during this period it mults, but retains its plumpness. Some cushions hide, others instead of hiding, migrate at the same time as the swallow. The thrush and the starling hide, and of birds with crooked talons, the kite and the owl hide for a few days. 17. Of viviparous quadrupeds, the porcupine and the bear retire into concealment.

Starting point is 12:39:07 The fact that the bear hides is well established, but there are doubts as to its motive for so doing, whether it be by reason of the cold or from some other cause. About this period, the male and the female become so fat as to be hardly capable of motion. The female brings forth her young at this time, and remains in concealment until it is time to bring the cubs out, and she brings them out in spring, about three months after the winter solstice. The bear hides for at least 40 days. During 14 of these days, it is said not to move at all, but during most of the subsequent days it moves, and from time to time wakes up.

Starting point is 12:39:50 A she-bear in pregnancy has either never been caught at all, or has been caught very seldom. There can be no doubt, but that during this period they eat nothing, for in the first place they never emerge from their hiding place, and further, when they are caught, their belly and intestines are found to be quite empty. It is also sad that from no food being taken, the gut almost closes up, and that in consequence the animal on first emerging takes to eating, Aram, with the view of opening up and distending the gut. The dormouse actually hides in a tree, and gets very fat at that period, as does also

Starting point is 12:40:32 the white mouse of Pontus. Of animals that hide or go torpid, some slough off what is called their old age. This name is applied to the uttermost skin and to the casing that envelopes the developing organism. In discussing the case of terrestrial vivipypyrum, we stated that the reason for the bears seeking concealment is an open question. We now proceed to treat of the tessellates. The tessalots, for the most part, go into hiding, and if their skin is soft, they slough

Starting point is 12:41:06 off their old age, but not if the skin is shelling, as is the shell of the tortoise. For, by the way, the tortoise and the freshwater tortoise belong to the tessess. Thus, the old age is sloughed off by the gecko, the lizard, and above all, by serpents, and they slough off the skin in springtime when emerging from their torpor, and again in the autumn. Vipers also slough off their skin, both in spring and in autumn, and it is not the case as some aver that this species of the serpent family is exceptional in not sloughing. When the serpent begins to slough, the skin peels off at first from the eyes, so that anyone ignorant of the phenomenon would suppose the animal were going blind.

Starting point is 12:41:56 After that, it peels off the hand, and so on, until the creature presents to view only a white surface all over. The sloughing goes on for a day and a night, beginning with the head and ending with the tail. During the sloughing of the skin, an inner layer comes to the surface, for the creature emerges just as the embryo from its afterbirth. All insects that slough at all sluff in the same way as the sylphae and the empess or midge, and all the colioptera, as for instance the cathars beetle. They all slough after the period of development, for just as the afterbirth breaks from off,

Starting point is 12:42:41 the young of the vivipra, so the outer husk breaks off from a around the young of the vermipera in the same way, both with the bee and the grasshopper. The cicada, the moment after issuing from the husk, goes and sits upon an olive tree or a reed. After the breaking up of the husk, the creature issues out, leaving a little moisture behind, and after a short interval, flies up into the air and sets a chirping. Of marine animals, the crawfish and the lobster slough sometimes in the spring and sometimes in autumn, after parturition. Lobsters have been caught occasionally with the parts about the thorax soft, from the shell having there peeled off, and the lower parts heard, from the shell having

Starting point is 12:43:32 not yet peeled off there, for, by the way, they do not slough in the same manner as the serpent. The crowfish hides for about five months. Crabbs also slough off their old age. This is generally allowed with regard to the soft-shelled crabs, and it is said to be the case with the testaceous kind, as, for instance, with the large granny crab. When these animals slough their shell becomes soft all over, and as for the crab, it can scarcely crawl.

Starting point is 12:44:05 These animals also do not cast their skins once, and for all, but over and over again. So much for the animals that go into hiding or torpidity, for the times at which, and to the ways in which they go, and so much also for the animals that slough off their old age, and for the times at which they undergo the process. 18. Animals do not all thrive at the same season, nor do they thrive alike during all extremes of weather. Further, animals of diverse species are in a diverse way, healthy or sickly at certain seasons, and in point of fact, some animals have ailments that are unknown to others.

Starting point is 12:44:47 Birds thrive in times of drought, both in their general health and in regard to parturition, and this is especially the case with the cushion. Fishes, however, with a few exceptions, thrive best in rainy weather. On the contrary, rainy seasons are bad for birds, and so by the way is much drinking, and drought is bad for fishes. Birds of prey, as has been already stated, may in a general way be said never to drink at all, though Hesiod appears to have been ignorant of the fact, for in his story about the siege of Ninus, he represents the eagle that presided over the auguries as in the act of drinking. All other birds drink, but drink sparingly, and,

Starting point is 12:45:34 is the case also with all other spongy lunged oviparous animals. Sickness in birds may be diagnosed from their plumage, which is ruffled when they are sickly, instead of lying smooth as when they are well. 19. The majority of fishes, as has been stated, thrive best in rainy seasons. Not only have they food in greater abundance at this time, but in a general way, rain is wholesome for them,

Starting point is 12:46:02 just as it is for vegetation. For, by the way, kitchen vegetables, though artificially watered, derive benefit from rain, and the same remark applies even to reeds that grow in marshes, as they hardly grow at all without a rainfall. That rain is good for fishes may be inferred from the fact that most fishes migrate the Yuxin for the summer. For, owing to the number of the rivers that discharge into the sea, its water is exceptionally fresh, and the rivers, bring down a large supply of food.

Starting point is 12:46:37 Besides, a great number of fishes, such as the Benito and the mullet, swim up the rivers and thrive in the rivers and marshes. The sea guajun also fountains in the rivers, and, as a rule, countries abounding in lagoons furnish unusually excellent fish. While most fishes, then, are benefited by rain, they are chiefly benefited by summer rain, or we may state the case thus, That rain is good for fishes in spring, summer, and autumn, and fine dry weather in winter.

Starting point is 12:47:11 As a general rule, what is good for men is good for fishes also. Fishes do not thrive in cold places, and those fishes suffer most in severe winters that have a stone in their hand, as the chromis, the bass, the skeina, and the breeze. For owing to the stone they get frozen with the cold, and are thrown up on shore. Whilst rain is wholesome for most fishes, it is, on the contrary, unwholesome for the mullet, the cephalus, and the so-called marinas. For rain superinduces blindness in most of these fishes, and all the more rapidly if the rainfall be superabundant. The cephalus is peculiarly subject to this malady in severe winters. Their eyes grow white, and

Starting point is 12:48:03 when caught they are in poor condition, and eventually the disease kills them. It would appear that this disease is due to extreme cold even more than to an excessive rainfall. For instance, in many places, and more especially, in shallows off the coast of Naplia in the Argoled, a number of fishes have been known to be caught out at sea in seasons of severe cold. The gilt hand also suffers in winter. The carnes suffers in summer and loses condition.

Starting point is 12:48:38 The choracine is exceptional among fishes in deriving benefit from drought, and this is due to the fact that heat and drought are apt to come together. Particular places suit particular fishes. Some are naturally fishes of the shore, and some of the deep sea, and some are at home in one or the other of these regions, and others are common to the two, and are at home in both. Some fishes will thrive in one particular spot, and in that spot only. As a general rule, it may be said that places abounding in weeds are wholesome. At all events, fishes caught in such places are exceptionally found, that is, such fishes as inhabit all sorts of localities as well.

Starting point is 12:49:27 The fact is that weed-eating fishes find abundance of their special food in such localities, and carnivorous fish find an unusually large number of smaller fish. It matters also whether the wind be from the north or south. The longer fish thrive better when a north wind prevails, and in summer, at one and the same spot, more long fish will be caught than flat fish with a north wind blowing. The tony and the swordfish are infested with a parasite about the rising of the dog star. That is to say, about this time, both these fishes have a grub beside their fins that is nicknamed

Starting point is 12:50:09 the gadfly. It resembles the scorpion in shape, and is about the size of the spider. So acute is the pain it inflicts that the swordfish will often leap as high out of the water as a dolphin. In fact, it sometimes leaps over the bulwarks of a vessel and falls back on the deck. The tunny delights more than any other fish in the heat of the sun. It will burrow for warmth in the sand in shallow waters near to shore, or will, because it is warm, disport itself on the surface of the sea. The fry of little fishes escape by being overlooked, for it is only the larger ones of the small species that fishes of the fishes of

Starting point is 12:50:51 the large species will pursue. The greater part of the spawn and the fry of fishes is destroyed by the heat of the sun. For whatever of them the sun reaches, it spoils. Fishes are caught in greatest abundance before sunrise and after sunset, or speaking generally just about sunset and sunrise. Fishermen haul up their nets at these times, and speak of the halls then made as the nick of time halls. The fact is that at these times fishes are particularly weak-sighted. At night they are at rest, and as the light grow stronger, they see comparatively well. We know of no pestilential malady attacking fishes, such as those which attack man and horses and oxen among the quadrupedal vivipera, and certain species of other genera, domesticated and wild,

Starting point is 12:51:47 But fishes do seem to suffer from sickness, and fishermen infer this from the fact that at times fishes in poor condition and looking as though they were sick and of altered color are caught in a large hall of well-conditioned fish of their own species. So much for sea fishes. 20. Riverfish and lakefish also are exempt from diseases of a pestilential character. But certain species are subject. to special and peculiar maladies.

Starting point is 12:52:21 For instance, the sheetfish, just before the rising of the dog star, owing to its swimming near the surface of the water, is liable to sun's stroke, and is paralyzed by a loud peal of thunder. The carp is subject to the same eventualities, but in a lesser degree. The sheetfish is destroyed in great quantities in shallow waters by the serpent called the dragon. In the Balerus and Tillen, a worm is engendered about the rising of the dog star that sickens these fish and causes them to rise towards the surface where they are killed by the excessive heat. The chalcis is subject to a very violent malady. Lace are engendered

Starting point is 12:53:04 underneath their gills in great numbers, and cause destruction among them. But no other species of fish is subject to any such malady. If mullin be introduced into water, it will kill fish in its vicinity. It is used extensively for catching fish in rivers and ponds. By the Phoenicians, it is made use of also in the sea. There are two other methods employed for catching fish. It is a known fact that in winter, fishes emerge from the deep parts of rivers, and, by the way, at all seasons, fresh water is tall.

Starting point is 12:53:42 tolerably cold. A trench accordingly is dug leading into a river and waddled at the river end with reeds and stones, an aperture being left in the waddling through which the river water flows into the trench. When the frost comes on, the fish can be taken out of the trench in wheels. Another method is adopted in summer and winter alike. They run across a stream, a dam, composed of brushwood and stones, leaving a small open space, and in this space they insert a wheel. They then coop the fish in towards this place and draw them up in the wheel as they swim through the open space. Shellfish, as a rule, are benefited by rainy weather. The purple meurex is an exception if it be placed on a shore near to where eight river discharges,

Starting point is 12:54:39 It will die within a day after tasting the fresh water. The mere eggs lives for about 50 days after capture. During this period, they feed off one another, as there grows on the shell a kind of seaweed or sea moss. If any food is thrown to them during this period, it is said to be done not to keep them alive, but to make them way more. Two shellfish in general drought is unwholesome. During dry weather, they decrease in size and degenerate in quality, and it is during such weather

Starting point is 12:55:15 that the red scallop is found in more than usual abundance. In the Pyrene Strait, the clam was exterminated partly by the dredging machine used in their capture, and partly by long-continued droughts. Rainy weather is wholesome to the generality of shellfish, owing to the fact that the the sea water, then becomes exceptionally sweet. In the yuxen, owing to the coldness of the climate, shellfish are not found, nor yet in rivers, excepting a few bivalves here and there. Univalves, by the way, are very apt to freeze to death in extremely cold weather. So much for animals that live in water.

Starting point is 12:56:00 And of chapter 20. Chapter 21 to 27 of Book 8 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. 21. To turn to quadrupanes, the pig suffers from three diseases, one of which is called Brancus, a disease attended with swellings about the windpipe and the jaw. It may break out in any part of the body. Very often it attacks the foot and occasionally the ear.

Starting point is 12:56:46 The neighboring parts also soon rot, and the decay goes on until it reaches the lungs, when the animal succumbs. The disease develops with great rapidity, and the moment it sets in, the animal gives up eating. The swine herds know but one way to cure it, namely by complete excision, when they detect the first signs of the disease. There are two other diseases which are both alike termed, Crowros. The one is attended with pain and heaviness in the hand, and this is the commoner of the two.

Starting point is 12:57:24 The other with diarrhea. The latter is incurable. The former is treated by applying wine fomentations to this note and rinsing the nostrils with wine. Even this disease is very hard to cure. It has been known to kill within three or four days. The animal is chiefly subject to brancas when it gets extremely fat and when the heat has brought a good supply of fings. The treatment is to feed on mashed mulberries, to give repeated warm baths, and to lance

Starting point is 12:58:00 the under part of the tongue. with flabby flesh are subject to measles about the legs, neck and shoulders, for the pimples develop chiefly in these parts. If the pimples are few in number, the flesh is comparatively sweet, but if they be numerous, it gets watery and flaccid. The symptoms of measles are obvious, for the pimples show chiefly on the underside of the tongue, and if you pluck the bristles off the chine, the symptoms of the fles, the The skin will appear suffused with blood, and further, the animal will be unable to keep its

Starting point is 12:58:40 hind feet at rest. Pigs never take this disease while they are mere sucklings. The pimples may be got rid of by feeding on a kind of spelt called typhae, and this spelt, by the way, is very good for ordinary food. The best food for rearing and fattening pigs is chickpeas and figs. But the one thing essential is to vary the food as much as possible. For this animal, like animals in general, delights in a change of diet. And it is sad that one kind of food blows the animal out,

Starting point is 12:59:16 that another superinduces flesh, and that another puts on fat, and that acorns, though liked by the animal, render the flesh flaccid. Besides, if a sow eats acorns in great quantities, it will miscarry, as is also the case with the U. And indeed, the miscarriage is more certain in the case of the U than in the case of the sale. The pig is the only animal known to be subject to measles. 22.

Starting point is 12:59:50 Dogs suffer from three diseases, rabies, quincy, and sore feet. Rabies drives the animal man, and any animal whatever, accepting man, will take the disease if bitten by a dog so afflicted. The disease is fatal to the dog itself, and to any animal it may bite, man accepted. Quincy also is fatal to dogs, and only a few dogs recover from disease of the feet.

Starting point is 13:00:20 The camel, like the dog, is subject to rabies. The elephant, which is reputed to enjoy immunity from all other illnesses, is occasionally subject to flatulose. 123. Cattle in herds are liable to two diseases, foot-sickness and crow-rus. In the former their feet suffer from eruptions, but the animal recovers from the disease without even the loss of the hoof. It is found of surface to smear the horny parts with warm pitch.

Starting point is 13:00:56 In Crowris, the breath comes warm at short intervals. In fact, Crowrus, in cattle answers to fever in man. The symptoms of the disease are drooping of the ears and disinclination for food. The animal soon succumbs, and when the carcass is opened, the lungs are found to be rotten. 24 Horses out at pasture are free from all diseases excepting disease of the feet. From this disease, they sometimes lose their hooves. But after losing them, they grow them soon again.

Starting point is 13:01:34 For, as one hoof is decaying, it is being replaced by another. Symptoms of the malady are a sinking in the wrinkling of the lip in the middle under the nostrils, and in the case of the male, a twitching of the right testicle. Stall-reared horses are subject to very numerous forms of disease. They are liable to a disease called Ilius. Under this disease, the animal trails its hind legs under its belly so far forward as almost to fall back on its haunches. If it goes without food for several days and turns rabid, it may be of service to drop blood,

Starting point is 13:02:15 or to castrate the male. The animal is subject also to tetanus. The veins get rigid, as also the head and neck, and the animal walks with its legs stretched out strain. The horse suffers also from abscesses. Another painful illness afflicts them, called the barley surfeit. The symptoms are a softening of the palate and heat of the breath. The animal may recover through the strength of its own constitution, but no formal remedies

Starting point is 13:02:50 are of any avail. There is also a disease called nymphia, in which the animal is said to stand still and droop its head on hearing flute music. If during this salement the horse be mounted, it will run off at a gallop until it is pulled. Even with this rabies in full force, it preserves a dejected, spiritless appearance. Some of the symptoms are a throwing back of the ears,

Starting point is 13:03:18 followed by a projection of them, great languor and heavy breathing. Heartache also is incurable, of which the symptom is a drawing in of the flanks. And so is displacement of the bladder, which is accompanied by a retention of urine and a drawing up of the hooves and haunches. Neither is there any cure if the animal swallow the grape beetle, which is about the size of the svondyle or knuckle beetle. The bite of the shrewmouse is dangerous to horses and other draft animals as well. It is followed by boils.

Starting point is 13:03:57 The bite is all the more dangerous if the mouse be pregnant when she bites, for the boils then burst, but do not burst otherwise. The Kikigna, called calchus by some and Zignis by others, either causes death by its bite, or at all events intense pain. It is like a small lizard, with the color of the blind snake. In point of fact, according to experts, the horse and the sheep have pretty well as many ailments as the human species. The drug known under the name of Sandaroque, or Rialgar, is extremely injurious to a horse

Starting point is 13:04:37 and to all draft animals. It is given to the animal as a medicine in a solution of water, the liquid being filtered through a colander. The mare, when pregnant, is apt to miscarry, when disturbed by the odor of an extinguished candle, and a similar accident happens occasionally to women in their pregnancy. So much for the diseases of the horse. The so-called hippomanus grows, as has been stated on the foal, and the mayor nibbles it off as she licks and cleans the fall. All the curious stories connected with the hippomanus

Starting point is 13:05:19 are due to old wives and to the vendors of charms. What is called the polym, or fool's membrane, is, as all the account state, delivered by the mother before the fool appears. A horse will recognize the name of any other horse, with which it may have fought at any previous period. The horse delights in meadows and marshes, and likes to drink muddy water. In fact, if water be clear, the horse will trample in it to make it turbid, will then drink it and afterwards will wallow in it. The animal is fond of water in every way, whether for drinking or for bathing purposes,

Starting point is 13:06:04 and this explains the peculiar constitution of the hippopotamus or river horse. In regard to water, the ox is the opposite of the horse, for if the water be impure or cold or mixed up with alien matter, it will refuse to drink it. 25. The ass suffers chiefly from one particular day. disease, which they call melis. It arises first in the head, and a clammy humor runs down the nostrils, thick and red. If it stays in the hand, the animal may recover, but if it descends

Starting point is 13:06:38 into the lungs, the animal will die. Of all animals of its kind, it is the least capable of enduring extreme cold, which circumstance will account for the fact that the animal is not found on the shores of the yuxin, nor in Scythia. 26 Elephants suffer from flatulence, and when thus afflicted, can void neither solid nor liquid residuum. If the elephant swallow earth mold, it suffers from relaxation, but if it go on taking it steadily, it will experience no harm.

Starting point is 13:07:13 From time to time, it takes to swallowing stones. It suffers also from diarrhea. In this case, they administer drafts of lukewarm water, or dip its fodder in honey, and either one or the other prescription will prove a cost of. When they suffer from insomnia, they will be restored to health if their shoulders be rubbed with salt, olive oil, and warm water. When they have aches in their shoulders, they will derive great benefit from the application of roast pork. Some elephants, like olive oil, and others do not. If there is a bit of iron in the inside of an elephant, it is sand.

Starting point is 13:07:53 that it will pass out if the animal takes a drink of olive oil. If the animal refuses olive oil, they soak a root in the oil and give it the root to swallow. So much then for quadrupants. 27. Insects, as a general rule, thrive best in the time of year in which they come into being, especially if the season be moist and warm, as in spring. In beehives are found creatures that do great damage,

Starting point is 13:08:23 to the combs. For instance, the grub that spins a web and ruins the honeycomb. It is called the Claros. It engenders an insect like itself of a spider shape and brings disease into the swarm. There is another insect resembling the moth called by some the paroustus that flies about a lighted candle. This creature engenders a brood full of a fine down. It is never stung by a bee, and can only be got out of a hive by fumigation. A caterpillar also is engendered in hives of a species nicknamed the Torito or Borer, with which creature the bee never interferes. Bees suffer most when flowers are covered with mildew, or in seasons of drought.

Starting point is 13:09:14 All insects, without exception, die if they be smeared over with oil, and they die all the more rapidly if you smear their head with the oil, and lay them out in the sun. And of Chapter 27. Chapters 28 to 30 of Book 8 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Winterworth Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Chapter 28.

Starting point is 13:09:52 Variety in animal life may be produced by variety of locality. Thus in one place, an animal life. animal will not be found at all. In another it will be small or short-lived, or will not thrive. Sometimes this sort of difference is observed in closely adjacent districts. Thus, in the territory of Miletus, in one district, cichitas are found, while there are none in the district close adjoining. And in Cephalania, there is a river on one side of which the caceta is found, and not on the other. In Porta Salernia, Léime, there is a public road, on one side of which the weasel is found, but not on the other.

Starting point is 13:10:35 In Biosha, the mole is found in great abundance in the neighbourhood of Orkomenas, but there are none in Le Badaea, though it is in the immediate vicinity, and if a mole be transported from the one district to the other, it will refuse to burrow in the soil. The hare cannot live in Ithaca if introduced there. In fact, it will be found dead, turned towards the point of the beach where it was landed. The horseman ant is not found in Sicily. The croaking frog has only recently appeared in the neighbourhood of Cyrene. In the whole of Libya there is neither wild boar nor stag nor wild goat.

Starting point is 13:11:20 And in India, according to Tejas, no very good authority, by the way, There are no swine, wild or tame, but animals that are devoid of blood, and such as go into hiding or go-torpid, are all of immense size there. In the Euksen, there are no small mollusks nor testations, except a few here and there, but in the Red Sea, all the testations are exceedingly large. In Syria, the sheep have tails a cubit in breadth. The goats have years a span and a palm long. and some have ears that flap down to the ground, and the cattle have humps on their shoulders,

Starting point is 13:12:02 like the camel. In Lycia, goats are shorn for their fleece, just as sheep are in all other countries. In Libya, the long-horned ram is born with horns, and not the ram only, as Homer words it, but the yew as well. In Pontus, on the confines of Scythia, the ram is without horns. In Egypt, animals as a rule are larger than their congeners in Greece, as the cow and the sheep, but some are less as the dog, the wolf, the hare, the fox, the raven, and the hawk. Others are of pretty much the same size as the crow and the goat. The difference where it exists is attributed to the food, as being abundant in one case and insufficient in another. for instance, for the wolf and the hawk, for provision is scanty, for the carnivorous animals,

Starting point is 13:13:03 small birds being scarce, food is scanty also for the hare and for all frugivorous animals, because neither the nuts nor the fruit last long. In many places the climate will account for peculiarities, thus in Illyria, Thrace and Pyrus, the ass is small, and in Gaul and in Cythia, The ass is not found at all, owing to the coldness of the climate of these countries. In Arabia, the lizard is more than a cubit in length, and the mouse is much larger than our field mouse, with its hind legs a span long, and its front legs, the length of the first finger joined. In Libya, according to all accounts, the length of the serpents is something appalling.

Starting point is 13:13:50 Sailors spin a yarn to the effect that some crews once put ashore and saw the boat, bones of a number of oxen, and that they were sure that the oxen had been devoured by serpents. For just as they were putting out to sea, serpents came chasing their galleys at full speed, and overturned one galley, and set upon the crew. Again, lions are more numerous in Libya, and in that district of Europe that lies between the Ackaloas and the Nessus. The leopard is more abundant in Asia Minor, and is not found in Europe at all. As a general rule, wild animals are at their wildest in Asia, at their boldest in Europe, and most diverse in form in Libya. In fact, there is an old saying, always something fresh in Libya. It would appear that in that country

Starting point is 13:14:46 animals of diverse species meet, on account of the rainless climate, at the watering places, and there pair together, and that such pairs will often breed if they be nearly of the same size and have periods of gestation of the same length. For it is sand that they are tamed down in their behaviour towards each other by extremity of thirst. And, by the way, unlike animals elsewhere, they require to drink more in wintertime than in summer, for they acquire the habit of not drinking in summer, owing to the circumstance that there is usually no water then, and the mice, if they drink, die. Elsewhere also, bastard animals are born to heterogeneous pairs. Thus in Cyrene, the wolf and the bitch will couple and breed, and the Laconian hound is a cross

Starting point is 13:15:38 between the fox and the dog. They say that the Indian dog is a cross between the tiger and the bitch, not the first cross, but a cross in the third generation, for they say that the first cross is a savage creature. They take the bitch to a lonely spot and tie her up. If the tiger be in an amorous mood, he will pair with her. If not, he will eat her up. And this casualty is of frequent occurrence. 29. Locality will differentiate habits also. For instance, rugged highlands will not produce the same results as the soft lowlands. The animals of the highlands look fiercer, and boulder, as is seen in the swine of Mount Athos. For a lowland boar is no match even for a mountain sow.

Starting point is 13:16:30 Again, locality is an important element in regard to the bite of an animal. Thus in Ferris and other places, the bite of the scorpion is not dangerous. Elsewhere, in Caria, for instance, where scorpions are venomous as well as plentiful and of large size, the stink is fatal to man or beast, even to the pig, and especially to a black pig, though the pig, by the way, is in general, most singularly indifferent to the bite of any other creature. If a pig goes into water after being struck by the scorpion of Caria, it will surely die. There is great variety in the effects produced by the bites of serpents.

Starting point is 13:17:15 The asp is found in Libya. The so-called septic drug is made from the body of the animal, and it is a great variety of the animal, and is the only remedy known for the bite of the original. Among the sylphium also a snake is found, for the bite of which a certain stone is said to be a cure, a stone that is brought from the grave of an ancient king, which stone is put into water and drunk off. In certain parts of Italy, the bite of the gecko is fatal,

Starting point is 13:17:43 but the deadliest of all bites of venomous creatures is when one venomous animal has bitten another. as, for instance, a vipers after it has bitten a scorpion. To the great majority of such creatures, man's spittle is fatal. There is a very little snake by some entitled the Holy Snake, which is dreaded by even the largest serpents. It is about an L. Long and hairy-looking. Whenever it bites an animal, the flesh all round the wound will at once mortify.

Starting point is 13:18:15 There is in India a small snake, which is exceptional in this respect, that for its bite no specific whatever is known. 30. Animals also vary as to their condition of health in connection with their pregnancy. Testations such as scallops and all the oyster family and crustaceans such as the lobster family are best when with spawn. Even in the case of the testation, we speak of spawning or pregnancy. But whereas the crustaceans may be seen coupling and laying their spawn,

Starting point is 13:18:47 This is never the case with testations. Mollusks are best in the breeding time, as the calamary, the sepia, and the octopus. Fishes, when they begin to breed, are nearly all good for the table. But after the female has gone long with spawn, they are good in some cases, and in others are out of season. The minus, for instance, is good at the breeding time. The female of this fish is round. male longer and flatter. When the female is beginning to breed, the male turns black and modeled, it is quite unfit for the table. At this period he is nicknamed the goat.

Starting point is 13:19:30 The rassas called the owls and the thrush, and the smarys, have different colors at different seasons, as is the case with the plumage of certain birds. That is to say, they become black in the spring, and after the spring get white again. The phicus also changes its hue. In general it is white, but in spring it is modeled. It is the only sea fish which is said to make a bed for itself, and the female lays her spawn in this bed or nest. The minus, as was observed, changes its color, as does the smaris,

Starting point is 13:20:06 and in summertime changes back from whitish to black. The change being especially marked about the fins and gills, The corkine, like the minus, is in best condition at breeding time. The mullet, the bass, and scaly fishes in general are in bad condition at this period. A few fish are in much the same condition at all times, whether with spawn or not, as the glaucus. Old fishes also are bad eating. The old tunny is unfit even for pickling, as a great part of its flesh wastes away with age, and the same wasting is observed in all old fishes.

Starting point is 13:20:49 The age of a scaly fish may be told by the size and the hardness of its scales. An old tunny has been caught wing 15 talents, with the span of its tail two cubits and a palm broad. Riverfish and lakefish are best after they have discharged the spawn, in the case of the female, and the milt in the case of the male. That is, when they have fully recovered, covered from the exhaustion of such discharge. Some are good in the breeding time as the superdeus, and some bad as the sheetfish. As a general rule, the male fish is better eating than the female, but the reverse holds good of the sheetfish.

Starting point is 13:21:33 The eels that are called females are the best for the table. They look as though they were female, but they really are not so. and of chapter 30 and of book 8 chapters one and two of book nine of history of animals by aristotle translated by darcy wentworth thompson this libravox recording is in the public domain one of the animals that are comparatively obscure and short-lived the characters or dispositions are not so obvious obvious to recognition as are those of animals that are longer lived. These latter animals appear to have a natural capacity corresponding to each of the passions, to cunning or simplicity, courage or timidity, to good temper or to bad, and to other similar dispositions of mind. Some also are capable of giving or receiving instruction, of receiving it from one another

Starting point is 13:22:43 or from man. Those that have the faculty of hearing, for instance, and not to limit the matter to audible sound, such as can differentiate the suggested meanings of word and gesture. In all genera in which the distinction of male and female is found, nature makes a similar differentiation in the mental characteristics of the two sexes. This differentiation is the most obvious in the case of humankind, and in that of the larger animals and the viviparous quadrupanes. In the case of these latter, the female is softer in character, is the sooner tamed,

Starting point is 13:23:25 admits, more readily of caressing, is more apt in the way of learning, as, for instance, in the Laconian breed of dogs, the female is cleverer than the male. Of the Melossian breed of dogs, such as are employed in the chase, are pretty much the same, as those elsewhere, but the sheep-dogs of this breed are superior to the others in size, and in the courage with which they face the attacks of wild animals. Dogs that are born of a mixed breed between these two kinds are remarkable for courage and endurance of hard labor. In all cases, excepting those of the bear and leopard, the female is less spirited than the male.

Starting point is 13:24:09 In regard to the two exceptional cases, the superior, superiority in courage rests with the female. With all other animals, the female is softer in disposition than the male, is more mischievous, less simple, more impulsive and more attentive to the nurture of the young. The male, on the other hand, is more spirited than the female, more savage, more simple and less cunning. The traces of these differentiated characteristics are more or less visible everywhere, but they are especially visible where character is the more developed, and most of all, in man. The fact is, the nature of man is the most rounded off and complete, and consequently in man

Starting point is 13:24:55 the qualities or capacities above referred to are found in their perfection. Hence, woman is more compassionate than man, more easily moved to tears, at the same time is more jealous, more querulous, more apt to scold and to strike. She is furthermore, more prone to despondency, and less hopeful than the man, more void of shame or self-respect, more false of speech, more deceptive, and of more retentive memory. She is also more wakeful, more shrinking, more difficult to rouse to action, it requires a smaller quantity of nutriment. As was previously stated, the male is more courageous than the female, and more sympathetic in the way of standing by to help.

Starting point is 13:25:44 Even in the case of mollusks, when the cuddlfish is struck with the trident, the male stands by to help the female, but when the male is struck, the female runs away. There is enmity between such animals as dwell in the same localities, or subsist on the same food. If the means of subsistence run short, creatures of like kind will fight together. Thus it is said that seals which inhabit one and the same district will fight, male with male, and female with female, until one combatant kills the other, or one is driven away by the other, and their young do even in like manner. All creatures are at enmity with the carnivores, and the carnivores with all the rest, for they all

Starting point is 13:26:33 subsist on living creatures. Soothairs take notice of cases where animals keep apart from one another, and cases where they congregate together, calling those that live at war with one another dissociates, and those that dwell in peace with one another associates. One may go so far as to say that if there were no lack or stint of food, then those animals that are now afraid of man or are wild by nature would be tame and familiar with him, and in like manner with one another. This is shown by the way animals are treated in Egypt.

Starting point is 13:27:13 For, owing to the fact that food is constantly supplied to them, the very fiercest creatures live peaceably together. The fact is, they are tamed by kindness, and in some places crocodiles are tamed to their priestly keeper from being fed by him. And elsewhere also, the same phenomenon is to be observed. The eagle and the snake are enemies, for the eagle lives on snakes. So are the Icknumann and the venom spider, for the Echnumen preys upon the latter. In the case of birds, there is mutual enmity between the Poachilles, the crested lark, the woodpecker, and the Cleus. for they devour one another's eggs.

Starting point is 13:28:01 So also between the crow and the owl. For, owing to the fact that the owl is dim-sighted by day, the crow at midday preys upon the owl's eggs, and the owl at night upon the crows, each having the whip hand of the other, turn and turn about, night and day. There is enmity also between the owl and the wren, for the latter also devours the owl's eggs,

Starting point is 13:28:28 In the daytime, all other little birds flood around the owl, a practice which is popularly termed admiring him, buff at him and pluck out his feathers. In consequence of this habit, bird-catchers use the owl as a decoy for catching little birds of all kinds. The so-called presbass, or old man, is at war with the weasel and the crow, for they prey on her eggs and her brood. And so the turtle-dove with the Perales, for they live in the same districts and on the same food. And so with the green woodpecker, and the Libyos, and so with the kite and the raven. For owing to his having the advantage from stronger talons and more rapid flight,

Starting point is 13:29:18 the former can steal whatever the latter is holding, so that it is food also that makes enemies of these. In like manner there is war between birds that get their living from the sea, as between the brinthus, the gull, and the harpy, and so between the buzzard on one side and the toad and snake on the other, for the buzzard preys upon the eggs of the two others, and so between the turtle-dove and the chlorreus, the chlorreus kills the dove, and the crow kills the so-called drummer-bird. The Igolius, and birds of prey in general, prey upon the caleris, and consequently there is war between it and them, and so is there war between the gecko lizard and the spider, for the former preys upon the ladder, and so between the woodpecker and the heron, for

Starting point is 13:30:16 the former preys upon the eggs and brood of the latter, and so between the igithas and the ass, owing to the fact that the ass in passing a firs-bush rubs its sore and itching parts against the prickles. By so doing, and all the more, if it braes, it topples the eggs and the brood out of the nest. The young ones tumble out in fright, and the mother-bird to avenge this wrong flies at the beast and pecks at his sore places. The wolf is at war with the ass, the bull, and the fox, for as being a carnivore he attacks these other animals. And so, for the same reason, with the fox and the circus, for the circus, being carnivorous and furnished with crooked talons, attacks and memes the animal. And so the raven is at war with the ball and the ass,

Starting point is 13:31:12 for it flies at them and strikes them and pecks at their eyes. And so, with the eagle and the heron, for the former having crooked talons attacks the latter, and the latter usually succumbs to the attack. And so the Merlin with the vulture, and the crex with the aleosal, the blackbird and the oriole. Of this latter bird, by the way, the story goes that he was originally born out of a funeral pyre. The cause of warfare is that the crex injures both them and their young. The nut hatch and the Wren are at war with the eagle. The nut hatch breaks the eagle's eggs, so the eagle is at war with it on special grounds, though as a bird of prey it carries on a general war all round.

Starting point is 13:32:05 The horse and the anthus are enemies, and the horse will drive the bird out of the field, where he is grazing. The bird feeds on grass, and sees too dimly to foresee an attack. It mimics the whinning of the horse, flies at him, and tries to frighten him away. But the horse drives the bird away, and whenever he catches it, he kills it. This bird lives beside rivers or on marsh ground. It has pretty plumage, and finds its food without trouble. The ass is at enmity with the lizard, for the lizard sleeps in his manger, gets into his nostril, and prevents his eating.

Starting point is 13:32:46 Of herons, there are three kinds, the ash-colored, the white, and the starry heron, or bitteren. Of these, the first mention, submits with reluctance to the duties of incubation, or to union of the sexes. In fact, it screams during the union, and it is said drips blood from its eyes. It lays its eggs also in an awkward manner, not unattended with pain. It is at war with certain creatures that do it injury. with the eagle for robbing it, with the fox for worrying it at night, and with the lark for stealing its eggs. The snake is at war with the weasel and the pig, with the weasel when they are both at home, for they live on the same food, with the pig for praying on her kind, the merlin is at war with the fox.

Starting point is 13:33:38 It strikes and claws it, and as it has crooked talons, it kills the animals young. The raven and the fox are good friends, for the raven he is at enmity with the Merlin, and so when the Merlin assails the fox, the raven comes and helps the animal. The vulture and the merlin are mutual enemies as being both furnished with crooked talons. The vulture fights with the eagle, and so, by the way, does the swan, and the swan is often victorious. Moreover, of all birds, swans are most prone to the kill. of one another. In regard to wild creatures, some sets are at enmity with other sets at all times and under all circumstances. Others, as in the case of man and man, at special times and under

Starting point is 13:34:30 incidental circumstances. The ass and the acanthus are enemies, for the bird lives on thistles, and the ass browses on thistles when they are young and tender. The anthus, the acanthus, and the aegythus are at enmity with one another. It is said that the blood of the anthus will not intercomingle with the blood of the igithus. The crow and the heron are friends, as also are the sedge bird, and lark, the lydes and the celius or green woodpaker. The woodpaker lives on the banks of rivers and beside break. The Lydaus lives on rocks and hills, and is greatly attached to its nesting place.

Starting point is 13:35:22 The Piffinks, the harpy, and the kite are friends, as are the fox and the snake, for both burrow underground. Some also are the blackbird and the turtled dove. The lion and the thos, or sivet, are enemies, for both are carnivorous and live on the same food. Elephants fight fiercely with one another and stab one another with their tusks. Of two combatants, the beaten one gets completely cowed and dreads the sound of his conqueror's voice. These animals differ from one another to an extraordinary extent in the way of courage. Indians employ these animals for war purposes, irrespective of sex.

Starting point is 13:36:08 The females, however, are less in size and much inferior in order. point of spirit. An elephant, by pushing with his big tusks, can batter down a wall, and will butt his forehead at a palm until he brings it down, when he stamps on it, and lays it in orderly fashion on the ground. Men hunt the elephant in the following way. They mount, tame elephants of approved spirit, and proceed in quest of wild animals. When they come up with these, they bid the tame brutes to beat the wild ones until they tire the ladder completely. Hereupon the driver mounts a wild brute and guides him with the application of his metal prong. After this, the creature soon becomes tame and obeys guidance.

Starting point is 13:36:58 Now, when the driver is on their back, they are all tractable, but after he has dismounted, some are team and others vicious. In the case of these ladder, they tie their front legs, with ropes to keep them quiet. The animal is hunted, whether young or full grown. Thus we see that in the case of the creatures above mentioned, their mutual friendship or enmity is due to the food they feed on and to the life they lead. 2. A fish as, such as swim in shoals together, are friendly to one another, such as do not so swim, are enemies. Some fishes swarm during the spawning season, others after they have spawned. To state the matter comprehensively, we may say

Starting point is 13:37:46 that the following are shoaling fish. The tani, the minas, the sea gujin, the bog, the horse macro, the corachime, the cinadon or dentegs, the red mullet, the Sferina, the antheis, the eleginus, the atherin, the sarginus, the garfish, the squid, the rainbow rass, the pelamid, the mackerel, the collie mackerel. Of these, some not only swim in shoals, but go in pairs inside the shoal. The rest, without exception, swim in pairs, and only swim in shoals at certain periods. That is, as has been said, when they aren't heavy with spawn, or after they have spawn. The bass and the gray mullet are bitter enemies, but they,

Starting point is 13:38:38 swarm together at certain times, for at times not only do fishes of the same species swarm together, but also those whose feeding grounds are identical or adjacent if the food supply be abundant. The gray mullet is often found alive with its tail lopped off, and the conger with all that part of its body removed that lies to the rear of the vent. In the case of the mullet, the injury is wrought by the bass, and that of the conger eel by the marina. There is war between the larger and the lesser fishes, for the big fishes prey on the little ones, so much on the subject of marine animals. And of chapter two.

Starting point is 13:39:31 Chapters 3 to 7 of Book 9 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy when twere's Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. 3. The characters of animals, as has been observed, differ in respect to timidity, to gentleness, to courage, to timeness, to intelligence, and to stupidity. The sheep is said to be naturally, dull and stupid. Of all quadrupeds, it is the most foolish. It will saunter away to lonely places with no object in view. Oftentimes, in stormy weather, it will stray from shelter. If it be overtaken by a snowstorm, it will stand still unless the shepherd sets it in motion. It will stay behind and perish unless the shepherd brings up the rams. It will then follow home.

Starting point is 13:40:34 If you catch hold of a goat's beard at the extremity, the beard is of a substance resembling hair, all the companion goats will stand stock still, staring at this particular goat in a kind of dumb foundermint. You will have a warmer bed in amongst the goats than among the sheep, because the goats will be quieter and will creep up towards you, for the goat is more impatient of cold than the sheep. Shepherds train sheep to close in together at a clap of their hands. For if, when a thunderstorm comes on a yew stays behind without closing in, the storm will kill it if it be with young.

Starting point is 13:41:22 Consequently, if a sudden clap or noise is made, they close in together within the sheepfold by reason of their training. Even bulls, when they are roaming by themselves apart from the herd, are killed by wild animals. Sheep and goats lie crowded together kin by kin. When the sun turns early towards its setting, the goats are said to lie no longer face to face, but back to back. Four. Cattle at pasture keep together in their accustomed herds, and if one animal strays away, the rest will follow. Consequently, if the herdsmen lose one particular animal, they keep close watch on all the rest.

Starting point is 13:42:09 When mares with their colts pasture together in the same field, if one dam dies, the others will take up the rearing of the colt. In point of fact, the mare appears to be singularly prone by nature to maternal fondness. In proof whereof a barren mare will steal the foal from its dam. dam, will tend it with all the solicitude of a mother, but, as it will be unprovided with mother's milk, its solicitude will prove fatal to its charge. 5. Among wild quadrupanes, the hind appears to be preeminently intelligent. For example, in its habit of bringing forth its young on the signs of public roads, where the fear of man forbids the approach of wild animals.

Starting point is 13:43:00 Again, after parturition, it first swallows the afterbirth, then goes in quest of the Cecily shrub, and after eating of it returns to its young. The mother takes its young betimes to her lair, so leading it to note its place of refuge in time of danger. This lair is a precipitous rock with only one approach, and there it is said to hold its own against all comers. The male, when it gets fat, which it does in a high degree in autumn, disappears, abandoning its usual resorts, apparently under an idea that its fatness

Starting point is 13:43:43 facilitates its capture. They shed their horns in places difficult of access or discovery. Whence the proverbial expression of, the place where the stag sheds his horns. The fact being that as having parted with their weapons, they take care not to be seen. The saying is that no man has ever seen the animal's left horn, that the creature keeps it out of sight because it possesses some medicinal property. In their first year stags grow no horns, but only an excrescence indicating where horns will be.

Starting point is 13:44:25 this excrescence being short and thick. In their second year they grow their horns for the first time, straight in shape like pigs for hanging clothes on, and on this account they have an appropriate nickname. In the third year, the antlers are bifurcate. In the fourth year, they grow trifurcant, and so they go on increasing in complexity until the creature is six years old. After this, they grow their horns without any specific differentiation, so that you cannot, by observation, of them, tell the animal's age.

Starting point is 13:45:06 But the patriarchs of the herd may be told chiefly by two signs. In the first place, they have few teeth or none at all, and in the second place they have ceased to grow the pointed tips to their antlers. The forward-pointing tips of the growing horns, that is to say the brow antlers, with which the animal meets attack, are technically termed its defenders. With these, the patriarchs are unprovided, and their antlers merely grow straight upwards. Stags shed their horns annually, in or about the month of May. After shedding, they conceal themselves, it is said during the daytime, and to avoid the flies, hide in thick copses. During this time, until they have grown

Starting point is 13:45:58 their horns, they feed at night time. The horns at first grow in a kind of skin envelope, and get rough by degrees. When they reach their full size, the animal basks in the sun, to mature and dry them. When they need no longer rub them against tree trunks, they quit their hiding places from a sense of security based upon the possession of arms defensive and offensive. An cane stag has been caught with a quantity of green ivy grown over its horns, it having grown apparently as on fresh green wood when the horns were young and tender. When a stag is stung by a venom spider or similar insect, it gathers crabs and eats them. It is said to be a good thing for man to drink the juice, but the taste is disagreeable.

Starting point is 13:46:56 The hinds, after parturition, at once swallow the afterbirth, and it is impossible to secure it, for the hind catches it before it falls to the ground. Now this substance is supposed to have medicinal. properties. When hunted, the creatures are caught by singing or pipe-playing on the part of the hunters. They're so pleased with the music that they lie down on the grass. If there be two hunters, one before their eyes, sings or plays the pipe, the other keeps out of sight and shoots, at a signal given by the Confederate. If the animal has its ears cocked, it can hear well, and you cannot escape its kin.

Starting point is 13:47:41 If its ears are down, you can. 6. When bears are running away from their pursuers, they push their cubs in front of them, or take them up and carry them. When they are being overtaken, they climb up a tree. When emerging from their winter den,

Starting point is 13:48:01 they at once take to eating cuckoo pint, as has been sad, and chew sticks of wood as though they were cutting teeth. Many other quadrupeds help themselves in clever ways. Wild goats in Crete are sand, when wounded by arrows, to go in search of dittany, which is supposed to have the property of ejecting arrows in the body. Dogs, when they are ill, eat some kind of grass and produce vomiting. The panther, after eating panther's bean, tries to find some human excrement,

Starting point is 13:48:36 which is said to heal its pain. This panther's bane kills lions as well. Hunters hang up human excrement in a vessel attached to the boughs of a tree to keep the animal from straying to any distance. The animal meets its end in leaping up to the branch and trying to get at the medicine. They say that the panther has found out that wild animals are fond of the scent it emits, that when it goes hunting, it hides itself. that the other animals come nearer and nearer, and that by this stratagem it can catch even

Starting point is 13:49:15 animals as swift of foot as stags. The Egyptian ignumen, when it sees the serpent called the asp, does not attack it until it has called in other ignumens to help. To meet the blows and bites of their enemy, the assailants be plastered themselves with mud, by first soaking in the river and then rolling on the ground. When the crocodile yawns, the troculus flies into his mouth and cleans his teeth. The troculus gets his food thereby, and the crocodile gets ease and comfort. It makes no attempt to injure its little friend, but when it wants it to go,

Starting point is 13:50:00 it shakes its neck in warning, lest it should accidentally. bite the bird. The tortoise, when it has partaken of a snake, eats marjoram. This action has been actually observed. A man saw a tortoise perform this operation over and over again, and every time it plucked up some marjoram, go back to partake of its prey. He thereupon pulled the marjoram up by the roots, and the consequence was the tortoise died. The weasel, When it fights with a snake first eats wild roo, the smell of which is noxious to the snake. The dragon, when it eats fruit, swallows endive juice. It has been seen in the act.

Starting point is 13:50:50 Dogs, when they suffer from worms, eat the standing corn. Storks and all other birds, when they get a wound fighting, apply marjoram to the place injured. Many have seen the locust when fighting with the snake get a tight hold of the snake by the neck. The weasel has a clever way of getting the better of birds. It tears their throats open as wolves do as sheep. Weasels fight desperately with mice-catching snakes as they both prey on the same animal. In regard to the instinct of hedgehogs, it has been observed in many places that when the wind is shifting, from north to south and from south to north, they shift the outlook of their earth holes,

Starting point is 13:51:37 and those that are kept in domestication shift over from one wall to the other. The story goes that a man in Byzantium got into high repute for foretelling a change of weather, all owing to his having noticed this habit of the hedgehog. The pole cat, or Martin, is about as large as the smaller breed of mull, tease dogs. In the thickness of its fur, in its look, in the white of its belly, and in its love of mischief, it resembles the weasel. It is easily tamed. From its liking for honey, it is a plague to beehives. It preys on birds like the cat. Its genital organ, as has been said, consists of bone. The organ of the male is supposed to be a cure for strangest.

Starting point is 13:52:30 Doctors scrape it into powder and administer it in that form. 7. In a general way, in the lives of animals, many resemblances to human life may be observed. Preeminent intelligence will be seen more in small creatures than in large ones, as is exemplified in the case of birds by the nest-building of the swallow. In the same way, as men do, the bird, The bird mixes mud and chaff together. If it runs short of mud, it souses its body in water and rolls about in the dry dust with wet feathers.

Starting point is 13:53:12 Furthermore, just as man does, it makes a bed of straw, putting hard material below for a foundation and adapting all to suit its own size. Both parents cooperate in the rearing of the young. Each of the parents will detect with practice. I, the young one, that has had a helping, and will take care it is not helped twice over. At first the parents will rid the nest of excrement, but when the young are grown, they will teach their young to shift their position, and let their excrement fall over the side of the nest. Pigeons exhibit other phenomena with a similar likeness to the ways of humankind.

Starting point is 13:53:56 In pairing the same male and the same female keep together. and the union is only broken by the death of one of the two parties. At the time of parturition, in the female, the sympathetic attentions of the male are extraordinary. If the female is afraid on account of the impending parturition to enter the nest, the male will beat her and force her to come in. When the young are born, he will take and masticate pieces of suitable food, will open the beaks of the fledg things,

Starting point is 13:54:28 and inject these pieces, thus preparing them betimes to take food. When the male bird is about to expel the young ones from the nest, he cohabits with them all. As a general rule, these birds show this conjugal fidelity, but occasionally a female will cohabit with other than her mate. These birds are combative, and quarrel with one another and enter each other's nests, though this occurs but seldom, at a distance from their nests, this quarrelsomeness is less marked, but in the close neighborhood of their nests, they will fight desperately. A peculiarity common to the team pigeon, the ring dove and the turtle dove, is

Starting point is 13:55:13 that they do not lean the head back when they are in the act of drinking, but only when they have fully quenched their thirst. The turtle dove and the ring dove both have but. one mate, and let no other come nigh. Both sexes cooperate in the process of incubation. It is difficult to distinguish between the sexes except by an examination of their interiors. Ring-doves are long-lived. Cases have been known where such birds were 25 years old, 30 years old, and in some cases, 40. As they grow old, their claws increase in size, and and pigeon fanciers cut the claws.

Starting point is 13:55:59 As far as one can see, the birds suffer no other perceptible disfigurement by their increase in age. Turtle doves and pigeons that are blinded by fanciers for use as decoys live for eight years. Partridges live for about 15 years. Ring doves and turtle doves always build their nests in the same place year after year. The male as a general rule is more long-lived than the female, but in the case of pigeons, some assert that the male dies before the female, taking their inference from the statements of persons who keep decoy birds in captivity. Some declare that the male sparrow lives only for a year,

Starting point is 13:56:45 pointing to the fact that early in spring the male sparrow has no black beard, but has one later on, as though the male sparrow lives only for a year, pointing to the fact that early in spring the male sparrow has no black beard, but has one later on, as though the black-bearded burns of the last year had all died out. They also say that the females are the longer lived, on the grounds that they are caught in amongst the young birds, and that their age is rendered manifest by the hardness about their beings. Turtle doves in summer live in cold places and in warm places during the winter. Chaffinches affect warm habitations in summer and cold ones in winter. And of Chapter 7

Starting point is 13:57:31 Chapters 8 to 14 of Book 9 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth-Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. 8 Birds of a heavy build, such as quail, partridges and the like, build no nests. Indeed, where they are incapable of flight it would be of no use if they could do so. After scraping a hole on a level piece of ground, and it is only in such a place that they lay their eggs, they cover it over with thorns and sticks for security against hawks and eagles, and there lay their eggs and hatch them. After the hatching is over, they

Starting point is 13:58:26 at once lead the young out from the nest, as they are not able to fly a field for food for them. Quails and partridges, like barn door hens, when they go to rest, gather their brood under their wings. Not to be discovered, as might be the case if they stayed long in one spot, they do not hatch the eggs where they laid them. When a man comes by chance upon a young brood, and tries to catch them. The hen-bird rolls in front of the hunter, pretending to be lame. The man, every moment, thinks he is on the point of catching her, and so she draws him on and on, until every one of her brood has had time to escape. Hereupon she returns to the nest and calls the young back. The partridge lays not less than ten eggs, and often lays as many as sixteen.

Starting point is 13:59:26 As has been observed, the bird has mischievous and deceitful habits. In the springtime, a noisy scrimmage takes place, out of which the male birds emerge each with a hen. Owing to the lecherous nature of the bird, and from a dislike to the hen sitting, the males, if they find any eggs, roll them over and over until they break them in pieces. To provide against this, the female goes to a distant, and lays the eggs, and often, under the stress of parturition, lays them in any chance spot that offers. If the male bird be near at hand, then, to keep the eggs intact, she refrains from

Starting point is 14:00:11 visiting them. If she be seen by a man, then, just as with her fledged brood, she entices him off by showing herself close at his feet, until she has drawn him to a distance. When the females have run away and taken to sitting, the males in a pack take to screaming and fighting. When thus engaged, they have the nickname of widowers. The bird who is beaten follows his victor and submits to be covered by him only, and the beaten bird is covered by a second one or by any other, only clandestinely without the victor's knowledge.

Starting point is 14:00:54 This is so, not at all times, but at a particular season of the year, and with quails, as well as with partridges. A similar proceeding takes place occasionally with Barn Door cocks, for in temples where cocks are set apart as a dedicate without hens, they all, as a matter of course, tread any newcomer. tame partridges tread wild birds, pick at their heads and treat them with every possible outrage. The leader of the wild birds, with a counter note of challenge, pushes forward to attack the decoy burned, and after he has been netted, another advances with a similar

Starting point is 14:01:38 note. This is what is done if the decoy be a male. But if it be a female that is the decoy, and gives the note, and the leader of the wild birds give a counter one, the rest of the males set upon him, and chase him away from the female, for making advances to her instead of to them. In consequence of this, the male often advances without uttering any cry, so that no other may hear him, and come and give him battle. And experienced Fowler's assert that sometimes the male bird, when he approaches the female, makes her keep silence to avoid having to give battle to other males who might have heard him. The partridge has not only the note here referred to, but also a thin, shrill cry, and other notes.

Starting point is 14:02:30 Oftentimes the henbird rises from off her brood when she sees the male showing attentions to the female decoy. She will give the counternote and remain still, so as to be trodden by him and divert him from the decoy. The quail and the partridge are so intent upon sexual union, that they often come right in the way of the decoy burns, and not seldom alight upon their hands. So much for the sexual proclivities of the partridge, for the way in which it is hunted, and the general nasty habits of the burn. As has been said, quails and partridges build their nests upon the ground, and so also do some of the birds that are capable of sustained flight.

Starting point is 14:03:18 Further, for instance, of such birds, the lark and the woodcock, as well as the quail, do not perch on a branch, but squat upon the ground. 9. The woodpecker does not squat on the ground, but pecks at the bark of trees to drive out from under it, maggots, and gnats. When they emerge, it licks them up with its tongue, which is large and flat. It can run up and down a tree in any way, even with the head downwards, like the gecko lizard. For secure hold upon a tree, its claws are better adapted than those of the dawn. It makes its way by sticking these claws into the bark. One species of woodpecker is smaller than a blackbird and has small reddish speckles.

Starting point is 14:04:10 A second species is larger than the blackbird, and a third is not much smaller than a barn-door hen. It builds a nest on trees, as has been said, on olive trees amongst others. It feeds on the maggots and ants that are under the bark. It is so eager in the search for maggots that it is said sometimes to hollow a tree out to its downfall. A woodpecker, once, in course of domestication, was seen to insert an almond into a hole in a piece of timber, so that it might remain steady under its pecking. At the third peck, it split the shell of the fruit and then eat the kernel.

Starting point is 14:04:53 10. Many indications of high intelligence are given by cranes. They will fly to a great distance, and high up in the air, to command an extensive view. If they see clouds and signs of bad weather, they fly down again and remain still. They, furthermore, have a leader in their flight and patrols that scream on the confines of the flock so as to be heard by all. When they settle down, the main body go to sleep, with their heads under their wing, standing first on one leg and then on the other, while their leader, with his head uncovered, keeps a sharp lookout,

Starting point is 14:05:34 and when he sees anything of importance, signals it with a cry. Pelicans that live beside rivers swallow the large smooth muscle shells. After cooking them inside the crop that precedes the stomach, they spit them out, so that now when their shells are open, they may pick the flesh out and eat it. 11. Of wild birds, the nests are fashioned to meet the exigencies of existence, and ensure the security of the young. Some of these birds are fond of their young and take great care of them.

Starting point is 14:06:12 Others are quite the reverse. Some are clever in procuring subsistence. Others are not so. Some of these birds build in ravines and cliffs, and on cliffs, as, for instance, the so-called Caradrius or stone curlew. This bird is in no way noteworthy for plumage or voice. It makes an appearance at night, but in the daytime keeps out of sight. The hawk also builds in inaccessible places.

Starting point is 14:06:43 Although a ravenous bird, it will never eat the heart of any bird it catches. This has been observed in the case of the quail, the thrush, and other birds. They modify but times their method of hunting, for in summer they do not grab their prey as they do at other seasons. Of the vulture, it is said that no one has ever seen either its young or its nest. On this account, and on the ground that all of a sudden great numbers of them will appear without anyone being able to tell from whence they come, Herodorus, the father of Bryson the saw-fest,

Starting point is 14:07:22 says that it belongs to some distant and elevated land. The reason is that the bird has its nest on inaccessible, Craig's, and is found only in a few localities. The female lays one egg as a rule, and two at the most. Some birds live on mountains or in forests, as the hoopoo and the brinthus. This latter bird finds his food with ease and has a musical voice. The wren lives in breaks and crevices. It is difficult of capture, keeps out of sight, is gentle of disposition, finds its food with ease and is something of a mechanic. It goes by the nickname of Old Man or King,

Starting point is 14:08:09 and the story goes that for this reason the eagle is at war with him. 12. Some birds live on the seashore as the wagtail. The bird is of a mischievous nature, hard to capture, but when caught capable of complete domestication. It is a cripple, as being weak in its hinder quarters. Webb-footed birds, without exception,

Starting point is 14:08:37 live near the sea, or rivers, or pools, as they naturally resort to places adapted to their structure. Several birds, however, with cloven toes, live near pools or marshes, as, for instance, the anthos lives by the side of rivers. The plumage of this bird is pretty, and it finds its food with ease. The Cararactes lives near the sea.

Starting point is 14:09:04 When it makes a dive, it will keep underwater for as long as it would take a man to walk a furlong. It is less than the common hawk. Swans are web-footed and live near pools and marshes. They find their food with ease, are good-tempered, are fond of their young and live to a green old age. If the eagle attacks them, they will repel the attack and get the better of their assailant, but they are never the first to attack. They are musical, and sing chiefly at the approach of death. At this time they fly out to sea,

Starting point is 14:09:44 and men, when sailing past the coast of Libya, have fallen in with many of them out at sea, singing in mournful strains, and have actually seen some of them dying, The Comindis is seldom seen, as it lives on mountains. It is black in color and about the size of the hawk called the dove-killer. It is long and slender in form. The Ionians call the bird by this name. Homer in the Iliad mentions it in the line, quote,

Starting point is 14:10:21 Calcis, its name, with those of heavenly birth, but called Comindius by the Sons of Earth. Close quote. The hybrus, said by some, to be the same as the eagle owl, is never seen by daylight, as it is dim sighted, but during the night it hunts like the eagle.

Starting point is 14:10:43 It will fight the eagle with such desperation that the two combatants are often captured alive by shepherds. It lays two eggs, and like others we have mentioned, it builds on rocks and in caverns. Cranes also fight so desperately among themselves as to be caught when fighting, for they will not leave off.

Starting point is 14:11:05 The crane lays two eggs. 13. The G has a great variety of notes. Indeed, one might almost say it had a different note for every day in the year. It lays about nine eggs, builds its nest on trees, out of hair and tags of wool. When acorns are getting scarce, it lays up a store of them in hiding.

Starting point is 14:11:31 It is a common story of the stork that the old birds are fed by their grateful progeny. Some tell a similar story of the bee-eater and declare that the parents are fed by their young, not only when growing gold, but at an early period, as soon as the young are capable of feeding them, and the parent birds stay inside.

Starting point is 14:11:53 the nest. The under part of the bird's wing is pale yellow. The upper part is dark blue, like that of the Alcyon. The tips of the wings are red. About autumn time it lays six or seven eggs, in overhanging banks, where the soil is soft. There it burrows into the ground to a depth of six feet. The greenfinch, so called from the color of its belly, is as large as a lark. It lays four or five eggs, builds its nest out of the plant called Comfrey, pulling it up by the roots, and makes an under-matress to lie on of hair and wool. The blackbird and the Jay build their nests after the same fashion. The nest of the penduline tit shows great mechanical skill. It has the appearance of a ball of flax, and the hole for entry is very small. People who

Starting point is 14:12:52 live where the bird comes from say that there exists a cinnamon bird, which brings the cinnamon from some unknown localities, and builds its nest out of it. It builds on high trees on the slender top branches. They say that the inhabitants attach leaden weights to the tips of their arrows, and therewith bring down the nests, and from the inter-texture collect the cinnamon sticks. 14. The halcyon is not much larger than the sparrow. Its color is dark blue, green and light purple. The whole body and wings, and especially parts about the neck, show these colors in a mixed

Starting point is 14:13:39 way, without any color being sharply defined. The beak is light green, long and slender. Such then is the look of the bird. Its nest is like sea balls. test, the things that go by the name of Halosacne or Seafoam, only the color is not the same. The color of the nest is light red, and the shape is that of the long-necked gourd. The nests are larger than the largest sponge, though they vary in size. They are roofed over, and a great part of them is solid and a great part hollow.

Starting point is 14:14:19 If you use a sharp knife, it is not easy to cut the rest through, but if you cut it and at the same time bruise it with your hand, it will soon crumble to pieces like the Halasakne. The opening is small, just enough for a tiny entrance, so that even if the nest upset, the sea does not enter in. The hollow channels are like those in sponges. It is not known for certain of what material the nest is construed. It is possibly made of the backbones of the garfish, for, by the way, the bird lives on fish.

Starting point is 14:14:59 Besides, living on the shore, it ascends freshwater streams. It lays generally about five eggs, and lays eggs all its life long, beginning to do so at the age of four months. End of Chapter 14. Chapter 15 to 35 of Book 9 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wintworth Thompson. This Libre Vox recording is in the public domain. The hoopoe usually constructs its nest out of human excrement. It changes its appearance in summer and in winter, as in fact do the great majority of wild burns. The tit-mouse is said to lay a very large quantity of eggs.

Starting point is 14:15:57 Next to the ostrich, the black-headed tit, is said by some to lay the largest number of eggs. 17 eggs have been seen. It lays, however, more than 20. It is said always to lay an odd number. Like others we have mentioned, it builds in trees. It feeds on caterpillars. A peculiarity of this bird and of the nightingale is that the utter extremity of the tongue is not sharp-pointed. The igithus finds its food with ease, has many young and walks with a limp.

Starting point is 14:16:38 The golden orio is apt at learning, is clever at making a living, but is awkward in flight and has an ugly plumage. 16. The reed warbler makes its living. as easily as any other bird, sits in summer in a shady spot facing the wind, in winter, in a sunny and sheltered place among reeds in a marsh. It is small in size with a pleasant note. The so-called chatterer has a pleasant note, beautiful plumage, makes a living cleverly and disgraceful in form. It appears to be alien to our country. At all events, it is seldom seen at a distance from its own immediate home.

Starting point is 14:17:23 17. The quake is quarrelsome, clever at making a living, but in other ways an unlucky bird. The bird, called sita, is quarrelsome, but clever and tidy, makes its living with ease, and for its knowingness is regarded as uncanny. It has a numerous brood, of which it is fond, and lives by picking the bark of trees. The igolious owl flies by night, is seldom seen by day. Like others we have mentioned, it lives on cliffs or in caverns. It feeds on two kinds of food. It has a strong hold on life, and is full of resource.

Starting point is 14:18:07 The tree creeper is a little bird of fearless disposition. It lives among trees, feeds on caterpillars, makes a living with ease, and has a loud, clear note. The acanthus finds its food with difficulty. Its plumage is poor, but its note is musical. 18. Of the herons, the ashen-colored one, as has been said, unites with the female, not without pain.

Starting point is 14:18:36 It is full of resource, carries its food with it, is eager in the quest of it, and works by day. Its plumage is poor, and its excrement is, always wet. Of the other two species, for there are three and all, the white heron has handsome plumage, unites without harm to itself with the female, builds a nest, and lays its eggs neatly in trees. It frequents marshes and lakes and plains and meadowland. The speckled heron, which is nicknamed the skulker, is said in folklore stories to be of servile origin, and, as as its nickname implies, it is the laziest bird of the three species.

Starting point is 14:19:22 Such are the habits of herons. The bird that is called the poinx has this peculiarity, that it is more prone than any other bird to peck at the eyes of an assailant or its prey. It is at war with the harpy, as the two birds live on the same food. 19. There are two kinds of animals. The one is black and is found everywhere. The other is quite white, about the same size as the other and with the same pipe.

Starting point is 14:19:55 This ladder is found on Calais in Arcadia and is found nowhere else. The Lyos or Blue Thrush is like the black Owsel, only a little smaller. It lives on cliffs or on tile roofings. It has not a red beak as the black owl has. 20. Of thrushes, there are three species. One is the missile thrush. It feeds only on mistletoe and resin.

Starting point is 14:20:25 It is about the size of the jay. A second kind is the song thrush. It has a sharp pipe and is about the size of the owl. There is another species called the Illus. It has the smallest species of the three and is less variegated in plumage than the others. 21. There is a bird that lives on rocks called the blue bird from its color. It is comparatively common in Nisarus, and is somewhat less than the owls and a little bigger than the chaffinch.

Starting point is 14:20:59 It has large claws and climbs on the face of the rocks. It is steel blue all over. Its beak is long and slender. Its legs are short like those of the woodpecker. 22. The oriole is yellow all over. It is not visible during winter, but puts in an appearance about the time of the summer solstice, and departs again at the rising of Arcturus. It is the size of the turtle dove. The so-called soft head, or shrank, always settles on one and the same branch,

Starting point is 14:21:35 where it falls a prey to the bird-catcher. Its head is big and composed of grizzle. It is a little smaller than the thrush. Its beak is strong, small and round. It is ashen-colored all over, is fleet of foot, but slow of wing. The bird-catcher usually catches it by help of the owl. 23. There is also the Pardalus. As a rule, it is seen in flocks and not singly. It is ashen-colored all over, and about the size of the birds last described. It is fleet of of foot and strong of wing, and its pipe is loud and high-pitched. The collierian, or field fair, feeds on the same food as the Ousel, is of the same size as the above-mentioned birds, and is trapped usually in the winter. All these birds are found at all times.

Starting point is 14:22:34 Further, there are the birds that live as a rule in towns, the raven and the crow. These also are visible at all seasons, never shift their place of abode, and never go into winter quarters. 24. Of daws, there are three species. One is the chaff. It is as large as the crow, but has a red beak. There is another called the wolf, and further there is the little daw called the railer. There is another kind of dawn found in Lydia and Phrygia, which is web-footed. Twenty-five. Of larks there are two kinds. One lives on the ground and has a crest on its hand.

Starting point is 14:23:20 The other is gregarious and not sporadic like the first. It is, however, of the same colored plumage, but is smaller and has no crest. It is an article of human food. The woodcock is caught with nets in gardens. It is about the size of a barn door hen. It has a long beak, and in plumage is like the Franklin partridge. It runs quickly and is pretty easily domesticated. The starling is speckled.

Starting point is 14:23:56 It is of the same size as the Owsel. 27. Of the Egyptian ibis, there are two kinds. The white and the black. The white ones are found all over Egypt, excepting in Pelusium. The black ones are found in Pelusium and nowhere else in Egypt. 28. Of the little horned owls, there are two kinds, and one is visible at all seasons,

Starting point is 14:24:25 and for that reason has the nickname of All the Year-Round Owl. It is not sufficiently palatable to come to table. Another species makes its appearance sometimes in the autumn, is seen for a single day or at the most for two days, and is regarded as a table delicacy. It scarcely differs from the first species, save only in being fatter. It has no note, but the other species has. With regard to their origin, nothing is known from ocular observation. The only fact known for certain is that they are first seen when a west wind is blowing. 29.

Starting point is 14:25:11 The cuckoo, as has been said elsewhere, makes no nest, but deposits its eggs in an alien nest, generally in the nest of the ring dove, or on the ground in the nest of the hippolis, or lark, or on a tree in the nest of the green linnet. It lays only one egg and does not hatch it itself, but the mother bird in whose nest it has deposited it hatches and rears it. And, as they say, this mother bird, when the young cuckoo has grown big, thrusts her own brood out of the nest and lets them perish. Now there say that this motherbird kills her own brood and gives them to the alien to devour, despising her own young owing to the beauty of the cuckoo. Personal observers agree in telling most of these stories, but are not in agreement as to the

Starting point is 14:26:09 destruction of the young. Some say that the mother cuckoo comes and devours the brood of the rearing mother. Others say that the young cuckoo, from its superior size, snaps up the food brought before the smaller brood have a chance, and that, in consequence, the smaller brood, die of hunger. Others say that by its superior strength it actually kills the other ones whilst it is being reared up with them. The cuckoo shows great sagacity in the disposal of its progeny. The fact is, the mother cuckoo is quite conscious of her own cowardice and of the fact that she could never help her young one in an emergency. And so for the security of the young one,

Starting point is 14:26:54 she makes of him a supposititious child in an alien nest. The truth is, this bird is pre-eminent among birds in the way of cowardice. It allows itself to be pecked at by little birds, and flies away from their attacks. 30. It has already been stated that the footless bird, which some term the cupsilus, resembles the swallow. Indeed, it is not easy to distinguish between. the two birds, excepting in the fact that the Cupsulas has feathers on the shank. These birds rear their young in long cells made of mud, and furnished with a hole just big

Starting point is 14:27:37 enough for entry, and exit. They build under cover of some roofing under a rock or in a cavern, for protection against animals and men. The so-called goat-sucker lives on mountains. It is a little larger than the owls and less than the cuckoo. It lays two eggs, or three ant the most, and is of a sluggish disposition. It flies up to the she-goat and sucks its milk, from which habit it derives its name. It is sand that after it has sucked the teat of the animal, the teat dries up and the animal goes blind. It is dim-sighted in the daytime, but sees well enough by night. In narrow circumscribed districts where the food would be insufficient for more birds than two,

Starting point is 14:28:30 ravens are only found in isolated pairs. When they're young, are old enough to fly, the parent couple first eject them from the nest, and by and by chase them from the neighborhood. The raven lays four or five eggs. About the time when the mercenaries under Medeaas were slaughtered, Third, at Farsalis, the districts about Athens and the Peloponnese were left destitute of ravens, from which it would appear that these birds have some means of intercommunicating with one another. 32. Of eagles there are several species. One of them, called the white-tailed eagle,

Starting point is 14:29:13 is found on lowlands, in groves, and in the neighborhood of cities. Some call it the heron killer. It is bold enough to fly to mountains and the interior of forests. In the other eagles seldom visit groves or low-lying glands. There is another species called the Plangus. It ranks second in point of size and strength. It lives in mountain combs and glens, and by marshy lakes, and goes by the name of Duck Killer and Swart Eagle. It is mentioned by Homer, in his account of the account of the

Starting point is 14:29:52 visit made by Priam to the tent of Achilles. There is another species with black plumage, the smallest but boldest of all the kinds. It dwells on mountains or in forests, and is called the Black Eagle or the Hare Killer. It is the only eagle that rears its young thoroughly and takes them out with it. It is swift of flight, is neat and tidy in its habits, too proud for jealousy, fearless, quarrelsome. It is also silent, for it neither whimpers nor screams. There is another species, the perchnopterus, very large, with white head, very short wings, long tail feathers, in appearance like a vulture. It goes by the name of mountain stork or half eagle. It lives in

Starting point is 14:30:45 groves, has all the bad qualities of the other species and none of the good ones, for it lets itself be chased and caught by the raven and the other birds. It is clumsy in its movements, has difficulty in procuring its food, praise on dead animals, is always hungry, and at all times whining and screaming. There is another species called the Sea Eagle, or Osprey. This bird has a large, thick neck, curved wings, and broad-tail feathers. It lives near the sea, grasps its prey with its talons, and often, from inability to carry it, tumbles down into the water.

Starting point is 14:31:30 There is another species called the true-bred. People say that these are the only true-bred birds to be found, that all other birds, eagles, hawks, and the smallest birds are all spoiled. by the interbreeding of different species. The true-bred eagle is the largest of all eagles. It is larger than the fiend, is half as large again as the ordinary eagle, and has yellow plumage.

Starting point is 14:31:59 It is seldom seen, as is the case with the so-called commendious. The time for an eagle to be on the wing in search of prey is from midday to evening. In the morning until the market hour, it remains on the nest. In old age, the upper beak of the eagle grows gradually longer and more crooked, and the bird dies eventually of starvation. There is a folklore story that the eagle is thus punished, because it once was a man and refused entertainment to a stranger. The eagle puts aside its superfluous

Starting point is 14:32:37 food for its young, for owing to the difficulty in procuring food day by day, It, at times, may come back to the nest with nothing. If it catch a man prowling about in the neighborhood of its nest, it will strike him with its wings and scratch him with its talons. The nest is built not on low ground, but on an elevated spot, generally on an inaccessible ledge of a cliff. It does, however, build upon a tree. The Angarfed until they can fly.

Starting point is 14:33:11 Hereupon the parent birds topple them out of the nest, and chase them completely out of the locality. The fact is that a pair of eagles demands an extensive space for its maintenance, and consequently cannot allow other birds to quarter themselves in close neighborhood. They do not hunt in the vicinity of their nest, but go to a great distance to find their prey. When the eagle has captured a beast, it puts it down, without attempting to carry it off, off at once. If, on trial, it finds the burden too heavy, it will leave it. When it has spied a hair, it does not swoop on it at once, but lets it go on into the open ground. Neither does it descend to the ground at one swoop, but goes gradually down from higher flights

Starting point is 14:34:02 to lower and lower. These devices, it adopts by way of security against the stratagem of the hunter. It alights on high places by reason of the difficulty it experiences in soaring up from the level ground. It flies high in the air to have the more extensive view from its high flight. It is said to be the only burned that resembles the gods. Birds of prey, as a rule, seldom alight upon rock, as the crookedness of their talons prevents a stable footing on hard stone. The eagle hunts hares, fons, foxes, and in general all such animals as he can master with ease. It is a long-lived bird, and this fact might be inferred from the length of time during which the same nest is maintained in its place.

Starting point is 14:34:59 33. In Scythia there is found a bird as large as the great bustard. The female lays two eggs, but does not hatch them. but hides them in the skin of a hare or fox and leaves them there. And, when it is not in quest of prey, it keeps a watch on them on a high tree. If any man tries to climb the tree, it fights and strikes him with its wing, just as eagles do. 34.

Starting point is 14:35:31 The owl and the night raven and all the birds that see poorly in the daytime seek their prey in the night. but not all the night through, but at evening and dawn. Their food consists of mice, lizards, chafers, and the like little creatures. The so-called fiend, or Lamergeir, is fond of its young, provides its food with ease, fetches food to its nest, and is of a kindly disposition. It rears its own young and those of the eagle as well, for when the eagle ejects its young from the nest, this bird catches them up as they fall and feeds them.

Starting point is 14:36:15 For the eagle, by the way, ejects the young birds prematurely before they are able to feed themselves or to fly. It appears to do so from jealousy, for it is by nature jealous and is so ravenous as to grab furiously at its food. and when it does grab at its food, it grabs it in large morsels. It is accordingly jealous of the young birds as they approach maturity, since they are getting good appetites, and so it scratches them with its talons. The young birds fight also with one another to secure a morsel of food or a comfortable position,

Starting point is 14:36:59 whereupon the mother bird beats them, it ejects them from the nest. The young ones scream at this treatment, and the fiend, hearing them, catches them as they fall. The fiend has a film over its eyes and sees badly, but the sea eagle is very keen-sighted, and before its young are flanged, tries to make them stare at the sun, and beats the one that refuses to do so, and twists him back in the sun's direction. and if one of them gets watery eyes in the process, it kills him and rears the other. It lives near the sea and feeds, as has been said, on sea birds, when in pursuit of them it catches them one by one,

Starting point is 14:37:50 watching the moment when the bird rises to the surface from its dive. When a sea bird emerging from the water sees the sea eagle, he, in terror, dives under, intending to rise again elsewhere. The eagle, however, owing to its keenness of vision, keeps flying after him until he either drowns the bird or catches him on the surface. The eagle never attacks these birds when they are in a swarm, for they keep him off by raising a shower of water drops with their wings. 35.

Starting point is 14:38:27 The keppfuss is caught by means of sea foam. The bird snaps at the foam, and consequently, fishermen catch it by sluicing with showers of sea water. These birds grow to be plump and fat. Their flesh has a good odor, accepting the hider quarters which smell of shoreweed. End of Chapter 35. Chapter 36 to 39 of Book 9 of History of Animals by Aristotle. Translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Libravox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 14:39:16 36. Of Hawks, the strongest is the buzzard. The next in point of courage is the Merlin, and the circus ranks third. Other diverse kinds are the Asterius, the Pigeon Hawk, and the Paternis. The broader-winged hawk is called the half-buzzard. Others go by the name of hobby hawk, or sparrowhawk, or smooth-feathered, or toad-catcher. Birds of this latter species find their food with very little difficulty, and flutter along the ground. Some say that there are ten species of hawks, all differing from one another. One hawk, they say, will strike and grab the pigeon

Starting point is 14:40:00 as it rests on the ground, but never touch it while it is in flight. Another hawk attacks the pigeon when it is perched upon a tree or any elevation, but never touches it when it is on the ground or on the wing. Other hawks attack their prey only when it is on the wing. They say that pigeons can distinguish the various species, so that when a hawk is an assailant, if it be one that attacks its prey when the prey is on the wing, the pigeon will sit still. If it be one that attacks sitting prey, the pigeon will rise up and fly away. In Thrace, in the district sometimes called that of Cadripolis,

Starting point is 14:40:45 men hunt for little birds in the marshes with the aid of hawks. The men with sticks in their hands go beating at the reeds and brushwood to frighten the birds out, and the hawks show themselves overhead and frighten them down. The men then strike them with their sticks and capture them. They give a portion of their booty to the hawks, that is, they throw some of the birds up in the air, and the hawks catch them. In the neighborhood of Lake Myotas,

Starting point is 14:41:17 it is said wolves act in concert with the fishermen, and if the fishermen decline to share with them, they tear their nets in pieces as they lie drawing on the shore of the lake. 37. So much for the habits of birds. In marine creatures also, one may observe many ingenious devices adapted to the circumstances of their lives.

Starting point is 14:41:43 For the accounts commonly given of the so-called fishing frog are quite true, as are also those given of the torpedo. The fishing frog has a set of filaments that project in front of its eyes, They are long and thin-like hairs and are round at the tips. They lie on either side and are used as baits. Accordingly, when the animal stirs up a place full of sand and mud and conceals itself therein, it raises the filaments, and, when the little fish strike against them, it draws them in underneath into its mouth.

Starting point is 14:42:18 The torpedo narcotizes the creatures that it wants to catch, overpowering them by the power of shock that is resident in its body and feeds upon them. It also hides in the sand and mud, and catches all the creatures that swim in its way, and come under its narcotizing influence. This phenomenon has been actually observed in operation. The stingray also conceals itself, but not exactly in the same way, That the creatures get their living by this means is obvious from the fact that whereas they are peculiarly inactive, they are often caught with mullets in their interior, the swiftest of

Starting point is 14:43:03 fishes. Furthermore, the fishing frog is unusually thin when he is caught after losing the tips of his filaments, and the torpedo is known to cause a numbness even in human beings. Again, the hake, the ray, the flatfish and the angel fish, burrow in the sand, and after concealing themselves angle with the filaments on their mouths, that fishermen call their fishing rods, and the little creatures on which they feed swim up to the filaments, taking them for bits of seaweed, such as they feed upon. Wherever an antheos fish is seen, there will be no dangerous creatures in the vicinity, and sponge divers will dive in security, and they call these signal fishes holy fish. It is a sort of perpetual coincidence, like the fact that wherever snails are present, you may be sure there is neither pig nor partridge in the neighborhood.

Starting point is 14:44:09 For both pig and partridge, eat up the snail. The sea serpent resembles the conger in color and shape, but is of lesser bulk, and more rapid in its movements. If it be caught and thrown away, it will bore a hole with its snout and burrow rapidly in the sand. Its snout, by the way, is sharper than that of ordinary serpents. The so-called sea scolipendra, after swallowing the hook, turns itself inside out until it ejects it, and then it again turns itself outside in. The sea scolopendra, like the land scolopendra, will come to a savory bait. The creature does not bite with its teeth, but stings by contact with its entire body,

Starting point is 14:45:00 like the so-called sea nettle. The so-called fox shark, when it finds it has swallowed the hook, tries to get rid of it as the scolopendra does, but not in the same way. In other words, it runs up the fishing line and bites it off short. It is caught in some districts in deep and rapid waters with night lines. The Benitos swarm together when they espy a dangerous creature, and the largest of them swim round it,

Starting point is 14:45:32 and if it touches one of the shoal, they try to repell it. They have strong teeth. Amongst other large fish, a lemia shark, after falling in amongst a shoal, has been seen to be covered with wounds. A riverfish, the male of the sheetfish, is remarkably attentive to the young. The female, after parturition, goes away. The male stays and keeps on guard, where the spawn is most abundant, contenting himself with keeping off all other little fishes that might steal the spawn or fry, and this he does for forty or fifty days until the young are sufficiently grown to make away from the other fishes for themselves.

Starting point is 14:46:19 The fisherman can tell where he is on guard, for in warding off the little fishes he makes a rush in the water and gives utterance to a kind of muttering noise. He is so earnest in the performance of his parental duties that the fisherman at times, if the eggs be attached to the roots of water plants deep in the water, drag them into as shallow a place as possible. The male fish will still keep by the young, and if it so happen, will be caught by the hook when snapping at the little fish that come by. If, however, he be sensible by experience of the danger of the hook, he will still keep by his charge, and, with his extremely strong teeth will bite the hook in pieces.

Starting point is 14:47:12 All fishes, both those that wander about and those that are stationary, occupy the districts where they were born, or very similar places, for their natural food is found there. Carnivorous fish wander most, and all fish are carnivorous, with the exception of a few, such as the mullet, the sump, the red mullet, and the cair. The so-called Follus gavs out a mucus discharge which envelops the creature in a kind of nest. Of shellfish and fish that are finless, the scallop moves with greatest force and to the greatest distance, impelled along by some internal energy. The meurax or purple fish and others that resemble it move hardly at all.

Starting point is 14:48:05 of the lagoon of Pira, all the fishes swim in winter time, except the sea Gajan. They swim out owing to the cold, for the narrow waters are colder than the outer sea, and on the return of the early summer, they all swim back again. In the lagoon no Scaris is found, nor thrita, nor any other species of the spiny fish, no spotted dogfish, no spiny dogfish, no sea crawfish, no octopus, either of the common or the musky kinds, and certain other fish are also absent. But of fish that are found in the lagoon, the white gujarjan, is not a marine fish.

Starting point is 14:48:52 Of fishes, the oviparous, are in their prime in the early summer until the spawning time, the viviparous in the autumn, as is also the case with the mullet, the red mullet, and all such fish. In the neighborhood of Lesbans, the fishes of the outer sea or of the lagoon bring forth their eggs or young in the lagoon. Sexual union takes place in the autumn and parturition in the spring. With fishes of the cartilaginous kind, the males and females swarm together in the autumn for the sake of sexual union. In the early summer, they come swimming in and keep apart until after parturition. The two sexes are often taken, linked together in sexual union. Of mollusks, the sepia is the most cunning and is the only species that employs its dark liquid for the

Starting point is 14:49:47 sake of concealment as well as from fear. The octopus and calomery make the discharge solely from fear. These creatures never discharge the pigment in its entirety, and after, discharge, the pigment accumulates again. The sepia, as has been said, often uses its coloring pigment for concealment. It shows itself in front of the pigment and then retreats back into it. It also hunts, with its long tentacles, not only little fishes, but oftentimes even mullets. The octopus is a stupid creature, for it will approach a man's hand if it be lowered in the water. But it is neat and thrifty in its habits. That is, it lays up stores in its nest, and, after eating up all that is eatable, it ejects the shells and sheaths of crabs and shellfish,

Starting point is 14:50:46 and the skeletons of little fishes. It seeks its prey by so changing its color as to render it, like the color of the stones adjacent to it. It does so also when alarmed. By so, some the sepia is sad to perform the same trick, that is, they say it can change its color, so as to make it resemble the color of its habitat. The only fish that can do this is the angel fish. That is, it can change its color like the octopus. The octopus, as a rule, does not live the year out. It has a natural tendency to run off into liquid, for, if beaten and squeezed,

Starting point is 14:51:28 It keeps losing substance and at last disappears. The female, after parturition, is peculiarly subject to this colloquyfaction. It becomes stupid, if tossed about by waves, it submits impassively. A man, if he dived, could catch it with the hand. It gets covered over with slime and makes no effort to catch its wanted prey. The male becomes leathery and clammy. As a proof that they do not live into a second year, there is the fact that, after the birth of the little octopuses in the late summer, or beginning of autumn, it is seldom that a large

Starting point is 14:52:11 sized octopus is visible, whereas a little before this time of year the creature is at its largest. After the eggs are laid, they say that both the male and the female grow so old and feeble that they are preyed upon by little fish, and with ease dragged from their holes, and that this could not have been done previously. They say also that this is not the case with the small and young octopus, but that the young creature is much stronger than the grown-up one. Neither does the sepia live into a second year. The octopus is the only mollusk that ventures on to dry land.

Starting point is 14:52:52 It walks by preference on rough ground. It is firm all over when you squeeze it, except in the neck. So much for the mollusca. It is also said that they make a thin, rough shell about them, like a hard sheath, and that this is made larger and larger as the animal grows larger, and that it comes out of the sheath as though out of a den or dwelling. place. The Nautilus or Argonaut is a pulp or octopus, but one peculiar both in its nature and its habits. It rises up from deep water and swims on the surface. It rises with its shell

Starting point is 14:53:38 downturned in order that it may rise the more easily and swim with it empty, but after reaching the surface, it shifts the position of the shell. In between its feelers, it has a certain amount of web growth, resembling the substance between the toes of web-footed birds, only that with these latter the substance is thick, while with the nautilus it is thin and like a spider's web. It uses this structure when a breeze is blowing, for a sail, and lets down some of its feelers alongside as rudder oars. If it be frightened, it fills its shell with water, and sinks. With regard to the mode of generation and the growth of the shell, knowledge from observation is not yet satisfactory. The shell, however, does not appear to be there from the

Starting point is 14:54:35 beginning, but to grow in their case as in that of other shellfish. Neither is it ascertained for certain whether the animal can live when stripped of the shell. 38. Of all insects, one may also say, of all living creatures, the most industrious are the ant, the bee, the hornet, the wasp, and in point of fact all creatures akin to these. Of spiders, some are more skillful and more resourceful than others. The way in which ants' work is open to ordinary observation.

Starting point is 14:55:17 how they all march one after the other when they are engaged in putting away and storing up their food. All this may be seen, for they carry on their work even during bright moonlight nights. 39. Of spiders and phalangea, there are many species. Of the venomous phalangea there are two, one that resembles the so-called wolf spider, small, speckled, and tapering, a point. It moves with leaps, from which habit it is nicknamed the flea. The other kind is large, black in color with long front legs. It is heavy in its movements. Walks slowly,

Starting point is 14:56:02 is not very strong and never leaps. Of all the other species, wherewith poison vendors supply themselves, some give a weak bite, and others never bite at all. There is another kind comprising the so-called wolf spiders. Of these spiders, the small one weaves no web, and the large weaves a rude and poorly built one on the ground, or on dry stone walls. It always builds its web over hollow places, inside of which it keeps a watch on the end threads, until some creature gets into the web and begins to struggle when out the spider pounces. The speckled kind makes a little shabby wimp under trees. There is a third species of this animal, preeminently clever and artistic. It first weaves a thread stretching to all the exterior ends of the future web.

Starting point is 14:57:02 Then, from the center which it hits upon with great accuracy, it stretches the warp. warp, it puts what corresponds to the woof, and then weaves the whole together. It sleeps and stores its food away from the center, but it is at the center that it keeps watch for its prey. Then, when any creature touches the web and the center is set in motion, it first ties and wraps the creature round with threads, until it renders it helpless. then lifts it and carries it off, and if it happens to be hungry, sucks out the life juices, for that is the way it feeds. But if it be not hungry, it first mends any damage done, and then hastens again to its quest of prey.

Starting point is 14:57:56 If something comes, meanwhile, into the net, the spider at first makes for the center, and then goes back to its entangled prey as from a fixed starting point. If anyone injures a portion of the web, it recommences weaving at sunrise or at sunset, because it is chiefly at these periods that creatures are caught in the web. It is the female that does the weaving and the hunting, but the male takes a share of the booty captured. Of the skillful spiders, weaving a substantial web, there are two kinds, the larger and the smaller. The one has long legs and keeps watch while swinging downwards from the web.

Starting point is 14:58:46 From its large size, it cannot easily conceal itself, and so it keeps underneath, so that its prey may not be frightened off, but may strike upon the web's upper surface. The less awkwardly formed one lies in weight on the top, using a little hole for a lurking place. Spiders can spin webs from the time of their birth, not from their interior, as a superfluity or excretion as Democritus avers, but off their body as a kind of tree bark, like the creatures that shoot out with their hair, as, for instance, the porcupine. The creature can attack animals larger than itself and enwrap them with its strands.

Starting point is 14:59:38 In other words, it will attack a small lizard, run round, and draw threads about its mouth until it closes the mouth up, then it comes up and bites it. End of chapter 39. Chapter 40 of Book 9 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth Thompson. This Liebervox recording is in the public domain.

Starting point is 15:00:13 40. So much for the spider. Of insects, there is a genus that has no one name that comprehends all the species, though all the species are akin to one another in form. It consists of all the insects that construct a honey. home, to it the bee, and all the insects that resemble it in form. There are nine varieties of which six are gregarious, the bee, the king bee, the drone bee, the annual wasp, and furthermore the antherine or hornet, and the Tenthredo, or ground wasp. Three are solitary.

Starting point is 15:01:00 The smaller siren of a dun color, the larger siren, black and speckled, and the third, the largest of all, that is called the humble bee. Now, ants never go a-hunting, but gather up what is ready to hand. The spider makes nothing and lays up no store, but simply goes a hunting for its food, the bee, for we shall by and buy treat of the nine varieties, does not go a hunting, but constructs its food out of gathered material and stores it away, for honey is the bee's food. This fact is shown by the beekeepers attempt to remove the combs. For the bees, when they are fumigated and are suffering great distress from the process,

Starting point is 15:01:53 then devour the honey most ravenously. whereas at other times they are never observed to be so greedy, but apparently are thrifty and disposed to lay by for their future sustenance. They have also another food which is called bee brand. This is scarcer than honey and has a sweet fig-like taste. This they carry as they do the wax on their legs. Very remarkable diversity is observed in their methods of working and their general habits.

Starting point is 15:02:27 When the hive has been delivered to them clean and empty, they build their waxen cells, bringing in the juice of all kinds of flowers and the tears, or exuding sap of trees, such as willows and elms, and such others as are particularly given to the exudation of gum. With this material they besmear the groundwork, to provide against attacks of,

Starting point is 15:02:55 of other creatures. The beekeepers call this stuff stopwax. They also, with the same material, narrow by side-building the entrances to the hive if they are too wide. They first build cells for themselves, then for the so-called kings and the drones. For themselves they're always building, for the kings only when the brood of young is numerous, and cells for the drones they build, if a superabundance of honey should suggest they're doing so. They build the royal cells next to their own, and they are of small bulk. The drone's cells they build nearby,

Starting point is 15:03:38 and these latter are less in bulk than the bee cells. They begin building the combs downwards from the top of the hive, and go down and down, building many combs, connected together until they reach the bottom. The cells, both those for the honey and those also for the grubs, are double-dorned, for two cells are ranged about a single base, one pointing one way and one the other, after the manner of a double, or hourglass-shaped goblet. The cells that lie at the commencement of the combs and are attached to the hives,

Starting point is 15:04:16 to the extent of two or three concentric circular rows, are small and devoid of honey. The cells that are well filled with honey are most thoroughly looted with wax. At the entry to the hive, the aperture of the doorway is smeared with mittus. This substance is a deep black and is a sort of dross or residual byproduct of wax. It has a pungent odor and is a cure for bruises and suppurating sores. The greasy stuff that comes next is pitch wax. It has a less pungent odor and is less medicinal than the mittus. Some say that the drones construct combs by themselves in the same hive and in the same comb

Starting point is 15:05:03 that they share with the bees, but that they make no honey but subsist. They and their grubs also on the honey made by the bees. The drones, as a rule, keep inside the hive. When they go out of doors, they soar up in the air in a stream whirling round. round and round in a kind of gymnastic exercise. When this is over, they come inside the hive, and feed to repletion ravenously. The kings never quit the hive, except in conjunction with the entire swarm, either for food or for any other reason.

Starting point is 15:05:42 They say that if a young swarm go astray, it will turn back upon its route, and by the eight of cent seek out its leader. It is sad that if he is an in a in a man. able to fly, he is carried by the swarm, and that if he dies, the swarm perishes. And that if this swarm outlives the king for a while and constructs combs, no honey is produced and the bees soon die out. Bees scramble up the stalks of flowers and rapidly gather the bees wax with their front legs. The front legs wipe it off onto the middle legs, and these pass it on to the hollow curves of the hind legs. When thus laden, they fly away home,

Starting point is 15:06:26 and one may see plainly that their load is a heavy one. On each expedition, the bee does not fly from a flower of one kind to a flower of another, but flies from one violet, say, to another violet, and never meddles with another flower until it has got back to the hive. On reaching the hive, they throw off their load, and each bee on his return is accompanied by three or four companions. One cannot well tell what is the substance they gather, nor the exact process of their work. Their mode of gathering wax has been observed on olive trees, as owing to the thickness of the leaves, the bees remained stationary for a considerable while. After this work is over, they attend to the grubs.

Starting point is 15:07:15 There is nothing to prevent grubs, honey, and drones being all found in one and the same comb. As long as the leader is alive, the drones are said to be produced apart by themselves. If you be no longer living, they are said to be reared by the bees in their own cells, and under these circumstances to become more spirited. For this reason, they are called sting drones. Not that they really have stings, but that they really have stings, but that they're they have the wish without the power to use such weapons. The cells for the drones are larger than the others. Sometimes the bees construct cells for the drones apart, but usually they put them

Starting point is 15:07:59 in amongst their own. And when this is the case, the beekeepers cut the drone cells out of the combs. There are several species of bees, as has been said. Two of kings, the better kind, red, The other black and variegated, and twice as big as the working bee. The best working bee is small, round and speckled. Another kind is long and like an anthrine wasp. Another kind is what is called the robber bee, black and flat-bellied. Then there is the drone, the largest of all but devoid of sting and lazy. There is a difference between the progeny of bees that in half.

Starting point is 15:08:45 habit, cultivated land, and of those from the mountains. The forest bees are more shaggy, smaller, more industrious, and more fierce. Working bees make their combs all even, with the superficial covering quite smooth. Each comb is of one kind only, that is, it contains either bees only, or grubs only, or drones only. If it happen, however, that they make in one and the same comb, all these kinds of cells, each separate kind will be built in a continuous row right through. The long bees build uneven combs, with the lids of the cells protuberant, like those of the antherine.

Starting point is 15:09:30 Grumps and everything else have no fixed places, but are put anywhere. From these bees come inferior kings, a large quantity of drones, and the so-called robber bee. They produce either no honey at all, or honey in very small quantities. Bees brood over the combs and so mature them. If they fail to do so, the combs are said to go bad, and to get covered with a sort of spider's web. If they can keep brooding over the part undamaged, the damaged part simply eats itself away. If they cannot so brood, the entire comb perishes in the damaged combs, Small worms are engendered, which take on wings and fly away.

Starting point is 15:10:20 When the combs keep settling down, the bees restore the level surface and put props underneath the combs to give themselves free passage room. For if such free passage be lacking, they cannot brood, and the cobwebs come on. When the robber bee and the drone appear, not only do they do no work themselves, but they actually damage the work of the other bees. If they are caught in the act, they are killed by the working bees. These bees also kill without mercy most of their kings, and especially kings of the inferior sort.

Starting point is 15:10:58 And this they do, for fear a multiplicity of kings should lead to a dismemberment of the hive. They kill them especially when the hive is deficient in grubs, and a swarm is not intended to take place. Under these circumstances, they destroy the cells of the kings if they have been prepared, on the ground that these kings are always ready to lead out swarms. They destroy also the combs of the drones if a failure in the honey supply be threatening,

Starting point is 15:11:31 and the hive runs short of provisions. Under such circumstances, they fight desperately with all who try to take their honey, and eject from the hive all the resident drones, and oftentimes the drones are to be seen sitting apart in the hive. The little bees fight vigorously with the long kind, and try to banish them from the hives. If they succeed, the hive will be unusually productive,

Starting point is 15:12:01 but if the bigger bees get left mistresses of the field, they pass the time in idleness, and do no good at all but die out before the autumn. Whenever the working bees kill an enemy, they try to do so out of doors. And whenever one of their own body dies, they carry the dead bee out of doors also. The so-called robber bees spoil their own combs. And if they can do so unnoticed, enter and spoil the combs of other bees. If they are caught in the act, they are put to death. It is no easy task for them to escape detection, for there are sentinels on guard at every entry, and even if they do escape detection on entering, afterwards from a surfeit of food they cannot fly,

Starting point is 15:12:52 but go rolling about in front of the hive, so that their chances of escape are small indeed. The kings are never themselves seen outside the hive except with a swarm in flight, during which time all the other bees cluster around them. When the flight of a swarm is imminent, a monotonous and quite peculiar sound made by all the bees is heard for several days, and for two or three days in advance a few bees are seen flying round the hive. It has never as yet been ascertained, owing to the difficulty of the observation, whether or no the king is among these.

Starting point is 15:13:34 When they have swarmed, they fly away and separate off to each of the kings. If a small swarm happens to settle near to a large one, it will shift to join this large one. And if the king, whom they have abandoned, follows them, they put him to death. So much for the quitting of the hive and the swarm flight. Separate detachments of bees are told off for diverse operations. That is, some carry flower produce, others carry water, others smooth, and arrange the combs. A bee carries water when it is rearing grubs. No bee ever settles on the flesh of any creature, or ever eats animal food.

Starting point is 15:14:22 They have no fixed date for commencing work, but when their provender is forthcoming, and they are in comfortable trim, and by preference in summer, they set to work, and when the weather is fine, they work incessantly. The bee, when quite young, and in fact only three days old, after shedding its chrysalis case, begins to work if it be well fanned. When a swarm is settling, some bees detach themselves in search of food and return back to the swarm. In hives that are in good condition, the production of young bees is discontinued only for

Starting point is 15:15:00 the 40 days that follow the winter solstice. When the grubs are grown, the bees put food beside them and cover them with a coating of wax, and as soon as the grub is strong enough, he, of his own accord, breaks the lid and comes out. Creatures that make their appearance in hives and spoil the combs, the working bees clear out. But the other bees from sheer laziness look with indifference on damage done to their produce. When the bee masters take out the combs, they leave enough food behind for winter use. If it be sufficient in quantity, the occupants of the hive will survive. If it be insufficient, then, if the weather be rough, they die on the spot.

Starting point is 15:15:47 But if it be fair, they fly away and desert the hive. They feed on honey, summer and winter, but they store up another article of food resembling wax in hardness, which by some is called Sandara Ke or bee bread. Their worst enemies are wasps and the birds named titmice, and furthermore the swallow and the bee-eater. The frogs in the marsh also catch them if they come in their way by the water side, and for this reason beekeepers chase the frogs from the ponds, from which the bees take water.

Starting point is 15:16:26 They destroy also wasps' nests, and the nests of swallows in the neighborhood of the hives, and also the nests of bee-eaters. Bees have fear only of one another. They fight with one another and with wasps. Away from the hive, they attack neither their own species nor any other creature, but in the close proximity of the hive, they kill whatever they get hold of. Bees that sting die from their inability to extract the sting,

Starting point is 15:16:59 without at the same time extracting their intestines. True, they often recover if the person stung takes the trouble to press the sting out, but once it loses its sting, the bee must die. They can kill with their stings, even large animals. In fact, a horse has been known to have been stung to death by them. The kings are the least disposed to show anger or to inflict a sting.

Starting point is 15:17:30 Bees that die are removed from the high, and in every way the creature is remarkable for its cleanly habits. In point of fact, they often fly away to a distance to avoid their excrement because it is malodorous, and, as has been said, they are annoyed by all bad smells, and by the scent of perfumes, so much so that they sting people that use perfumes. They perish for,

Starting point is 15:17:57 from a number of accidental causes, and when their kings become too numerous and try each to carry away a portion of the swarm. The toad also feeds on bees. He comes to the doorway of the hive, puffs himself out as he sits on the watch, and devours the creatures as they come flying out. The bees can in no way retaliate, but the beekeeper makes a point of killing him. as for the class of bee that has been spoken of as inferior or good for nothing, and as constructing its combs so roughly, some beekeepers say that it is the young bees that act so from inexperience,

Starting point is 15:18:40 and the bees of the current here are termed young. The young bees do not sting as the others do, and it is for this reason that swarms may be safely carried as it is of young bees, that they are composed. When honey runs short, they expel the drones, and the beekeepers supply the bees with figs and sweet-tasting articles of food. The elder bees do the indoor work, and are rough and hairy from staying indoors. The young bees do the outer carrying and are comparatively smooth. They kill the drones also, when in their work they are confined for room. The drones, by the way, live in the innermost recess of the hive. On one occasion when a hive was in a poor condition, some of the occupants assailed a foreign hive. Proving victorious in a combat, they took to carrying

Starting point is 15:19:40 off the honey. When the beekeeper tried to kill them, the other bees came out and tried to beat off the enemy, but made no attempt to sting the man. The diseases that chiefly attack prosperous hives are, first of all, the cleras. This consists in a growth of little worms on the floor, from which, as they develop a kind of cobwimp, grows over the entire hive, and the combs decay. Another diseased condition is indicated in a lassitude on the part of the bees,

Starting point is 15:20:14 and in malodorousness of the hive. Bees feed on time, and the white time is better than the rand. In summer, the place for the hive should be cool, and in winter warm. They are very apt to fall sick if the plant they are at work on be mildewed. In a high wind they carry a stone by way of ballast to steady them. If a stream be near at hand, they drink from it, and from it only, but before they drink, they first deposit their load.

Starting point is 15:20:50 If there be no water near at hand, they disgorge their honey as they drink. elsewhere and at once make off to work. There are two seasons for making honey, spring and autumn. The spring honey is sweeter, whiter, and in every way better than the autumn honey. Superior honey comes from fresh comb and from young shoots. The red honey is inferior and owes its inferiority to the comb in which it is deposited, just as wine is apt to be spoiled by its cask. Consequently, one should have it looked to and dried.

Starting point is 15:21:32 When the thyme is in flour and the comb is full, the honey does not harden. The honey that is golden in hue is excellent. White honey does not come from time pure and simple. It is good as a salve for sore eyes and wounds. Poor honey always floats on the same. the surface and should be skimmed off. The fine, clear honey rests below. When the floral world is in full bloom, then they make wax. Consequently, you must then take the wax out of the hive, for they go to work on new wax at once. The flowers from which they gather honey are as follows,

Starting point is 15:22:14 The spindle tree, the millilot clover, king's spear, myrtle, flowering reed, withy, and broom. When they work at time, they mix in water before sealing up the comb. As has been already stated, they all either fly to a distance to discharge their excrement or make the discharge into one single comb. The little bees, as has been said, are more industrious than, the big ones. Their wings are battered, their color is black, and they have a burnt-up aspect. Gaudy and showy bees, like gaudy and showy women, are good for nothings. Bees seem to take a pleasure in listening to a rattling noise, and consequently men say that they

Starting point is 15:23:05 can muster them into a hive by rattling with crockery or stones. It is uncertain, however, whether or no they can hear the noise at all, and also whether their procedure is due to pleasure or alarm. They expel from the hive all idlers and unthrifts. As has been said, they differentiate their work. Some make wax. Some make honey. Some make bee bread. Some shape and mold combs. Some bring water to the cells and mingle it with the honey. Some engage in out-of-door work. At early dawn they make no noise until someone particular bee makes a buzzing noise

Starting point is 15:23:51 two or three times, and thereby awakes the rest. Hereupon they all fly in a body to work. By and by, they return, and at first are noisy. Then the noise gradually decreases until at last some one bee flies round about, making a buzzing noise, and apparently calling on the others to go to sleep. Then, all of a sudden, there is a dead silence. The hive is known to be in good condition if the noise heard within it is loud,

Starting point is 15:24:27 and if the bees make a flutter as they go out and in, for at this time they are constructing brood cells. They suffer most from hunger, when they recommence work after winter. They become somewhat lazy if the beekeeper in robbing the hive leave behind too much honey. Still, one should leave cells numerous in proportion to the population, for the bees work in a spiritless way if too few combs are left. They become idle also as being dispirited if the hive be too big. A hive yields to the beekeeper six or nine pints of honey.

Starting point is 15:25:11 A prosperous hive will yield 12 or 15 pints. Exceptionally good hives, 18. Sheep, and as has been said, wasps are enemies to the bees. Beekeepers entrap the ladder by putting a flat dish on the ground with pieces of meat on it. When a number of the wasps settle on it, they cover them with a lid and put the dish and its contents on the fire. It is a good thing to have a good thing to have a... a few drones in a hive, as their presence increases the industry of the workers. Bees can tell the approach of rough weather or of rain, and the proof is that they will not fly away,

Starting point is 15:25:54 but even while it is as yet fine, they go fluttering about within a restricted space, and the beekeeper knows from this that they are expecting bad weather. When the bees inside the hive hang clustering to one another, it is a sign that the swarm is intending to quit. Consequently, beekeepers, on seeing this, besprinkle the hive with sweet wine. It is advisable to plant about the hive pear trees, beans, median grass, Syrian grass, yellow pulse, myrtle, poppies, creeping time, and almond trees. Some beekeepers sprinkle their bees with flower and can distinguish them from others

Starting point is 15:26:44 when they are at work out of doors. If the spring be late, or if there be drought or blight, then grubs are all the fewer in the hives. So much for the habits of bees. And of chapter 40. Chapters 41 to 46 of Book 9 of History of Animals, by Aristotle, translated by Darcy, Wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 15:27:18 This Lieber Vox recording is in the public domain. 41. Of wasps, there are two kinds. Of these kinds, one is wild and scarce. Lives on the mountains, engender scrubs, not underground, but on oak trees. It is larger, longer, and blacker than the other kind. is invariably speckled and furnished with a sting, and is remarkably courageous. The pain from its sting is more severe than that caused by the others,

Starting point is 15:27:51 for the instrument that causes the pain is larger in proportion to its own larger size. These wild wasps live over into a second year, and in wintertime, when oaks have been in course of filling, they may be seen coming out and flying away. They lie concealed during the winter, and live in the interior of logs of wood. Some of them are mother wasps, and some are workers, as with the tamer kind.

Starting point is 15:28:22 But it is by observation of the tame wasps that one may learn the varied characteristics of the mothers and the workers. For, in the case of the tame wasps also, there are two kinds. consists of leaders who are called mothers and the other of workers. The leaders are far larger and milder tempered than the others. The workers do not live over into a second year, but all die when winter comes on, and this can be proved, for at the commencement of winter,

Starting point is 15:28:57 the workers become drowsy, and about the time of the winter solstice they are never seen at all. The leaders, the so-called mothers, are seen all through the winter and live in holes underground, for men, when plowing or digging in winter, have often come upon mother wasps, but never upon workers. The mode of reproduction of wasps is as follows. At the approach of summer, when the leaders have found a sheltered spot, they take to molding their combs and construct the so-called speckxswexam. little nests containing four cells or thereabouts, and in these are produced working wasps,

Starting point is 15:29:42 but not mothers. When these are grown up, then they construct other larger combs upon the first, and then again in like manner others, so that by the close of autumn there are numerous large combs, in which the leader, the so-called mother, engenders no longer working wasps but mothers. These develop high up in the nest as large grubs, in cells that occur in groups of four, or rather more, pretty much in the same way as we have seen the grubs of the king bees to be produced in their cells. After the birth of the working grubs in the cells, the leaders do nothing, and the workers

Starting point is 15:30:24 have to supply them with nourishment, and this is inferred from the fact that the leaders of the working wasps no longer float out at this time, but rest quietly indoors. Whether the leaders of last year, after engendering new leaders are killed by the new brood, and whether this occurs invariably, or whether they can live for a longer time, has not been ascertained by actual observation. Neither can we speak with certainty, as from observation, as to the age attained by the mother wasp, or by the wild wasps, or as to any other similar phenomenon. The mother wasp is broad and heavy, fatter and larger than the ordinary wasp, and from its

Starting point is 15:31:13 weight not very strong on the wing. These wasps cannot fly far, and for this reason they always rest inside the nest, building and managing its indoor arrangements. The so-called mother wasps are found in most of the nests. It is a matter of doubt whether or no they are provided with stings. In all probability, like the king bees, they have stings, but never protrude them for offense. Of the ordinary wasps, some are destitute of stings, like the drone bees, and some are provided

Starting point is 15:31:52 with them. and provided therewith are smaller and less spirited and never fight. While the others are big and courageous, and these latter by some are called males, and the stingless females. At the approach of winter, many of the wasps that have stings appear to lose them, but we have never met an eyewitness of this phenomenon. Wasps are more abundant in times of drought and in wild localities. They live underground. Their combs, they mold out of chips and earth, each comb from a single origin, like a kind of root. They feed on certain flowers and fruits, but for the most part on animal food. Some of the tame wasps have been observed when sexually united, but it was not

Starting point is 15:32:44 determined whether both or neither had stings, or whether one had a sting into the other had not. Wild wasps have been seen under similar circumstances when one was seen to have a sting, but the case of the other was left undetermined. The wasp grub does not appear to come into existence by parturition, for at the outset the grub is too big to be the offspring of a wasp. If you take a wasp by the feet and let him buzz with vibration of his wings, wasps that have no stings will fly towards it. and wasps that have stings will not, from which fact it is inferred by some that one set are males and the other females. In holes, in the ground in wintertime, wasps are found, some with stings and some without. Some build cells, small and few in number. Others build many and large ones. The so-called mothers are caught at the change of season, mostly on elm trees.

Starting point is 15:33:50 while gathering a substance, sticky and gumleg. A large number of mother wasps are found, when, in the previous year, wasps have been numerous and the weather rainy. They are captured in precipitous places, or in vertical cliffs in the ground, and they all appear to be furnished with stings. 42.

Starting point is 15:34:13 So much for the habits of wasps. Ansarini do not subsist by culling from flowers as bees do, but for the most part on animal food. For this reason, they hover about dung, for they chase the large flies, and after catching them lop off their heads and fly away with the rest of the carcasses. They are furthermore fond of sweet fruits. Such is their food. They have also kings or leaders like bees and wasps, and their leaders are larger in proportion

Starting point is 15:34:49 to themselves. then are wasp kings to wasps or bee kings to bees. The anthrenna king, like the wasp king, lives indoors. Anthroni build their nests underground, scraping out the soil like ants. For neither anthranai nor wasps go off in swarms as bees do. But successive layers of young anthranai keep to the same habitat and go on enlarging their nest by scraping out more and more of soil. The nest accordingly attains a great size. In fact, from a particularly prosperous nest have been removed three and even four baskets

Starting point is 15:35:33 full of combs. They do not, like bees, store up food, but pass the winter in a torpid condition. The greater part of them die in the winter, but it is uncertain whether that can be said of them all. In the hives of bees, several kings are found, and they lead off detachments in swarms. But in the anthranes' nest, only one king is found. When individual antherni have strayed from their nest, they cluster on a tree and construct combs, as may be often seen above ground, and in this nest they produce a king. When the king is full grown, he leads them away and settles them along with himself in a hive or nest. With regard to their sexual unions, and the method of their reproduction,

Starting point is 15:36:25 nothing is known from actual observation. Among bees, both the drones and the kings are stingless, and so are certain wasps, as has been said. But anthraini appear to be all furnished with stings, though, by the way, it would well be worthwhile to carry out investigation, as to whether the anthranagh king has a sting or not. 43 Humble bees produce their young under a stone, right on the ground,

Starting point is 15:36:58 in a couple of cells or little more. In these cells is found an attempt at honey of a poor description. The Tenthrodon is like the anthraena, but speckled and about as broad as a bee. Being epicures as to their food, they fly one at a thousand. a time into kitchens, and onto slices of fish and the like dainties. The Tenthrodon brings forth like the wasp underground, and is very prolific. Its nest is much bigger and longer than that of the wasp. So much for the methods of working, and the habits of life of the bee, the wasp, and all the

Starting point is 15:37:40 other similar insects. 44 As regards the disposition, nor temper of animals, as has been previously observed, one may detect great differences in respect to courage and timidity, as also even among wild animals, in regard to tameness and wildness. The lion, while he is eating, is most ferocious, but when he is not hungry and has had a good meal, he is quite gentle.

Starting point is 15:38:11 He is totally devoid of suspicion or nervous fear, is fond of romping. with animals that have been reared along with him, and to whom he is accustomed, and manifests great affection towards them. In the chase, as long as he is in view, he makes no attempt to run, and shows no fear. But even if he be compelled by the multitude of the hunters to retreat, he withdraws deliberately step by step, every now and then turning his head to regard his pursuers. If, however, he reach wooded cover, then he runs at full speed, until he comes to open ground when he resumes his leisurely retreat.

Starting point is 15:38:58 When in the open he is forced by the number of the hunters to run while in full view, he does run at the top of his speed, but without leaping and bounding. This running of his is evenly and continuously kept up like the running of a dog, But when he is in pursuit of his prey and is close behind, he makes a sudden pounce upon it. The two statements made regarding him are quite true, the one that he is especially afraid of fire as Homer pictures him in the line, and glowing torches which, though fierce, he dreads.

Starting point is 15:39:41 And the other that he keeps a steady eye upon the hunter who hits him. and flings himself upon him. If a hunter hit him, without hurting him, then, if, with a bound, he gets hold of him, he will do him no harm, not even with his claws, but after shaking him and giving him a fright, will let him go again. They invade the cattle folds,

Starting point is 15:40:07 and attack human beings when they are grown old, and so, by reason of old age and the diseased condition of their teeth, are unable to pursue their wanted prey. They live to a good old age. The lion, who was captured when lame, had a number of his teeth broken, which fact was regarded by some as a proof of the longevity of lions,

Starting point is 15:40:31 as he could hardly have been reduced to this condition except at an advanced age. There are two species of lions, the plump, curly-meaned, and the long-bodied street mined. The latter kind is courageous and the former comparatively timid. Sometimes they run away with their tail between their legs, like a dog. A lion was once seen to be on the point of attacking a boar,

Starting point is 15:41:00 but to run away when the boar stiffened his bristles in defense. It is susceptible of hurt from a wound in the flank, but on any other part of its frame will endure any number of blows, and its head is especially hard. Whenever it inflicts a wound either by its teeth or its claws, there flows from the wounded parts, suppurating matter, quite yellow and not to be staunched by bandage or a sponge. The treatment for such a wound is the same as that for the bite of a dog.

Starting point is 15:41:33 The thos, or civet, is fond of man's company. It does him no harm, and is not much afraid of him, but it is an enemy to the dog and the lion, and consequently is not found in the same habitat with them. The little ones are the best. Some say that there are two species of the animal, and some say three. There are probably not more than three, but, as is the case with certain of the fishes, birds, and quadrupanes, this animal changes in appearance with the change of season. His color in winter is not the same as it is in summer.

Starting point is 15:42:11 In summer, the animal is smooth-haired. In winter, he is closed in fur. 45. The bison is found in pionia on Mount Mesapium, which separates Pionia from Midica, and the pionians call it the monopus. It is the size of a bull, but stouter in build and not long in the body. skin, stretched tight, on a frame, would give sitting room for seven people. In general, it resembles the ox in appearance, except that it has a mean that reaches down to the point of the

Starting point is 15:42:51 shoulder, as that of the horse reaches down to its withers. But the hair in its mean is softer than the hair in the horse's mean, and clings more closely. The color of the hair is brown-yellow. The mean reaches down to the eyes, and is deep, The color of the body is half red, half ashen gray, like that of the so-called chestnut horse, but rougher. It has an undercoat of woolly hair. The animal is not found either very black or very red. It has the bellow of a bull.

Starting point is 15:43:28 Its horns are crooked, turned inwards towards each other and useless for purposes of self-defense. They are a span broad or a little more. In volume, each horn would hold about three pints of liquid. The black color of the horn is beautiful and bright. The tuft of hair on the forehead reaches down to the eyes, so that the animal sees objects on either flank better than objects right in front. It has no upper teeth, as is the case also with kine, and all other horned animals. Its legs are hairy.

Starting point is 15:44:05 It is cloven-footed, and the tames. which resembles that of the ox, seems not big enough for the size of its body. It tosses up dust and scoops out the ground with its hooves, like the bull. Its skin is impervious to blows. Owing to the savor of its flesh, it is sought for in the chase. When it is wounded, it runs away, and stops only when thoroughly exhausted. It defends itself against an assailant by kicking, and projecting its excrement to a distance of eight yards.

Starting point is 15:44:42 This device, it can easily adopt over and over again, and the excrement is so pungent that the hair of hunting dogs is burnt off by it. It is only when the animal is disturbed or alarmed that the dung has this property. When the animal is undisturbed, it has no blistering effect. So much for the shape and habits of the animal. When the season comes for parturition, the mothers give birth to their young in troops upon the mountains. Before dropping their young, they scatter their dung in all directions, making a kind of circular rampart around them, for the animal has the faculty of ejecting excrement in most extraordinary quantities.

Starting point is 15:45:29 46 Of all wild animals the most easily teamed and the gentlest in the wild animals, the most easily teemed and the gentlest, is the elephant. It can be taught a number of tricks, the drift and meaning of which it understands. As, for instance, it can be taught to kneel in presence of the king. It is very sensitive and possessed of an intelligence superior to that of other animals. When the male has had sexual union with the female, and the female has conceived, the male has no further intercourse with her. Some say that the elephant has had sexual union with the female. lives for 200 years, others for 120, that the female lives nearly as long as the male, that they

Starting point is 15:46:13 reach their prime about the age of 60, and that they are sensitive to inclement weather and frost. The elephant is found by the banks of rivers, but he is not a river animal. He can make his way through water as long as the tip of his trunk can be above the surface, for he blows with his trunk and breathes through it. The animal is a poor swimmer owing to the heavy weight of his body. And of Chapter 46. Chapter 47 to 49 B of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Darcy Wentworth-Thompson. This Librevox recording is in the public domain. 47 The male camel declines intercourse with its mother.

Starting point is 15:47:15 If his keeper tries compulsion, he evinces disinclination. On one occasion, when intercourse was being declined by the young male, the keeper covered over the mother and put the young male to her. But when after the intercourse, the wrapping had been removed, though the operation was completed and could not be revoked, still by and by he bid his keeper to death. A story goes that the king of Scythia had a highly bred mare, and that all her foals were splendid, that wishing to meet the best of the young males with the mother, he had him brought to the stall for the purpose, that the young horse declined, that after the mother's head,

Starting point is 15:48:05 had been concealed in a wrapper, he, in ignorance, had intercourse, and that when immediately afterwards the wrapper was removed, and the head of the mare was rendered visible, the young horse ran away and hurled himself down a precipice. 48. Among the sea-fishes, many stories are told about the dolphin, indicative of his gentle and kindly nature, and of manifestations of passionate attachment to boys, in, and about Torrentum, Caria, and other places. The story goes that after a dolphin had been caught and wounded off the coast of Caria, a shoal of dolphins came into the harbor and stopped there until the fisherman let his captive

Starting point is 15:49:00 go free, whereupon the shoal departed. A shoal of young dolphins is always by way of protection, followed by a large one. On one occasion a shoal of dolphins large and small was seen, and two dolphins at a little distance appeared swimming in underneath a little dead dolphin when it was sinking, and supporting it on their backs, trying out of compassion to prevent its being devoured by some predacious fish. Incredible stories are told regarding the rapidity of movement of this creature. It appears to be the fleetest of all animals, marine and terrestrial, and it can leap over the masts of large vessels.

Starting point is 15:49:50 This speed is chiefly manifested when they are pursuing a fish for food. Then, if the fish endeavors to escape, they pursue him in their ravenous hunger down to deep waters. But when the necessary return swim is getting too long, they hold in their breath, as though calculating the length of it, and then draw themselves together for an effort and shoot up like arrows, trying to make the long ascent rapidly in order to breathe, and in the effort they spring right over a ship's masts if a ship be in the vicinity. This same phenomenon is observed in divers. when they have plunged into deep water,

Starting point is 15:50:37 that is, they pull themselves together and rise with a speed proportional to their strength. Dolphins live together in pairs, male and female. It is not known for what reason they run themselves aground on dry land. At all events, it is said that they do so at times, and for no obvious reason. 49. Just as with all animals, a change of action follows a change of circumstance, so also a change of character follows a change of action. And often, some portions of the physical frame undergo a change,

Starting point is 15:51:17 as occurs in the case of burns. Hens, for instance, when they have beaten the cock in a fight, will crow like the cock and endeavor to tread him. The crest rises up on their, hand and the tail feathers on the rump, so that it becomes difficult to recognize that they are hens. In some cases, there is a growth of small spurs. On the death of a hen, a cock has been seen to undertake the maternal duties, leading the

Starting point is 15:51:49 chickens about and providing them with food, and so intent upon these duties as to cease crowing and indulging his sexual propensities. Some cockbirds are congenitly so feminine that they will submit patiently to other males who attempt to tread them. Fifty. Some animals change their form and character, not only at certain ages and at certain seasons, but in consequence of being castrated, and all animals possessed of testicles may be submitted to this operation.

Starting point is 15:52:28 have their testicles inside, and oviparous quadrupeds close to the loins, and of viviparous animals that walk, some have them inside, and most have them outside, but all have them at the lower end of the belly. Birds are castrated at the rump, at the part where the two sexes unite in copulation. If you burn this twice or thrice with hot irons, then, if the bird be full-grown, His crest grows sallow. He ceases to crow, and foregoes sexual passion. But if you cauterize the bird when young, none of these male attributes or propensities will come to him as he grows up.

Starting point is 15:53:14 The case is the same with men. If you mutilate them in boyhood, the latter growing hair never comes, and the voice never changes, but remains high-pitched. If they be mutilated in early manhood, the late growths of hair quit them, except the growth on the groin, and that diminishes but does not entirely depart. The congenital growths of hair never fall out, for a eunuch never grows bald. In the case of all castrated or mutilated male quadrupeds, the voice changes to the feminine voice.

Starting point is 15:53:54 All other quadrupeds, when castrated, unless the operation be performed when they are young, invariably die. But in the case of boars, and in their case only, the age at which the operation is performed produces no difference. All animals, if operated on, when they are young, become bigger and better looking, then they're unmutilated fellows. If they be mutilated when full-grown, they do not take on any age. increase of size. If stags be mutilated when, by reason of their age, they have as yet no horns, they never grow horns at all. If they be mutilated when they have horns, the horns remain unchanged in size, and the animal does not lose them. Caves are mutilated when a year old, otherwise they turn out uglier and smaller. Steers are mutilated in the following way. They turn the

Starting point is 15:54:53 animal over on its back, cut a little off the scrotum at the lower end, and squeeze out the testicles, then push back the roots of them as far as they can, and stop up the incision with hair to give an outlet to suppurating matter. If inflammation ensues, they cauterize the scrotum and put on a plaster. If a full-grown bull be mutilated, he can still, to all appearance, you now, sexually with the cow. The ovaries of sows are excised, with the view of quenching in them sexual appetites and of stimulating growth in size and fatness. The sow has first to be kept two days without food, and after being hung up by the hind legs, it is operated on. They cut the lower belly about the place where the boars have their testicles, for it is there that the

Starting point is 15:55:53 ovary grows, adhering to the two divisions or horns of the womb. They cut off a little piece and stitch up the incision. Female camels are mutilated when they are wanted for war purposes, and are mutilated to prevent their being got with young. Some of the inhabitants of Upper Asia have as many as 3,000 camels. When they run, they run in consequence of the length of their stride, much quicker than the horses of Nisaya. As a general rule, mutilated animals grow to a greater length, then the unmutilated. All animals that ruminate derive profit and pleasure from the process of rumination, as they do from the process of eating. It is the animals that lack the upper teeth that ruminate,

Starting point is 15:56:46 such as kind, sheep, and goats. In the case of wild animals, no observation. No observation has been possible, save in the case of animals that are occasionally domesticated, such as the stag, and it we know choose the cud. All animals that ruminate generally do so when lying down on the ground. They carry on the process, to the greatest extent, in winter, and stall-fed ruminants carry it on for about seven months in the year. Beasts that go in herds as they get their food out of doors, ruminate to a lesser degree and over a lesser period.

Starting point is 15:57:26 Some also of the animals that have teeth in both jaws ruminate, as, for instance, the pontic mice, and the fish which from the habit is by some called the ruminant, as well as other fish. Long-limbed animals have loose feces, and broad-chested animals vomit with comparative facility, and these remarks are in a general way applicable to quadrupanes, birds, and men. 49B

Starting point is 15:57:57 A considerable number of birds change according to season the color of their plumage and their note. As, for instance, the ouzel becomes yellow instead of black, and its note gets altered, for in summer it has a musical note and in winter a discordant chatter. The thrush also changes its color, about the throat, it is marked in winter with speckles like a starling, in summer distinctly spotted. However, it never alters its note. The nightingale, when the hills are taking on verdure, sings continually for 15 days and 15 nights. Afterwards, it sings, but not continuously. As summer advances, it has a different song. not so varied as before, nor so deep, nor so intricately modulated, but simple. It also changes its color, and in Italy about this season it goes by a different name.

Starting point is 15:59:04 It goes into hiding and is consequently visible only for a brief period. The Erythacus, or Red Beast, and the so-called Red Start, change into one another. The former is a winter-bird, the latter a summer one, and the difference between them is practically limited to the coloration of their plumage. In the same way, with the Becophico and the Black Cap, these change into one another. The Becophico appears about autumn and the black cap as soon as autumn has ended. These birds also differ from one another only in a summer.

Starting point is 15:59:48 color and note. That these birds, to a name, are one in reality is proved by the fact that at the period when the change is in progress, each one has been seen with the change as yet incomplete. It is not so very strange that in these cases there is a change in note and in plumage, for even the ring dove ceases to coo in winter, and recommences cooing, when spring comes in. In winter, however, when fine weather has succeeded to very stormy weather, this bird has been known to give its cooing note to the astonishment of such as were acquainted with its usual winter silence. As a general rule, birds sing most loudly and most diversely in the pairing season. The cuckoo changes its color and its note is not clearly heard for a

Starting point is 16:00:48 short time previous to its departure. It departs about the rising of the dog star, and it reappears from springtime to the rising of the dog star. At the rise of this star, the bird, called by some ennance, disappears and reappears when it is setting, thus keeping clear at one time of extreme cold and at another time of extreme heat. The hoopoe also changes its color and appearance, as Escalus has represented in the following lines. Quote, The hoopoe witness to his own distress, is clad by Zeus' invariable dress. Now a gay mountain bird with nightly crest.

Starting point is 16:01:38 Now in the white hawk's silver plumage dress. For timely changing on the hawk's white wing, he greets the greeks' apparition of the spring. Thus twofold form and color are conferred, in youth and age upon the self-same bird. The spangled raiment marks his youthful days, the argent, his maturity displays, and when the fields are yellow with ripe corn, again his particolored plumes are worn. But evermore, in sullen discontent, he seeks to, the lonely hills in self-sought banishment. Close quote.

Starting point is 16:02:23 Of birds, some take a dust bath by rolling in dust. Some take a water bath, and some take neither the one bath nor the other. Birds that do not fly, but keep on the ground, take the dust bath, as, for instance, the hen, the partridge, the franklin, the crested lark, the pheasant, some, of the straight tallant birds, and such as live on the banks of a river. In marshes or by the sea take a water bath. Some birds take both the dust bath and the water bath, as, for instance, the pigeon and the sparrow. Of the crooked talent birds, the greater part, take neither the one bath nor the other. So much for the ways of the above-mentioned. But some birds have a peculiar habit

Starting point is 16:03:17 of making a noise at their hinder quarters, as, for instance, the turtle dove, and they make a violent movement of their tails at the same time that they produce this peculiar sound. And of Chapter 49B and end of Book 9. Book 10 of History of Animals by Aristotle, translated by Richard Cresswell. This Libravox recording is in the public domain. Book the 10th, erroneously ascribed to Aristotle. Chapter 1 If men and women, after they have reached a certain age, do not have children after

Starting point is 16:04:14 cohabitation, the fault sometimes rests with both, and sometimes in only one of them. And first it is requisite to examine the uterus of the female, that if the fault lies there, it may be relieved by proper treatment. If the fault is not there, attention must be paid to some other cause of sterility. We may conclude that this organ is in a healthy state when, like the other parts of the body, it performs its functions without pain, and is free from fatigue after the function is performed. Just as the eye is in a healthy state if it suffers no pain in seeing, and is not disordered with the exercise of its function, or unable to perform it again.

Starting point is 16:05:03 So the uterus is healthy, which suffers no pain, and is well able to perform its functions, whatever they may be, and after they are performed is not impotent, but is free from fatigue. 2. The uterus is said to be disordered when, even if it performs its functions properly and without pain, it does not hinder its function by any part of itself, as there is nothing to prevent an eye from seeing accurately, although all its parts are not perfect, or if there happens to be a tumor in it. So the uterus may have received no injury in this respect if it is properly situated in the right place. In the first place, then, the healthy uterus will not be situated in this place or in that, but will always be in a similar position.

Starting point is 16:06:01 But it is not difficult to decide whether it is not placed at too great a distance without suffering and pain, or whether it is devoid of sensation when touched. that these parts ought to be properly placed is evident from the following considerations. For if the uterus is not near, it will not be able to imbibe the semen, for the place from which it ought to receive it will be at too great a distance. If the uterus is near and not able to retire further, it will be useless, for it will be always touched so as to refuse to open. But it ought to do this, and to be obediently.

Starting point is 16:06:41 to its function. These things ought to be thus ordered, and if they are not, the case requires attention. 3. The catamemia also should proceed correctly, that is, if the general health is good, they should last for their proper time, and not come irregularly. For when the catamina are right, the uterus will open properly and receive the fluids of the body whenever they are secreted. But when they make their appearance too often, or not often enough, or irregularly, while the rest of the body does not sympathize with them, and the general health is good, we must look to the uterus for the cause of their irregularity. The dullness of the uterus prevents its being opened at the proper time,

Starting point is 16:07:35 so that it receives but a small portion, or rather, the uterus imbibes the fluid from some inflammation, of the parts, so that it shows that it requires attention, like the eyes, the bladder, the stomach, and other parts. For all the parts, when inflamed, imbibe the fluid which is secreted into each place, but not such a fluid, or in so great quantities. 4. In like manner, if the uterus secretes more than it ought to do, it exhibits an inflammatory tendency, if the secretion is regular but too abundant. But if the secretion is irregular, or more

Starting point is 16:08:17 putrid than it should be in healthy subjects, the disease is then quite manifest, for it is necessary that some pain should show that all is not well. In a healthy subject, at the commencement and the cessation of menstruation, the secretion appears white and putrid. All those subjects, in whom the sequitian is more putrid than in healthy persons, or is irregular, or too abundant, or deficient, should receive attention, for this it is that prevents child-bearing. But in those subjects who are only irregular and unequal in the periods of the secretion, the disease is not the preventive of child-bearing, though it shows that the habit of the uterus is changeable and does not always remain the same.

Starting point is 16:09:07 and this affection is sufficient to prevent those persons from conception who are otherwise well disposed towards it. It is, however, hardly a disease, but an affection which may be restored without medical treatment, unless it is affected by some previous fault. 5. If the regularity and quantity of the discharge is subject to alteration, without any corresponding change in the rest of the body, which is sometimes in a more fluid, at other times in a more dry state, the uterus is not in fault, though it ought to follow the habit of the rest of the body

Starting point is 16:09:48 and receive and secrete in proportion. If the body is in a good state of health, but undergoing a change, when this takes place, there is no need of medical treatment. But if the secretion is too small from disease, and the secretion is taken through, through some other source, the body suffers. And if the discharge is too great, from all the secretions of the body being turned in one direction, this does not point to disease of the uterus, but of the whole body. Whenever the catamina coincide with the general habit of the body, it is evident that the fault does not lie with the uterus,

Starting point is 16:10:29 which would perform its functions properly if the general health were correct. 6. Sometimes the uterus is weak and sometimes strong, sometimes too fluid and sometimes too dry, and the discharge coincides with the state of the body. It is abundant when that is full, deficient when it is less full. If the body is full of fluid, the discharge is watery. If the body is dry, it is more sanguineous. It begins with being white like milk, and is with it.

Starting point is 16:11:04 without smell. Some are dark-colored, and when about to cease they become white, at the last secretion. The white discharge has not the smell of putrid matter, but is more harsh and disagreeable, nor has it the smell of pus, and, when this is the condition of the symptoms, there is no wearing away, but the body becomes heated. In all that are in this state, the uterus is in a healthy condition for child-bearing. Chapter 2 We must then, first of all, inquire whether all these particulars are well-ordered,

Starting point is 16:11:45 and next we must learn the position of the body of the uterus, for it ought to be straight, and if it is not so, the seminal fluid can never reach it, and it is evident that women project their semen forwards from what happens when they have lascivious dreams. for this part of them, then requires attention, being moistened, as though they had sexual intercourse, for they also project into the place where the semen of the male is emitted, and not into the uterus. And when projected to this place, the semen is drawn into the uterus by inhalation,

Starting point is 16:12:25 as the mucus is drawn into the nose. For this reason, they become pregnant in every position. for the seminal fluid both in men and women is always projected forwards. But if it were projected into the female, she would not always conceive after copulation. 2. But if the uterus is not straight, but inclined to the hips, the loins, or the hypogastric region, it is impossible to conceive, for the before-mentioned reason, that the uterus cannot take up the seminal fluid. If this deformity is great, either naturally or from disease, the disorder is incurable.

Starting point is 16:13:07 If there is a rupture, either by nature or arising from the disease, which contracts the parts with inflammation, the disorder will take a different turn from this. But in order that women may become pregnant, it is necessary, as it was said, that the mouth of the uterus should be straight, and, moreover, should be well opened. By this I mean that when the menstrual discharge commences, the os uteri should on contact appear softer than before, though not distinctly expanded. But if this is the case, let the first appearance be white. 3.

Starting point is 16:13:48 But when the appearances are more the color of flesh, the uterus will be evidently relaxed without pain when it is touched, and the os uteri is neither. they're dull, nor different from itself, and when the discharge ceases, let the aperture be very open and dry, but not hard, for a day and a half or two days, for this shows that the uterus is in a healthy state and fit to perform its functions. If the os uteri is not immediately relaxed, but appears soft, it shows that both the uterus and the rest of the body are relaxed, and the uterus does not prevent, but first discharges the secretion from the os uteri.

Starting point is 16:14:35 And when the rest of the body has discharged a great deal, and the os uteri becomes relaxed, it is a sign of a healthy condition. 4. And when the appearances cease to take place directly, the uterus shows that if there is any difficulty, it will become empty and dry, and wanting in it. and wanting in moisture, and there will be no remains in the passage. When the uterus, therefore, is capable of contraction, it shows that it is in a proper state for receiving whatever is brought to it,

Starting point is 16:15:09 when it is in this state without pain, and indeed is insensate, and it is good that the os uteri should not be in any other condition. This shows that there is no reason why it should not close at the, the proper time. This is the manner of considering the os uteri, whether it is in a healthy condition or not. Chapter 3. These ought to be the symptoms of the uterus itself after purification. First of all, that the woman should dream of sexual intercourse and project her seminal fluid readily, as if a man were lying with her, and if this symptom occur frequently, it is better. And when she has risen, sometimes she should require the same treatment as if she had

Starting point is 16:16:01 been with a man. Sometimes she should be dry. But this dryness should not be immediate. But after awaking, she should be fluid, sooner or later, about as much as half a short day. The humidity should be of the same kind as if she had been with a man. For all this, shows that the uterus is in a fit state to receive what is given it, and that the Cotolidans are drawn up and will retain what they have received and be unwilling to part with it. 2. A flatulent state of the uterus is also a good sign, when it enlarges and discharges the wind as the bowels do without pain, and when it becomes larger and smaller without any

Starting point is 16:16:51 symptom of disease. For these symptoms show that the uterus is not in want of what is necessary, nor sluggish, either naturally or from disease, but that it will be able to find room by growth for anything that it may receive. For, it has the power of dilation. When this is not the case, the uterus is too thick, or some natural defect or disease has rendered it insensible. For this cause, it cannot nourish, but it will destroy the embryo if the symptoms are violent, while the embryo is small, if they are less so when it is larger. If the uterus is slightly affected, the offspring will be inferior, as if it had been fed in an inferior vessel.

Starting point is 16:17:40 3. Upon contact, the right and left side will be found to be alike, and all the other parts in the same way, and in the action. of copulation, moisture will be produced not frequently nor in great abundance. This affection is, as it were, a perspiration of the place, like the saliva, which is frequently produced both in the use of food and in speaking. Tears also are shed from the eyes when we look upon brilliant objects and under cold or greater heat, of which these parts also partake when they happen to be moist.

Starting point is 16:18:19 So the uterus becomes moist, when employed when it is of a more moist disposition. Those that are in the best health suffer from this affection, for which reason women always require more or less attention, as also the most require saliva. In sum, this moisture is so abundant that they cannot imbibe the seminal fluid of the man in a state of purity, on account of its admixture, with this uterine moisture. 4. Besides these affections, the following also is to be considered. Whether when they dream of sexual intercourse their general health is good or not, as whether they are weak, and whether they are so always, or only sometimes, and whether they are not sometimes strong, and whether

Starting point is 16:19:10 they are dry at first and moist afterwards, for this ought to be the condition of a woman capable of child bearing. For relaxation shows that the body has been profuse of the seminal fluid, and that it can perform its functions. But when the uterus is hard, it is a sign of debility. If a woman has this affection without any disease, it shows that the emission takes place naturally, as it ought to do. For if it were not so, there would be disease and prostration of strength. Sometimes, when the uterus is dry and afterward, becomes moist, it is a sign that the whole body receives and makes away with the seminal fluid, and that both the uterus and the body are strong.

Starting point is 16:19:56 For it has been already observed that the uterus absorbs the semen, which is placed upon it by the process of inhalation. For, it is not emitted into it, but upon the same place as that of the man. All that takes, by inhalation, is accompanied with force, so that it is plain that the body of such a person must have the power of retraction. 5. It sometimes happens that women who have lascivious dreams, or men of strong passions, are robust, not from strength but from health.

Starting point is 16:20:32 This takes place when a large quantity of seminal fluid has been collected near the place from whence they omitted. If this makes its escape, they are in no ways debilitated, for they are not reliant. for they are not relaxed by the loss of a portion, if sufficient remains behind, or if that which was emitted was useless, nor if it was emitted easily, as if they parted with superfluous matter. For which reason such persons are not robust from strength but from dullness. But when any part is emitted, which is necessary for the body, they become debilitated.

Starting point is 16:21:10 6. If a person is in good health, if a person is in good health, health and of a proper age, the seminal fluid is rapidly formed. This takes place in those that have not done growing, and in those that are grown. Women rarely know when they are first pregnant, for they do not think that they have conceived unless they perceive that the semen has been emitted, suspecting that it ought to be emitted at the same time both by the female and the male. And it escapes their notice, more especially when they think. think that they are unable to conceive, unless they have become dry, and that which they have received

Starting point is 16:21:50 has disappeared entirely. But it sometimes happens that both the male and the female emit more than could possibly disappear, and more than enough for conception. When sufficient has been drawn in, and much left out, they become pregnant without knowing it. 7. That it is possible that this should take place and that the affection does not arise from the whole of the seminal fluid, we may learn from those animals which produce many young ones from a single act of intercourse, or from the case of twins produced by a single act. It is evident that they are not produced from the whole semen, but each place receives some

Starting point is 16:22:32 portion of it, but the larger portion is left behind, and if many young are produced from a single act of intercourse, which appears to be the case with swine and with twins. It is evident that the semen cannot come from every part of the body, but it is divided out to each form. It is possible, therefore, that it may be separated from every part of the body, and that the whole may be divided among many, so that it is not possible that all should have every part. The female also projects her semen into the os uteri, where the man also emits his when he approaches her. From thence she imbibes with inhalation as if it were with the mouth or nostrils, for whatever is not joined to the members is either hollow above and united by a symphysis,

Starting point is 16:23:26 or is sucked in from this place by the act of inhalation. For which reason they take care that it should be dry, as if this had happened before. 8. The path along which it passes is thus formed in women. There is a tube enclosed in the body like the penis of the male. The inhalation takes place through this by a small passage above the passage for the urine. When therefore they desire sexual intercourse, this part is not in the same condition as it was before.

Starting point is 16:24:01 A falling down takes place from this passage, and the fore part of the uterus becomes much larger than the part where it falls into this passage. This resembles the nostrils, for as the nostrils have a passage into the pharynx and into the external air, so this tube has a very small and narrow passage, like a passage out for the wind. That to the forepart of the uterus is wide and broad, as the nostrils are, to the external air between the mouth and the pharynx. So, women have a larger passage to the forepart of the uterus, and wider than the external

Starting point is 16:24:41 passage. 9. Whatever conjecture is formed concerning these affections, it makes to the same conclusion that the woman also emits a seminal fluid. The same things arise from the same cause, for to some it seems to be the cause of disease or of death, and these consider the end at the beginning as it ought to be considered, for to some women these are important causes, to some of no importance, and of these causes, some are, and some are not of consequence.

Starting point is 16:25:18 They divide also in proportion the consequences which may result from them. To some it happens to pass through all these affections, to those who have many, through many of them, others through few, and others, again, who have none, through none of them. 10. There are some persons who suffer from the affection called inflation. This sought not to be. The affection is of this kind. In copulation, they neither evidently emit semen, nor do they become pregnant.

Starting point is 16:25:53 Wherefore, they are said to be inflated. The excessive dryness of the uterus is the cause. of this complaint, and when it has drawn the fluid into itself, it ejects it again. This becomes dried up, and having become small, falls out without any notice being taken of the circumstance on account of its size. When the uterus is violently affected in this way, it becomes very dry, and ejects it very soon, it is plain that pregnancy cannot take place. If this does not take place very soon, impregnation appears for a time to have taken place

Starting point is 16:26:31 until it is ejected. The same thing also takes place at times in those who have conceived properly. If a long time has elapsed, the unerus becomes elevated, so that it plainly appears as if impregnation had taken place until it falls out. Then all becomes as it was at first. They refer this affliction to a divine origin. It is curable unless it is natural, or the disease has gone a great way. It is a sign that this disease is not present when women appear neither to have emitted

Starting point is 16:27:09 semen nor to have conceived after sexual intercourse. Chapter 4 1. Pregnancy is prevented also by spasm in the uterus. complaint attacks the uterus when it is either distended with inflammation or in the act of parturition. When any large quantity of matter suddenly enters it and the os uteri is not open, spasm then arises from distension. It is a sign of the absence of spasm if the uterus does not appear to reach inflammation

Starting point is 16:27:45 in its functions, whereas if spasm were present there would be some signs of inflammation. Again, a swelling at the mouth of the uterus, if it is much drawn out, will prevent conception. It is a sign that this is not the case when the uterus appears to open and close properly after the discharge of the catamina or the use of the male. 2. In some also, the os uteri is closed either from the period of birth or in consequence of disease. Sometimes this is curable, and sometimes not so. It is not, however, difficult to ascertain the state of the case, for it is not possible either to receive or to omit anything in a proper manner.

Starting point is 16:28:36 If it appears to have received and rejected the seminal fluid of the meal, it is an evidence of the presence of the disease, but those who have no impediment in the way of conception, but are, as it has been said, as they ought to be, unless the man is impotent, or they are not able to have children together, being unable to emit their semen at the same time, and differ very much, such persons will have no children. Chapter 5 In order to understand of sterility in the male, we must take other symptoms.

Starting point is 16:29:14 These will appear very easy if he copulates with other women, and impregnates them. When the sexes do not appear to concur with each other, although all the before-mentioned circumstances are present, they do not have children together. For it is evident that this is the only reason of sterility. For if the woman contributes to the semen and generation, it is evident that both the sexes should be concurrent. For if the man is quick and the woman slow in the emission of the semen, and

Starting point is 16:29:48 many women are comparatively slow, this will prevent conception, for which cause they do not produce children by sexual union with each other. They do so, however, when they happen to be concurrent with each other, for if the woman is desirous and prepared for the intercourse, and is inclined for it, but the man is suffering previous pain and of a cold disposition, it is then also necessary that they should be concurrent. Chapter 6. It is quite plain when animals desire sexual intercourse, for the female pursues the male, as hens pursue the cock and place themselves beneath him, if the male is not desirous.

Starting point is 16:30:34 Other animals also do the same. But if all animals appear to have these affections, with respect to sexual intercourse, it is plain that the causes must be the same throughout. This bird, however, has not only the desire of receiving, but also of emitting semen. This is a proof of it. If the male is not present, she will emit the semen into herself and become pregnant and produce barren eggs, as if she desired both to emit semen, and, when she had done so, soon ceased, just as when the male was present.

Starting point is 16:31:12 Others also do the same, for a person has attempted to rear some singing locusts, which he had taken in a young state. When grown, they became pregnant spontaneously. 2. From these considerations, it is plain that every female contributes to the seaman. If this appears to take place in any one class of animals, for the barren animal differs in no respect from the other, except that it does not produce an animal, and this, because it was formed by the union of both sexes. For this reason, all the seminal fluid of the male does not appear to be productive, but some parts are barren, when not properly compounded from both sexes, and when women have lascivious dreams, the same affections of weakness and debility often occur,

Starting point is 16:32:08 as if they had been lying with a male. It is plain, therefore, that if they appear to have emitted a seminal fluid in their dream, they will then conjecture that after their dream the same place will become moist, and they will be obliged to bestow the same attention upon themselves as if they had had sexual intercourse, so that it is evident that there must be an emission of semen from both if it is to be productive, 3. But the uterus does not emit its semen into itself, but on the outside into the place where that of the male also is received, and then draws it into itself. For some females

Starting point is 16:32:53 produce spontaneously, as the bird produces barren eggs, and other females do not so, as the horses and sheep. Either because the bird projects her semen into the uterus, and the place upon which that of the male is emitted is not external, for which reason, if he does not copulate properly with the female, it is poured out upon the ground. But in quadrapands, there is another place for the reception of the semen, both of the male and female, which in other animals it is combined with other fluids of the body, and is not collected in the uterus, because it does not enter it. But in birds, the uterus receives and matures the seminal fluid, and forms a body similar in other respects, though not a living creature.

Starting point is 16:33:45 It is necessary, therefore, the living creature should be derived from both sexes. Chapter 7 You must inquire whether women speak the truth when they say that after a lascivious dream they find themselves dry, for it is plain that the uterus draws upwards, and if so, why do not females become pregnant spontaneously, since the male seminal fluid is drawn in mixed with their own. And why do not she-goats draw that part of it which extends outwards? For this affection takes place in some that have been pregnant many years, for they produce

Starting point is 16:34:28 what is called mile, an amorphous mass of flesh, a circumstance which has also happened to a certain woman. For, having had sexual intercourse, and to all appearance conceived, the size of the uterus increased, and everything at first went on regularly. But when the time of parturition arrived, she produced nothing, nor did the enlargement become any smaller, but after three or four years a dysentery occurred, which placed her life in danger, when she produced a large mass of flesh, which they called, mile.

Starting point is 16:35:09 The affection continues in some to old age, even to the day of their death. 2. Does this affection arise from a warm habit of body, when the uterus is warm and dry, and for this reason capable of drawing into itself in such a manner that it is taken up and kept in it? For in persons so affected, if the seminal fluid of both sexes is not united, but, like the barren egg, is taken up by one sex, then the mile is produced, which is not living creature, for it does not originate in both sexes, nor is it lifeless, for it is taken

Starting point is 16:35:54 to have life like the barren egg. It remains, however, a long while on account of the disposition of the uterus, and because the bird, which has produced many eggs in herself, when the uterus is stimulated by these, goes and lays them. And when the first is produced, the last will also come forth in proper time, for there is nothing to prevent it. But the body being productive, as soon as it is full, causes the uterus to be no longer retentive. But in viviparous animals, on account of the change of force, as the fetus increases and the diversity of food is required, the uterus causes partrition from a kind of inflammation. 3.

Starting point is 16:36:46 But the flesh, because it is not alive, always requires the same kind of food, for it does not cause any weight in the uterus, nor any inflammation, so that the affection would continue, in some cases throughout life, unless some fortunate debility should take place, as in the woman who was attacked with dysentery. But does this affection arise from warmth as it was said, or rather from a fluid state, because there is a fullness as it closes, either because the uterus is neither cold enough to reject it, nor warm enough to bring it to maturity? Therefore, the disease lasts a long while, like those things which remain a long while before

Starting point is 16:37:33 they are matured. But those that are about to come to maturity have an end, and that quickly. Such uteri, being very high up, cause a long delay, and again, not being alive, it does not cause any pain by its movements, for the movement of the ligament, which the living Fetus produces causes pain. And the hardness of the substance is the effect of imperfect production, for it is so hard that it cannot be cut by the stroke of an axe. All ripe and mature things become soft, but imperfectly digested things are immature and hard. 4. Wherefore many physicians deceived by the resemblance say that women are suffering

Starting point is 16:38:22 from Mile if they only see the abdomen elevated without dropsy, and a cessation of the catamenia when the disease has lasted for a long while. But this is not the case, for the mile is a rare disease. Sometimes there will be collections of cold and moist excrements and fluids, and sometimes of thick ones in this part of the abdomen, if either the nature or the habit is of this kind. For these things afford neither pain nor heat, on account of their cold nature. But if they increase, more or less,

Starting point is 16:38:59 they bring no other disease after them, but remain quiet, like some maimed thing. Five. The cessation of the catamina takes place on account of the excrementitious matter of the body, being directed to this point, as when women are nursing, for they occur either not at all or only in small quantities. A collection of matter from the flesh sometimes takes place between the uterus and the stomach,

Starting point is 16:39:30 which has the character of the mile, but is not it. But it is not difficult to know the difference by touching the uterus, for if it is correctly placed and not enlarged, it is evident that the disease is not there. But if it is the same as when with child, it will be warm and cold and dry, because all the fluids are turned inwards, and the os uteri will be in the same condition as when they are pregnant. But if the enlargement is of any other kind, it will be cold and not dry when touched, and the os uteri will always be the same. End of Book 10 and End of History of Animals by Aristotle. Books 1 to 9, translated by Darcy wentworth Thompson.

Starting point is 16:40:26 Book 10, translated by Richard Cresswell. Proof-listening and metacord a meeting by David Craig.

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