Classic Audiobook Collection - The Animate and the Inanimate by William James Sidis ~ Full Audiobook [science]

Starting point is 00:00:00 Section 0 of The Animate and the Inanimate by William Sidus. Preface This work sets forth a theory which is speculative in nature. There being no verifying experiments. It is based on the idea of the reversibility of everything in time. That is that every type of process has its time image, a corresponding process which is to its exact reverse with respect to time. This accounts for all physical laws but one, namely, the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Starting point is 00:00:32 This law has been found during the 19th century to be a source of a great deal of difficulty. The eminent physicist, Clerk Maxwell, in the middle of the 19th century, while giving a proof of that law, admitted that reversals are possible by imagining a sorting demon, who could sort out the smaller particles, and separate the slower ones from the faster ones. The second law thermodynamics brought in the idea of energy level, of unavailable energy, or entropy, as was called by Clausius, which was constantly increasing. In the theory herein set forth, we suppose that reversals of the second law are a regular phenomenon and identify them with what is generally known as life. This changes the idea of unavailable energy into that of a reverse fund of energy used only by life, and created by non-living forces. This is in accordance with some recent discoveries.

Starting point is 00:01:25 The late Professor William James has discovered in the domain of mental phenomena what he calls reserve energy, which later investigation is shown to be present, to a more limited extent, in all biological phenomena. It remained a mystery, however, where this energy came from, and the theory of reserve energy has set forth in his work suggests a possible explanation of these phenomena. In relation to the universe as a whole, the theory herein set forth represents, the idea of what is known as cyclical change. This idea is a very old one, being found among the philosophers of the Ionian school, and reappearing at later periods from time to time.

Starting point is 00:02:03 On the other hand, the generally accepted theory of the second law of thermodynamics represents a different philosophical tenancy, the tendency that considers changes once made as irreparable. Aristotle's philosophy is a good example of that tenancy in ancient times, but it has appeared more recently, especially in Spencer's theory of evolution, which it is interesting to note, is hardly more than a statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics in Philosophical Terms. Since the manuscript was completed, my attention was attracted by a quotation from a lecture

Starting point is 00:02:37 by the great scientist, Lord Kelvin, in which a theory is suggested, which is very similar to mine in its general outlines. Lord Kelvin, however, does not work out the theory. He suggests that life works through reversal of the second law of thermodynamics, and that living organisms, especially animal life, actually act the part of Clerk Maxwell's sorting demon. Lord Kelvin, however, regards this as an indication of some suspension of the ordinary fiscal laws, instead of seeking for the explanation of this reversal in these fiscal laws themselves. To quote Lord Kelvin's own words, it is conceivable that animal life might have the attribute of using the heat of surrounding matter at its natural temperature as a source of energy for a mechanical effect.

Starting point is 00:03:23 The influence of animal or vegetable life on matter is infinitely beyond the range of any scientific inquiry, eithertoic entered on. Its power of directing the motions of moving particles in the demonstrated daily miracle of our human free will and in the growth of generation after generation of plants from a single seed are infinitely different from any possible result of the fortituous concurrence of atoms. Here the suggestion is obvious that the phenomena of life operates as Clerk Maxwell's supposed sorting teamen, through reversing the second law of thermodynamics, and utilizing the unavailable or reserve energy of matter. Only Lord Kelvin, instead of deriving this from the ordinary physical laws, immediately concluded that some mysterious vital force

Starting point is 00:04:08 must be in operation. Under my theory, this reversal can be explained on the pure basis of the theory of probability. It is also to be noted that the theory which I suggest in this work solves not only the biological problem of reserve energy, but also certain astronomical paradoxes in connection with the theory of the structure of the universe and its evolution. The latter part of the work which deals with the theory of the reversibility of time and the psychological aspect of the second law of thermodynamics itself is a purely speculative section but taking more of the metaphysical than of the scientific. However,

Starting point is 00:04:44 Even in that section it is to be hoped that there will be found a basis of putting the theory of the nature of time on a scientific basis, and for taking it finally outside of the domain of metaphysics. At the end of the work, a number of objections to my theory are stated in order to show what objections can be reduced. I do not attempt to answer these arguments, but for the sake of fairness to the reader, simply state them and leave them unanswered, so that the reader may decide for himself or the pros and cons of the question, and come to a more unbiased conclusion.

Starting point is 00:05:16 At first I hesitate to publish my theory of the reversibility of the universe, but I was encouraged on discovering the quotation from Lord Kelvin above mentioned, so that now, knowing that this is not the first time that it has been suggested that life is a reversal of the second law of thermodynamics, and I have decided to publish the work and give my theory to the world, to be accepted or rejected, as the case may be. William James Sidus, January 6, 1920 End of Preface Section 1

Starting point is 00:05:51 of The Animate and the Inanimate by William Sidus This is a Librevox according, or Librevox Accordings in the public domain For more information on a volunteer, please visit Librevox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 1 The Reverse Universe Among the physical laws, it is a general characteristic that there is a reversibility in time, that is, should the whole universe trace back the various positions that bodies in it have passed through in a given interval of time, but in the reverse order to that in which these positions actually occurred,

Starting point is 00:06:26 then the universe, in this imaginary case, would still obey the same laws. To test reversibility, we may imagine that we may call the reverse universe, that is to say, another, an imaginary universe in which the positions of all bodies at various moments of time are the same as in our real universe, in which those positions occur at the same respective intervals of time but in the reverse order. To assist in imagining this reverse universe, we may remind ourselves that when we look in a mirror, the imaginary world that we see in that mirror corresponds in every detail to the world we are in, with the exception that one dimension of space occurs in the reverse order,

Starting point is 00:07:07 namely the direction perpendicular to the plane of the mirror. If now we conceive of time as a sort of additional dimension of the universe, then our reverse universe would be one in which there was a similar reversal in that dimension, leaving the three dimensions of space unaltered. Orde ported it another way, the series of images produced by running a motion picture reel backwards would give exactly the impression of such a reverse universe. With this auxiliary imaginary universe, our test of the reversibility of any given physical law or process would be whether that law holds good, whether that process still subsists in the reverse universe.

Starting point is 00:07:46 In order to see that in any case, we may first find out how to translate any physical occurrence into the corresponding occurrence in our reverse universe. To start with, all positions in space remain absolutely the same in the reverse universe as in the real universe. End intervals of time, however, remain the same in magnitude, but a reversed interaction. In other words, though the absolute amount of an interval of time remains unchanged, it is necessary in translating into terms of the reverse universe to replace before by after and vice versa. The path of a moving body will remain the same in the reverse universe because of the positions which constitute that path will remain unchanged. Since, however, the positions are reached in the reverse order of time,

Starting point is 00:08:32 the body moves along the path in the reverse direction. The absolute amount of corresponding intervals of space and time in this motion remaining unchanged, it follows that all velocities must, in the reverse universe, be the same in amount but exactly reversed in direction. We come to a problem of greater difficulty in considering what becomes of acceleration. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. If to make the question simpler, we assume uniform. form acceleration, then the acceleration of a body is equal to the difference of velocity divided by the interval of time required to produce this difference. If, for example, in any

Starting point is 00:09:13 interval of time, T, the velocity A is changed to the velocity B. The acceleration, vertically represented, would be B minus A divided by T. In the corresponding motion of the reverse universe, in the interval of time, T, the velocity changes from minus B to minus A, so that the acceleration is minus A minus B divided by T, or B minus A divided by T. In other words, the acceleration of a body remains unchanged in the reverse universe, both in the mountain in direction. In translation to terms of the reverse universe, the above reason assumes that the acceleration of the body is uniform, but an extension in the same reasoning will show that the same conclusion holds even when the acceleration is constantly varying.

Starting point is 00:10:03 So much for pure kinematics. For dynamical terms, it is necessary to find what happens to the mass of bodies in the reverse universe. Now, mass be merely a mount of matter and unrelated to time. It follows a mass is not in the least changed by reversal. From that it follows by what we have seen, that all momenta are reversed in direction, but unchanged in amount. while in the reverse universe the force acting on a body being the product of two matitudes to remain unchanged in the reverse universe namely the mass of the body and the acceleration assuming no other force to act must necessarily remain unchanged in the reverse universe

Starting point is 00:10:40 not only in amount but also in direction it might have been expected that in the reverse universe forces will be reversed in direction but this is not so energy being entirely dependent on such things as position and force in the case of potential energy, or on mass and the square of speed, in the case of kinetic energy, all of which remain entirely unchanged in the reverse universe must manifestly remain entirely unchanged. We come, however, to a more complicated problem in the question of the casual relation. For this purpose, it is necessary to distinguish various kinds of casuality.

Starting point is 00:11:17 The true relation of cause and effect is one of temporal sequence, e.g. the removal of the support of an object is the cause of its falling. The force of gravity has been there all the time, and it is a logical consequence of the existence of such force that the fall of an object should follow the removal of its support. Strictly speaking, the force of gravity in this case is not a cause, but an explanation, a reason for the actual causation, which is itself merely a sequence without an explanation. We have thus to distinguish between the relation of reason and consequence, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the relation of cause and effect. The latter implies sequence in time, the former is a pure relation of logical deduction and essentially implies simultaneously implies simultinity, for the reason and the consequence, one being a logical deduction from the other, must both subsist together.

Starting point is 00:12:10 Now when the reverse universe we must oppose that all logical relations of facts remain the same. This does not imply anything concerning mental phenomena, of that we shall find out later in our investigation. In fact, logical relations of facts must of necessity subsist apart from the question whether or not a mind exists in the universe. Logical relations may be said to be simply the most general external facts in existence. If A is B and B is C, the rule then is, not that I think that A is C, it is a fact verifiable by observation that A is C.

Starting point is 00:12:46 Hence even, should the reverse universe destroy completely all mental phenomena, logical relations must remain unchanged, and consequently also the relation of reason and consequence. But with true physical casuality, it is likewise, if some general law or some particular force resulting their form, as for its consequence, in the real universe, that event A should be followed by event B, then the corresponding law, or force in the reverse universe, must result in the corresponding events A and B, following one another in the reverse order. That is to say, if one physical event causes another in the real universe, then the event corresponding in the reverse universe to the effect will, in general, cause the event corresponding in the reverse universe to the cause.

Starting point is 00:13:32 That is a say, in translating into terms of the reversed universe, cause is to be translated by effect and vice versa. This, however, is not an accurate rule. There have been exceptions, a casualation being sometimes altogether severed, or else unrecognizably altered by the reversal of time. Again in the reverse universe, such properties as density, specific heat, elasticity, amount of heat, temperature, etc., also remain unchanged. It could also be shown that such properties as electricity and magnetism remain unchanged,

Starting point is 00:14:07 and that the direction of an electric current would be reversed. Thus all physical phenomena could readily be translated into terms of the reverse universe. The various varieties of substance depending on the eternal structure of the atom and molecule, etc. also remain unchanged in the reverse universe. End of Section 1. Section 2 of the Inanimate and the Inanimate by William Sidus. This is a Librevox according or Librefox according to the public domain. For more information or a volunteer, please visit Librevox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 2. Reversible Laws

Starting point is 00:14:52 Now we shall attempt to find out what are the physical laws which subsist in this imaginary reverse universe. To start with, the simple laws and mechanics. We have it given in the real universe that a body retains its velocity unless there is some external force to change that velocity. Now as there can be no change of velocity in the reverse universe without a corresponding change of the reverse velocity in the real universe, and since all forces in both universes are respectively equal, it follows that this same law of motion applies also in the reverse universe. In other words, the law of inertia is unchanged by the reversal in time, and is therefore what we may call a reversible fiscal law. The second law of motion is that

Starting point is 00:15:36 change of momentum is proportional to force impressed. Now, following the reasoning, which we have already followed in the case of accelerations, the rate of change of momentum remains unchanged in our reverse universe. Furthermore, we have already seen that, in the reverse universe, the force impressed on a body remains unchanged. Hence it follows that the second law of motion subsists in the reverse universe, and is therefore reversible. The third law of motion is at every action, force, there is also an equal and opposite reaction. This law is also obviously reversible, since in the reverse universe, neither the magnitude nor the direction of forces is altered. Energy being the same in the reverse as in the real universe, it similarly follows that the law of the conservation of energy holds in the reverse universe.

Starting point is 00:16:22 universe, and is therefore reversible in time. The same is true of the law of the conservation of matter. One of the principal methods by which motion can be changed is by impact. An impact may be elastic or inelastic. In the case of the very smallest particles of matter, that kind of collision only is possible which loses no energy, but in which the kinetic energy remains the same as before, that is to say, an elastic collision. For in the case of ultimate particles, none of the original energy

Starting point is 00:16:54 can be changed into internal motion of particles. Hence only elastic collision is possible in the case of ultimate particles, and it's not difficult to show you that in the case of elastic collision, the reversed final velocities of the same masses will cause, as an effect of the impact, the reversed initial velocities. Now since all matter is made up of these particles, whatever they may be, and therefore all collisions of bodies of matter are made up of countless elastic collisions of ultimate particles, follows that in the reverse universe where impact occurs, all particles of matter follow the same course as they would in the real universe under the same initial conditions.

Starting point is 00:17:33 Hence the laws of impact, when brought down to ultimate particles, are perfectly reversible and also remain unaltered in the reverse universe. The various laws of attraction and repulsion that are found to subsist in the objective universe such as gravitation, electrical and magnetic attraction, and repulsion, etc., dealing as they do with the directions of forces must also. will remain unchanged in the reverse universe, similarly with many other general physical laws. Even the laws of reflection and refraction of light

Starting point is 00:18:03 will remain unaltered in the reverse universe and are therefore perfectly reversible. As a result, we may say in general that looking to ultimate particles of matter, enough physical laws subsist in the reverse universe to determine from the positions and velocities of all particles of matter at a given instant the entire past and future of the universe.

Starting point is 00:18:23 The result is that, given those physical laws which we assume to remain always true, if we should imagine that, in the real universe, at one given moment, all particles of matter should, while retaining their respective positions, reverse their velocities. It would follow that this would be enough of itself to make all particles of matter trace back their previous positions in the reverse order, and thus, if it were, create a reverse universe. End of Section 2. Section 3 of the animate and the inanimate by William Sidus This is a Libby Vox according or Libby Vox according to the public domain

Starting point is 00:19:06 For more information or a volunteer please visit Libbyvox.org Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 3 Irreversibility So far we have seen that the physical law is essential to the determination of the course of the universe From its present momentary condition are all reversible From this it might be concluded that all physical laws must in consequence be reversible, and that therefore there can be no essential difference between the real universe and the reverse universe.

Starting point is 00:19:36 And this much is true, that, provided we examine the motions of the particles of matter, everything that happens in the reverse universe can be described in terms of the physical properties of matter as we know them. But at the same time, if we take the most ordinary events of the real universe and attempt to find out what is the corresponding event in the reverse universe, something strange with a wants some process about the reverse universe. That is, for example, a ball rolls down a staircase, bounces a little at the bottom, and finally stops. In the reverse universe, the initial condition is a ball at the bottom,

Starting point is 00:20:10 on a floor near the foot of a staircase. The heat energy in the floor collects at one point underneath the ball, so as it pushed the ball suddenly upward. Each time that the ball falls back to the floor, this process is repeated, until finally the floor throws the ball on to the first stair. The stairs, each in turn, throw the ball in a similar manner up the staircase, till finally the ball stops at the top. The molecular vibrations in the ball, floor and staircase had previously been so arranged that concentration of energy would happen at a particular spot in time, or the ball so moved that it just happened to be at those spots exactly in time.

Starting point is 00:20:46 So it will be with the occurrence corresponding to the reverse universe to almost any common occurrence in the physical world of our experience. Everything seems to be perfectly explicable in terms of physical laws, but at the same time the combinations of motions seem to have something utterly strange about them. Hence there is some point of difference between the real universe and the reverse universe, and as there must be some property of the real universe that is irreversible. This irreversible property is found in what? called the second law of thermodynamics. This, taken as most general aspect, amounts to this, that the energy of the universe is constantly running down to a common level. In other words, the energy of the same variety is present in different

Starting point is 00:21:30 degrees of concentration. Those differences will be equalized, and the energy of a still higher level where at a greater amount must become dissipated in order recreate these differences of concentration. Of the various varieties of energy, all kinds tend to turn into heat, which is a very different at least concentrated form of energy, and even though some of that heat may be reconverted into some other form of energy, still, at each step, some energy is irretrifully lost in the form of heat. This physical law, as well as all those which are derived from it, is irreversible. Furthermore, only such physical laws as are derived from the second law

Starting point is 00:22:09 thermodynamics, are irreversible, so that this law constitutes the sole difference between the real and the reverse universe. Where in the real universe, energy runs down to a common level, and follows that in the reverse universe, energy tends to build itself up into different levels. We may say then that the characteristic irreversible part of the universe consists in this, that energy tends to evolve or devolve from molar motion of extremely large masses, which is the most concentrated form of energy,

Starting point is 00:22:40 to a condition in which all energy is in the form of heat, which is the least concentrated form and at a uniform concentration that is to say at a constant temperature throughout a final condition would result in which a dead level of energy would be reached and after that nothing further could ever happen in the universe the fact for instance that perfectly elastic collisions of large masses of matter do not occur but that such collisions are inelastic

Starting point is 00:23:06 is a direct consequence of the second law of thermodynamics the characteristic of an inelastic collision is that some of the molar kinetic energy of the clotting bodies is lost by the impact. This lost kinetic energy is changed into heat, which is always produced by an inelastic collision. This is in strict accord with the second law of thermodynamics. In the reverse universe, on the contrary, an impact would be an occasion for heat to be converted into molar motion, thus increasing the total amount of kinetic energy. Such a collision we may call super elastic and is not within our experience.

Starting point is 00:23:43 Again, the resistance offered by one body to another, whether in the form of friction or otherwise, is but an example of the second law of thermodynamics, being another case of change of molar energy into heat. In the reverse universe, the very opposite process would take place. Accordingly, we find, as might be expected, that the laws of friction, etc., are irreversible. Many chemical reactions are irreversible, though some are reversible. As a general rule, the irreversible chemical reactions are cases of conversion of chemical energy into heat in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics,

Starting point is 00:24:18 so with all irreversible processes. In the case of a machine, the ratio of the energy obtained to the energy put in, usually expressed as a percentage, is called the mechanical efficiency of that machine. The remaining energy that the machine has lost becomes heat. The second law of thermodynamics expressed in terms of mechanical efficiency means that all physical phenomena have a mechanical efficiency of less than 100%. The reverse universe, on the contrary, is distinguished from the universe of our experience in that the mechanical efficiency of its phenomena is over 100%.

Starting point is 00:24:52 Again, to express it in another way, suppose two bodies, one at a temperature of 0 degrees Fahrenheit, the other at a temperature of 200 degrees. The only available heat energy in those bodies would be the amount represented by 200 degrees in the hotter body. At the same time, the colder body, body being 460 degrees above absolutely zero, there is unavailable energy which, according to the second law of thermodynamics, cannot be reached, amounting to 460 degrees in each of the two

Starting point is 00:25:21 bodies. If both bodies have the same mass and specific heat, the energy which, under the second law of thermodynamics is available for conversion into other forms of energy could thus be represented by 200, while the total heat energy of the two bodies will be represented by 460 plus 660 equals 1,120. The ratio of available to total energy in this case would be 200 to 120 or 5 to 28. In other words, only 18% of the total heat energy is available for conversion. The second law of thermodynamics states, not merely that not all the available energy can actually be used for any purpose except heat, but also that all energy is an available form. A form other than heat, or else heat energy in the form of a difference of temperature tends to turn into unavailable

Starting point is 00:26:10 energy that the amount of available energy in the universe is constantly decreasing. In the reverse universe we have a different situation. Since the second law of thermodynamics is irreversible, even the heat energy below the temperature of the coldest bodies in the environment is not merely available, but constantly drawn on. The same immense fund of energy which in the real physical universe is constantly stored up and unavailable now ceases to be unavailable, but becomes a reserve fund of energy with which difference of concentration of energy is constantly being built up. Under the second law of thermodynamics, a reverse fund of energy is constantly stored up in the form of heat

Starting point is 00:26:50 and never Arthur Woods touched. Under the reverse of that second law, on the contrary, we start with this reserve fund of energy and constantly draw on it to build up energy differences. End of Section 3 Section 4 of the animate and the inanimate by William James Sidus. This is a Librivox according, all Librevox according in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibrevoxRorg. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 4

Starting point is 00:27:25 The Paradox The Second Law of Thermodynamics is, as we have seen, an irreversible physical law, and seems to be the one distinguishing characteristic between the real universe and the reverse universe. At the same time, that law is of such a nature that, for the ultimate particles of matter, it does not exist. It is essentially a law concerning transformations of energy of large masses.

Starting point is 00:27:50 And yet all large bodies are made up of countless numbers of the ultimate particles of matter, the laws of whose motion are all perfectly reversible. All phenomena of the reverse universe, however strange they may look, are perfectly explicable in terms of the ordinary physical laws, is applied to the smallest material particles. It would seem, then, as though there must be some reason in terms of the reverse, reversible physical laws, why the second law of thermodynamics must be true, that is, the second law of thermodynamics. If true, should be a consequence of the reversible physical laws applicable to ultimate particles.

Starting point is 00:28:25 We are, then, confronted with the paradox of having to deduce an irreversible law from perfectly reversible ones. And yet, since the reverse universe consists of a perfectly consistent series of positions, obeying all reversible physical laws, it follows that any logical deduction from pre-reversible, which are reversible laws must inevitably apply to the reverse universe, and that therefore the conclusion must be true in the reverse universe as well as in the real physical universe. That is to say, any deductive inclusion from reversible laws must itself be reversible. And yet, in the case of the second law of thermodynamics, the reversible laws which govern the motions of ultimate particles of matter, seem to compound themselves somehow into the best possible example of an irreversible law governing the motion of large masses. We are, therefore, inevitably led to the conclusion that the second law of thermodynamics cannot be deducted

Starting point is 00:29:22 from the reversible laws by strict deductive reasoning. The reversible laws must of necessity leave some room for the possibility of the truth or the reverse of the second law of thermodynamics. But since the second law of thermodynamics simply represents a general tenancy, We come to conclusion that the only possibility that the Second Law of Thermodynamics represents a correct physical law, is that it is to be deduced from the reversible laws not as a strict logical consequence, but as a great, or even an overwhelming probability. Such a solution of this paradox of the Second Law was propounded by Clerk Maxwell and other physicists of the middle of the 19th century. Let us then examine the reasoning by which Clerk Maxwell was enabled to, reconcile reversible premises with an irreversible conclusion.

Starting point is 00:30:13 According to his reasoning, both processes are physically possible, concentration and diffusion of energy. The one process obeys the second law of thermodynamics. The other reverses it. Under the second law of thermodynamics, a collision of larger masses will generate heat, conversion of molar energy into heat energy. Under its reversal, the heat generates smaller motion in and of itself.

Starting point is 00:30:38 Now, says Clerk Maxwell, if particles move in a group, or rather in two approaching groups, the particles are likely to strike one another at all sorts of angles, so that after the impact, the resulting velocities will become scattered, which means that some of the energy will be converted into heat. On the contrary, a reversal of the process means a concentration of the motions of the particles at the very point in time of the impact, which is a very much more improbable combination, and requiring as it does that this concentration,

Starting point is 00:31:08 should happen in a particular direction, at a particular point, at a particular time, in order to have the desired effect. It follows that such a reversal of the second law of thermodynamics is so overwhelmingly improbable as to be almost impossible. The second law of thermodynamics is thus based not only on necessity, but on extreme probability. A reversal of the second law is possible under the reversible physical laws, as we have seen, but this reasoning tends to prove that it is overwhelmingly improbable and therefore would almost never happen. But again, if the premises of the reasoning are, as we suppose, reversible physical laws. It must be possible to apply the same reasoning to the reverse universe.

Starting point is 00:31:51 Consequently, a similar line of reasoning, which must be exactly as correct logically, can be followed by tracing events backwards, from event to cause instead of tracing from cause to effect, as Clerk Maxwell has done. Any momentary condition of the universe may be regarded either as a cause of all future conditions of the universe or as the effect of all past conditions. And not only can a given momentary condition of all particles in the universe determine one and only one possible effect, one and only one possible future, that same given momentary condition, position and velocity of every particle, could only have been caused by one possible past series of conditions.

Starting point is 00:32:31 Hence it is just as possible to trace our casual relations step by step backwards, as it is to trace them similarly forwards. Now tracing causation thus backwards, we find that molar motions, when traced backwards into the past, will in all probability bring us to a time when two masses which are now in motion have been together in contact. Following Clerk Maxwell's reasoning, we must say that when two particles move away from contact with each other, An impact must have been the cause, at least some form of impact of particles, but it is a form of impact which produced a molar motion. In all probability, those two particular masses will have no motions, which trace back to a rebound of all particles at the same angle, which necessitates, according to the rules of elastic collision,

Starting point is 00:33:23 that before the impact, the motions of the particles must have been scattered. Thus tracing the reasoning backwards, we arrive at the probability that the molar motions must have been partially at least caused by heat, that is, to the probability of a reversal of the second law of thermodynamics. On the contrary, in order to have a case in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, on this enagalous reasoning, it would be necessary to suppose two bodies being traced back to contact at some particular time, and that the heat motions of those bodies, when thus traced back,

Starting point is 00:33:55 should, suddenly, at the particular moment in point of contact, trace back to a concentration of motion of the particles of each body moving away from the other. For only such concentration could be the effect of a molar motion, bringing the bodies into collision. Now the probability of such a combination is extremely small, so that by merely shifting our reasoning gear into reverse, the very same reasoning tells us that the second law of thermodynamics is most extremely improbable. But that, on the contrary, its reversal, is an overwhelming probability. tracing thus from a given momentary condition of the universe

Starting point is 00:34:34 our forward and backward reasoning combined might be interpreted if such reasoning could be trusted to mean that the second law of thermodynamics holds good as a probability as to the future but that its reversal holds true as to the past aside from this result being untrue in point of fact it is self-contradictory for any given moment of time is always future as to moments that preceded and pass test a moment that follow it.

Starting point is 00:35:03 It follows then that there must be some fallacy in Clerk Maxwell's reasoning, which, when extended, gives off the second law of thermodynamics in the general form. Take the special case that we have been using as an illustration. Moul of emotion without heat, it is true as likely, as a matter of pure theory to produce, after impact, less molar motion and some heat, the total amount of energy remaining invariable. But such an initial condition is in itself extremely improbable. If initial velocities of particles may be selected initially as in any direction and in any amount,

Starting point is 00:35:38 is extremely improbable that all the velocities will have the same direction and amount, or even approximately so. The smaller the number of particles, the greater the probability of a concentrated motion resulting. Also, the smaller the mass, the greater the probable average velocity of the mass at a given time, when the particles are moving at random. Hence when there is impact of bodies in which particles move at random, the probabilities are that, at that moment, at the point of contact,

Starting point is 00:36:06 the small mass of particles in the immediate vicinity will have a greater speed in all probability than the entire mass. Thus, when the collision occurs, the force available for producing molar motion will consist in the immediate vicinity of the point of contact if two average speeds greater than those of respective masses. If those greater spades lend to be more towards one another than the masses as a whole, then it would be most probable that some of the heat energy of the two bodies will be converted into molar motion.

Starting point is 00:36:37 On the other hand, if the respective spades in the vicinity of the point of contact are more away from each other than the velocities of the masses themselves, the reverse will happen. Besides where we have this possibility of heat turning into muller energy or into some other form of energy, and of differences in the differences in the way, of energy concentration, building themselves up in this manner. We have the contrary tenancies applied by Clerk Maxwell's reasoning. The result is that we, as yet, can form no conclusions as to which tenancy is more likely. If, furthermore, we consider that we must regard for a given moment of time, all positions and velocities as equally likely, and that for all such initial positions and velocities, which will give a universe obeying the second law of thermodynamics, there is a reverse universe,

Starting point is 00:37:28 equally probable reversing that law. We come to the conclusion that the second law and its reverse are equally probable. If this is true for any given event, then the probability of the observed facts, that is to say that all events obey the second law must be infinitismally small. So that again we are forced to the conclusion that the second law of thermodynamics being an observed fact which can only be explained as an extremely probable result of the reversible physical laws is, on the contrary, most extremely improbable. Not merely that, but the second law of thermodynamics, when pushed to its logical conclusion, produces rather absurd results.

Starting point is 00:38:10 In the first place, we have seen that it involves a sort of death of the universe in the remote future, a time when all will be one dead level of heat, though all this will and all probability come about slowly. But the rate of decrease of the available energy under this second law is approximately proportional to the amount of available energy in the universe. Therefore, the rate of the running down of energy into the unavailable form must be it constantly decreasing. Tracing backwards we find that in the past, the farther back we go, the more we get a larger

Starting point is 00:38:43 percentage of available energy in the universe, increasing at an ever greater rate. Therefore it follows that we must arrive at some definite time in the past, and that not, as infinite time back, when the available energy was 100% of the total energy of the universe, at a time probably not much farther back, all the motion in the universe must have consisted of more than motion of masses which, as we go back, must have increased in size till we arrive at a time when all the energy must have consisted of the energy of two halves of the universe moving together, each half of the universe being at a temperature of absolute zero, and all its parts moving side by side at exactly the same velocity.

Starting point is 00:39:24 This possibility, it is true, is somewhat corroborated by the fact that at present the stars are moving in two opposite directions, in two opposite currents, as it were, which may be supposed to be the remnants of the two original large groups of stars whose collision formed the present universe according to this hypothesis. At the same time the two original halves of the universe cannot have been altogether mutually impenetrable, for in that case the result of the collision would but have made them rebound, though producing a great amount of internal heat energy in each, and possibly breaking some small pieces of each.

Starting point is 00:40:02 It would seem then as though the original half of the universe must have consisted of separate dark stars, with a structure somewhat similar to the present universe. At the time of the collision or the stars, even all the particles, in each semi-universe must all be moving together at the same speed and in the same direction. The second law thermodynamics then must date from some sort of great collision at which the present universe evolved. But what happened before this great collision?

Starting point is 00:40:31 The answer would have to be everything was at a temperature of absolute zero. There were two semi-universes which were moving towards each other, in each of which there was not even a trace of relative motion. Although each of the two semi-universes was in motion, in within each there was no motion, no internal energy. But if such was the situation in the time of the Great Collision, it cannot have been so for an eternity past, unless we can see if the law of gravitational attraction not to have been true in those times.

Starting point is 00:41:04 Take each semi-universe by itself, its reverse universe will also show the same conditions as we have already described, except that the semi-universes are moving away from each other, so that we can proceed in peace without danger from the impending Great Collision. Each semi-universe may, for the purpose of internal occurrences, be regarded as at rest. Gravitation will then draw all the stars of each semi-universe towards its centre of gravity, to all of them fall in there. Reversing once more so as to obtain the process, as it must have been as supposed to happen. We get the following result.

Starting point is 00:41:40 Each semi-universe originally consisted of one great body. Suddenly, somehow, that body exploded into pieces, which formed stars. Each piece, though, remaining at a temperature of absolute zero. Finally in each semi-universe, mutual gravitation of the stars slowed them down to relative rest. Just when this relative rest was reached, the two semi-universes collided, and out of this collision came our present universe. Thus we trace a little farther back to the great explosions, but these explosions cannot possibly be traced back any farther according to the known physical laws without violating

Starting point is 00:42:14 the second law of thermodynamics. In consequence, if we wish to preserve the second law of thermodynamics, we wish to preserve the second law thermodynamics, we must either dispense with some of the other physical laws, where some physicists have done, interspers a creation. In other words, the second law of thermodynamics cannot have been true for an eternity past, though it may be true for on eternity in the future, and even the assumption of a creation will be assuming a process different from the process coming under the ordinary physical laws. In other words, we come to the inevitable conclusion that subsistence of the irreversible second-law thermodynamics in the same universe

Starting point is 00:42:52 as a reversible laws concerning the motion of particles is a paradox. Both from the point of view and from the fact that this second law pushed to its logical conclusion leads back to a mysterious creation which denies all physical laws whatever. End of Section 4. Section 5 of the animate and the inanimate by William Sidus. This is the Librivox According. All Librevox Accordings from the Public.

Starting point is 00:43:23 domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit the revox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 5 The probabilities in the problem. To help us towards a solution of this paradox, we must first find out what the probabilities actually lead us to conclude. We have already seen that, in a given case, the chances are even as to whether energy will run down or build up. There are also small chances of a neutral condition in which energy remains, on the whole, at the same difference of concentration as before. But the probability this neutrality is negligible, and we may say that the probabilities are that in 50% of the cases the second law of thermodynamics will be obeyed and in 50% of the

Starting point is 00:44:06 cases it will be reversed. If such is the case the universe as a whole will be neutral, that is, taking all the occurrences over all of time and space, there will be no tenancy in one direction or the other. In this reasoning we can be assured as to the probabilities of any given occasion, for we must assume all combinations of initial positions and velocities to be equally likely. Inasmuch as any event occupies a certain amount of time, let us figure on the probabilities of the positions and initial velocities at the middle of that interval. For any range of positions and velocities resulting in a combination obeying the second law of thermodynamics, we have an equal and therefore an equally probable range

Starting point is 00:44:49 of positions and velocities reversing that law. namely the identical positions with the reverse velocities. Where the positions and velocities happen to border between the two kinds of combinations, we will have a sort of neutral result, which is so improbable as to have a zero probability, though that does not make it impossible. Aside from that, the second law of thermodynamics is on any occasion equally probable with its reverse, and the probability of each may be taken at 50%. The probability of the second law of thermodynamics being followed on two certain occasions is, as a result, only 25%, and so on, while its probability for all occasions is almost a nullity.

Starting point is 00:45:32 The probability is, however, as a result to this, 50% probability that approximately half the events of the universe, taking all the space and time, will be in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, well about half will tend to reverse it. The former tenancy we will, for short, call the positive, or the latter tenancy we will call the negative tenancy. Between these two there is a bordering or a neutral tenancy, which as a whole neither builds energy up nor levels it down. The universe as a whole, including all of time and space, will tend towards this neutral tenancy. But this neutral tenancy will simply be a compound of positive and negative tendencies at different parts of space and time, tending to cancel one another. Taking definite portions of space and time, the chances are that there will be some sort of preponderance of tenancy

Starting point is 00:46:25 in one direction or the other. The preponderance being greater, the smaller the section of space and time that we take into consideration. We may therefore assume that, in the part of space and time under our observation, which we know is very limited, the preponderance is towards the positive tendency.

Starting point is 00:46:43 We may suppose that there are other parts of space and other periods of time when the preponderance will be in the reverse direction. But even where the preponderance is towards the positive tenancy, it still remains merely a preponderance, and instances of the negative tenancy would be almost certain to occur. It is true that the probabilities are that, in such a part of space and time, instances of the negative tenancy will occur to a very limited amount, but all the same they will occur. The probabilities of this situation, then, are as follows. The whole universe, including all of space and time, will tend to have as much of the positive as of the negative tenancy,

Starting point is 00:47:21 with a certain amount of the neutral tenancy. At a particular moment of time, the probabilities are that there will also be about as much of one tendency as of the other, but that in some sections of space there will be a preponderance towards the positive tenancy. While in other sections of space, the preponderance will be the reverse. About half of space falling under one heading, and about half of space will be, falling under the other. In each of those portions of space there will be instances of events opposed to the prevailing Tennessee, presumably in certain material objects. The same applies to a more limited extent if we take one section of space with respect to the different moments of time.

Starting point is 00:48:04 End of Section 5. Section 6 of the animate and the inanimate by William Sidus. This is a Librivox according, or Librevox Accordings in the public domain. For more information or volunteer, please visit Libravox.org, recorded by Leonhardy. Chapter 6. Solution of the Paradox We have seen that the second law of thermodynamics, if pushed to its logical conclusion, leads to absurdities, that on the basis of the other physical laws it is most extremely improbable, and that it cannot have been universal for all time past, unless we assume some sort of creation or some other form of miracle. On the contrary, we have seen that the

Starting point is 00:48:49 probabilities from the physical laws governing the motion of particles, which are reversible, and whose consequences must therefore be also reversible, lead us to the conclusion that, though the universe as a whole will tend to be neutral in that respect, yet in certain limited portions of space and time, the second law of thermodynamics represents a prevailing tenancy. We may easily, therefore, suppose that the portion of space and time under our observation, which, as we know is very limited, is just such a section, and that the second northermodynamics represents a prevailing tendency of energy to level down in her vicinity and in her epoch. This would seem to be the only way leading out of the paradox, which seems to

Starting point is 00:49:32 follow from the second northermodynamics, so that as this law is thus supposed to be true only for a limited epoch, there is no necessity to suppose any creation or other miracles, and therefore the rule for the whole universe is really reversible. This would apparently solve our paradox if not for the fact that, according to this proposed solution, the second law of thermodynamics would represent, not a constant law, as observations would indicate, but on the contrary, merely a prevailing tenancy, with the number of instances of reversals of that law in our own part of space and time. Thus we find a difficulty in accepting the solution of the paradox, namely that proposed solution requires that, even in our own section of space and time, there must be many

Starting point is 00:50:17 instances of the reversal of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which seems contrary to observed facts. And yet considering that the Second Law of Thermodynamics itself leads to absurdities, it might be worthwhile to inquire whether, after all, there might not be, in a portion of space and time, certain instances of the reversal of the Second Law, certain events, with what we have called a negative tenancy which might have escaped our attention. In order to conduct this inquiry, we would have to find some way to recognise such a reversal, should any be found. This can be done in two ways, either by translating common occurrences into the reverse universe and thus familiarising ourselves with how such a reversal looks. A moving picture outfit could

Starting point is 00:51:05 easily bring this reverse universe before the sense of light by operating the rail backwards, Or else we can reason from the abstract second law itself and infer from its reversal certain easily recognisable outstanding characteristics. We shall proceed in both ways, starting with the abstract method, then using the other method to fill in, as it were, by way of illustration. One characteristic of the second law of thermodynamics is that there is, under it, a tendency that large causes should produce smaller defects. some energy becoming lost always in spreading heat throughout the universe, while small causes rarely, though occasionally, produce light effects. Now, since it is always possible to regard any event either as caused by past conditions, reasoning from cause to effect, or as being the cause which will produce the conditions of the future,

Starting point is 00:51:59 reasoning from effect to cause. Both cause and effect of a given event, being a determined thing, we may say that under the second law of thermodynamics, since a given event is, likely to have more visible causes and less visible effects than itself, it follows that under the second law of thermodynamics, it is easier to explain an event as the effect of past causes than as the cause of future effects. In other words, under the second law of thermodynamics, the reasoning from effect to cause is possible. It is almost necessary to reason from cause to effect as a physical sciences usually do.

Starting point is 00:52:34 On the contrary, when we have the negative tenancy, when the second law of thermodynamics is reversed. The reverse is the case. Under the negative tenancy, energy is constantly been reclaimed from the enormous heat reserve, which otherwise lies unused, and this will be happening at every occurrence taking place under the reversed second law. Thus, the Tennessee, in such a case, will be that, while occasionally large causes will produce smaller effects, yet as a general rule, smaller causes will produce larger effects. In other words, a given event is most likely to have less visible causes and more invisible effects than itself, so that if we try to explain an event as the effect of past conditions,

Starting point is 00:53:17 we shall always have difficulty, because part of the cause, in any case, and sometimes even the entire cause, will consist merely of diffused and undifferentiated energy, which cannot be observed unless we keep track of every individual particle of matter. But on the contrary, if we try to explain such an event as being the cause determined by future conditions which are its effects, such an explanation is simple, because the full effect is observable, and the effect is usually more visible than the cause. The result is that we get one distinguishing characteristic of that reversal of the second law of thermodynamics for which we are looking. If we find such a reversal, we will, in all probability, be finding some sort of a reverseal. events, which it is easier to explain from the future than from the past.

Starting point is 00:54:05 In other words, we must, in looking for such a reversal, look for something which, while it acts under the ordinary form of causation, like the common physical bodies, yet appears teleological in nature. This teleology is only apparent, for causation under the negative Tennessee is no different from ordinary physical causation. In causation in general, the reverse or assuado teleological explanation is always possible. but it's more obvious in the case of a reversal than in the ordinary case of positive at Tennessee. Thus, when we wish to find a reversal of the second law of thermodynamics in our section of space and time,

Starting point is 00:54:42 we must look for phenomena with an appearance of teleology. Another outstanding characteristic of a reversal of the second law is the ability to use the immense store of energy, which, under the second law of thermodynamics, is unavailable. In other words, a reversal, besides the property of apparent telegraphic, must also possess the property of ability to use a store of reserve energy, some of which is always used, well at times even all of it could theoretically be used and converted into visible forms. So we thus get theoretically two outstanding characteristics of the reversal for which we are

Starting point is 00:55:20 looking, namely apparent teleology and the ability to use a fund of reserve energy. If we can find anything in our section of space and time which has these two properties, then in all probability we have found the reversal for which we are looking. Now to take the more concrete method, that of observing the reverse universe, either by reversing any common occurrence or else in observation by reversing a motion picture film, etc. We have already seen that a reversal of such an incident as a ball rolling down a flight of stairs becomes in the reverse universe the following. The floor on the stairs successfully throw the ball upstairs. The ball itself aids the process by giving a jump, as it were, edge time

Starting point is 00:56:00 it lands. This would give floor, stairs and ball, somewhat at appearance of being alive. In fact, in any case, all ordinary physical objects will act in the reverse universe somewhat as if alive. Instead of rivers running down to sea, we would have, in the reverse universe, the situation of seawater rejecting its salt and then jumping up the river channel to the source, where the water separating itself first into drops and then finally into molecules, makes a final jump up to the clouds. In other words, the water is constantly jumping upwards, as though of its own violation, and aided at each step by the ground pushing it upwards or even throwing it up. Here again there is an appearance of life in objects, though it would certainly in our universe

Starting point is 00:56:45 consider as dead. Take a more complicated instance. The behaviouro drops of mercury on a smooth service, consisting we may suppose partly of metal, these drops in our universe would roll around under the influence of any external force that may happen to be present. United two happen to come together, and in case they touch metal, the drop will shrink and partially amalgurate with the metal. In the reverse universe, on the contrary, we have a different arrangement. The drops will roll around as before, but in their rolling, we'll avoid the pure metal surfaces, but will tend to roll over the amalgram surfaces.

Starting point is 00:57:22 When in contact with the amalgam, they will extract the mercury, and thus the drops will keep growing. When the drop grows in this manner, to the large size, there will appear a constriction and finally a division into two drops, each like the original. This action of ordinary mercury drops in the reverse universe corresponds in many details to the growth and division of living cells in our universe. In short, we may say that, in general, events in the reverse universe appear as though they they were living phenomena, and the general events of the reverse universe may be taken as the type of negative phenomena of the reverse of the second law of thermodynamics. We should thus expect, in the real universe, define such reversals in some sort of living or apparently living phenomena.

Starting point is 00:58:09 Furthermore, if we find in the reverse universe some phenomena that, contrary to what might be expected, obeyed the second law of thermodynamics, it must follow that the corresponding phenomena in the real universe must be precisely those reversals for which we are looking. It is much as we have seen that ordinary inanimate phenomena take on the appearance of life in the reverse universe. Let us see what becomes a living phenomena in the reverse universe. Let us inject some sort of living agency into any previous illustration of the reverse universe. Suppose, in the case of the ball of rolling downstairs, that it was originally thrown by someone, the beginning of the instance which will correspond to the end of the reverse universe

Starting point is 00:58:52 will consist of a human arm starting to move, carrying the ball forward against the resistance of the air, finally letting the ball go, after which the ball, on the momentum thus acquired, proceeds to bounce down the stairs. In the reverse universe, the ball properly aided by the floor in the stairs, comes jumping upstairs into the hand. The ball, though it tends to be speeding up by the air pushing the ball along and by the heat energy the ball similarly reacting on the air, yet it slows down quickly and finally comes to a stop. The acquired momentum on the ball moves, the hand, swings the arm and finally the molar energy thus transferred to the arm becomes transformed into heat, and the arm stops.

Starting point is 00:59:34 This very last part of the incident is a rather unexpected case of the second law of thermodynamics in the reverse universe, and we may note as a result that the living body, when reversed, becomes a mere obstacle instead of a moving force. We may therefore conclude, first, that inanimate phenomena, when reversed, become animate. Second, that animate phenomena, when reversed, lose the appearance of animation, and third, that animate phenomena, when reversed, lose this appearance because, when reversed, they tend to follow the second neural thermodynamics. The logical conclusion from these would be that, in animate phenomena,

Starting point is 01:00:13 are positive tendencies and follows the second law of thermodynamics, while inanimate phenomena, on the contrary, are negative tendencies and tend to reverse that law. Thus we have found where our part of the universe contains reversals and come to a solution of our paradox. End of Section 6. Section 7 of The Animate and the Inanimate by William Sidus. This librivolved recording is in the public domain. Recorded by Leon Harvey.

Starting point is 01:00:50 Chapter 7. Theories of life We find that the theories of the nature of life divide themselves into two varieties, the mechanistic and the vitalistic. The former kind of theory states that all living phenomena are to be explained solely by the ordinary physical laws, and that life differs from other phenomena only on account of its complexity, or in some other incidental manner. On the other hand, the vitalistic theories are to the effect that living phenomena are characterized by some mysterious sort of vital force, which would seem to have the power to suspend or alter the operation of the physical laws that govern the rest of the universe. In the course of the history of science, much has been said both of the vitalistic and the mechanistic theories, and as yet no agreement has actually been reached on that subject.

Starting point is 01:01:36 In attempt to solve our paradox of the second law of thermodynamics, we have instantly reached a suggestion of the nature of life. According to the conclusions we have reached, there are in the universe what we have called positive tendencies, neutral tendencies and negative tendencies, all of which are possible results are the reversible fiscal laws governing the motion of particles of matter. The neutral tenancy being an extremely improbable result, very few cases of it are likely to take place. But in any given case, unless further special circumstances alter the probabilities, the positive for the negative

Starting point is 01:02:10 tendency has a 50% probability and would therefore result from the reversible laws in about half the cases occurring in the universe. In our section of the universe, the positive tenancy, however, preponderates, though it is as much as it would be extremely improbable, that any section of the universe is entirely without instances of their negative tendency. It follows that there must be phenomena of the negative tendency within our observation. The phenomena of the negative tendency are the living phenomena, while the phenomena or the positive tendency are the non-living phenomena.

Starting point is 01:02:43 This theory of life is strictly mechanistic insofar as life is assumed, to operate solely under the physical laws applying to the motion of particles, which laws are sufficient to determine a complete chain of causation. On the contrary, physicists confining that observation entirely to inanimate matter, have reached the conclusion that there is a further physical law, the so-called second law of thermodynamics, which is suspended by living phenomena. There is, according to our theory, there is a central difference between living and non-living phenomena and this difference would supply the basis for the idea of vital force. Thus the two theories of life can be reconciled. On the matter of the difference between living and non-living

Starting point is 01:03:22 bodies, there is still less agreement. For instance, it is stated that lifeless substances so far as they form definite shapes form only geometrical shapes, while living substances form irregular shapes. Outside of the fact that this does not distinguish living bodies from bodies which were once alive, but which have lost the property of life, and outside the fact that not all inorganic substances, but only certain solid substances, form geometrically shaped crystals, we may refute that statement that living bodies always have irregular shapes by simply inducing the example of the egg. This distinction is therefore, on all sides, untenable. Again, it has been said that the difference between living and lifeless substances is a question

Starting point is 01:04:05 of the presence of organs. But will that alone distinguish the average organism from a machine, the same objection can be urged against the proposed distinction on the ground that living bodies have a complex organization. However, either of these proposed distinctions may mean that a living body is so organized that everything has its teleological function, and this leads us to a proposed distinction between living and not living bodies, namely that living phenomena are essentially teleological. In the case of a machine we have the organization, but the teleology must be sought for in a living being that assembled the machine. Apparently, teleology is a characteristic of life, but yet everything is inexplicable on a physiochemical basis.

Starting point is 01:04:49 Therefore, we have in life the property of apparent teleology as a distinguishing characteristic. Only in this form can the proposed differentiation on the basis of organization be tenable. But as we have seen, apparent teleology is one of the characteristics by which are a reversal. of the second law of thermodynamics can be recognized. It therefore follows that normal probability, our distinction on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics is really the fundamental point of difference between living and non-living bodies.

Starting point is 01:05:20 Another suggested method of differentiation is in the capability of reproduction. But when we come down to the ultimate living units, the cells, this reproduction consists merely of constriction and division, in which it is highly to be differentiated from the breaking, up into smaller drops of a drop of oil and water or a drop of mercury on a glass surface under slight shock. As we have seen, while under ordinary circumstances, a shock is necessary to accomplish this division in these cases. Yet under the reversal the second law of thermodynamics,

Starting point is 01:05:53 this form of division is a normal phenomenon. A further suggestion as to a method of differentiation is that life is always derived from other life, while inanimate matter may be derived from either of living or non-living bodies. This distinction is a general one, simply stating a fact, but cannot serve as a definition or as a means of differentiation, because it would not show whether any individual case was one of living or lifeless substance. Should we try to apply the test, we should have to ask whether it could only have been derived from other living matter?

Starting point is 01:06:24 What it could have been derived from, we cannot experimentally find out. The actual causes might be discovered, and that we are reduced to the question whether life is to be formed among those causes, and we are now no better off than at first. It is like trying in an unknown region to find the east, by the directions in Shredrin's story. Face the north, and the east is on your right. Such directions obviously are useless when the north is as unknown as the east. The basis of fact behind is proposed to distinction between living and lifeless bodies, however, we will examine more in detail later on.

Starting point is 01:06:59 The suggestion that organic bodies grow by absorbing particles, while growth where it is found among inorganic bodies, is always by an accretion of matter on the outside, turns out when analyzed to be rather a distinction between solids and liquids than one between living and lifeless substance. The absorption of particles can be duplicated in the laboratory under certain circumstances by liquids enclosed in membranes, and a living cell consists of a membrane containing liquids. Finally, we come to the dynamic distinctions. The most obvious of these is to say that life is distinguished by movement. This is obviously an incorrect distinction, since all objects are in motion, but there's obviously something peculiar about living movement that seems to make it seem more mobile than other movement. It is thus, for instance, alleged that living movement comes from internal causes,

Starting point is 01:07:52 or else that living bodies work of themselves, while other objects need to be supplied with energy. Even that is not descriptive, for there are always external causes for all movements, and life does not create energy. If it uses up energy, you must obtain that energy from somewhere. Similarly, with the distinction between static equilibrium of lifeless bodies and the so-called dynamic equilibrium of life, often more accurately defined as a metabolic process,

Starting point is 01:08:20 such dynamic equilibrium exists as molar energy in the case of almost all machines, and chemically in the case of any catalytic agent, which is also being constantly decomposed and recomposed. But there are more accurate definitions of this mobility, which is so peculiarly characteristic of life. We may notice, for instance, the theory advanced by the late Professor William James, the theory of the existence of a reserve energy

Starting point is 01:08:45 in the case of biological and especially in psychological activities, which is absent in the case of lifeless activities. According to this, while the living, organism can normally use a certain amount of its energy, yet in some mysterious way it can, under special circumstances, draw on an immense surplus fund of reserve energy. There's probably been absent in physical bodies. We may draw a distinction on that basis between living and lifeless bodies, and this would seem to be an absolute distinction.

Starting point is 01:09:13 Now, it has been long known that physical bodies contain an immense amount of energy, which is unavailable for conversion into anything else, and the physical law that limits the amount of energy which it is possible for its physical body to utilize is precisely the second law of thermodynamics that has given us so much trouble. We must therefore come to the conclusion that, since life does not create energy, and this reserve energy, is evidently real physical energy, that the peculiarity of life is its ability to draw on more energy than the second law of thermodynamics would allow, that is, its ability, in some circumstances at least, to reverse that second law. And again we have seen that reversals of the second law are characterized by ability to use a fund of reserve energy that physical bodies cannot use.

Starting point is 01:10:03 Let us say that the mechanical efficiency of a set of bodies is 85%, the reciprocal, or 118%, is that of the same set in the reverse universe. But as under some circumstances producing special results in the way of heat, etc., not quite 85% of the energy will be used, but let us say only 50%, then under those special cases in the reverse universe requiring more energy. The mechanical efficiency will be not 118%, but 200%, thus using over five times the amount of reserve energy normally used.

Starting point is 01:10:37 This success constitutes James's reserve energy. Another definition of the mobility of life is what is called irritability, that is to say the ability to make a large response to small stimuli. This, it is alleged, is possible only by life, so that life may be defined by irritability. Against this, ver-won objects such as inanimate substances as nitroglycerine, also possess this property, that substance producing a powerful explosion under the influence of a slight shock. But in the case of nitroglycerine, we have an unstable equilibrium,

Starting point is 01:11:12 and a slight shock simply let loose the difference of levels necessary to reduce to a stable equilibrium. While in the case of life, irritability is part of the so-called dynamic equilibrium, and does not disturb that equilibrium. Irritability, as it is found in biological phenomena, is the ability to produce normally a large effect from a small stimulus without an irreparable leveling down of energy. In other words, the irritability that distinguishes life consists of the ability to build up higher differences,

Starting point is 01:11:43 of energy level from lower ones, in exactly the inverse order to that required by the second law of thermodynamics. In other words, irritability is identical with the negative tenancy, or in other words, with the reversal of the second law of thermodynamics. Thus, we are again reduced to a form of distinction between living and non-living bodies, namely that between the negative and the positive tendency. Very one proposed the distinction on the basis of chemical constituency, namely that living bodies consist of complicated carbon compounds such as albumin, protein, etc, which cannot be produced outside of life. but in what way would this definition distinguish a living body from let us say a corpse or according to the definition by camel composition every wooden object is alive it is obvious therefore that this distinction is untenable on the contrary we have the extreme mechanistic view represented by dr jack's lewab that such a distinction cannot be drawn the actual existence of a hard and fast distinction of this sort is indeed difficult to prove but there is certainly a difference in appearance which must be based on something However flimsy that something might be,

Starting point is 01:12:55 but the lower caused living body a chemical machine, and states that as the only base of differentiation, the power of automatic development, self-preservation, and reproduction. It is not quite clear whether or not, all these properties are essential, and not all living bodies possess at all times all these three properties,

Starting point is 01:13:13 while on the contrary, these properties separately are possessed under certain circumstances by certain non-living bodies, so that, to say the least, This attempted distinction must be cleared up somewhat before it can be of any service at all. Thus, of all the distinguishing characteristics that may be used to find life, we have left simply these three. Apparent teleology, reserve energy, and irritability. The latter property, irritability, is, as we have seen, a condensed statement of the reverse of the second law of thermodynamics, while we have seen before that the other two properties, apparent teleology and reserve energy, are the

Starting point is 01:13:51 outstanding characteristics by which a reversal of the second law thermodynamics can be recognized. It follows, therefore, that the fundamental definition behind all these is, life is a reversal of the second law of thermodynamics. Or deported in other terms, since we have seen that mechanical efficiency under the positive tenancy is less than 100%, under the neutral tendency, just 100%, and under the negative tendency more than 100%. We may define, life consists of bodies with a mechanical efficiency, of over 100%. End of Section 7.

Starting point is 01:14:32 Section 8 of the animate and the inanimate by William Sidus. This is a Librevox according, or Libbyox Accordings in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librivox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 8

Starting point is 01:14:47 The extension of the Second Law. We have then come to the conclusion that the Second Law of Thermodynamics is not true as a general property of matter. It will, according to our things, theory have to be omitted from the list of the physical laws. But what is there that we can put in place of it? We can say in the first place that every fiscal law is reversible, or rather to be more accurate, that if any physical law is true, the reverse must also be true.

Starting point is 01:15:14 Furthermore, taking the conception of mechanical efficiency, the second law of thermodynamics, if true, would set an upper limit to the amount of energy a body can use, namely whatever difference in energy level there is. Now of the second law is emitted from the list of fiscal laws, there is no such upper limit. There have been more energy than in the bodies, and an accessible fund into which all energy tends to leak. But we can still use this limit and express the amount of energy used by the body as a percentage of this limit. If we consider that the second law of thermodynamics is no longer a general physical law,

Starting point is 01:15:51 this percentage may be 100% neutral tenancy, or less than 100%, positive tenancy, or more than 100%, tendency. The mechanical efficiency of a body may thus fall into any of the three categories, but we have seen that 100% is a critical point, and when the mechanical efficiency changes from less than 100% to more than 100% or vice versa, we have a change in the appearance of the action of the body. This critical point of mechanical efficiency constitutes the dividing line between living and non-living phenomena. As we have seen, a universe following the positive tendency cannot have existed for an infinite time past. And the reverse of this rule must also be true,

Starting point is 01:16:33 that a universe following the negative tendency cannot continue to exist for an imminent time in the future. Hence, if we suppose the universe to have existed from eternity past to eternity future, it follows that the average mechanical efficiency of the universe taking all parts of space and time must be exactly 100%. On the contrary in our section of space and time,

Starting point is 01:16:54 that we have found instances of the negative tenancy, there's to say life, yet the positive tenancy visibly prevails, so that the mechanic, efficiency at present of our part of the universe is considerably less than 100%. As the probabilities are that in our part of space for all time, or at the present moment for all space, the mechanical efficiency of the universe is about 100%. It follows that there must be other parts of space and time in which the mechanical efficiency

Starting point is 01:17:22 is over 100%, and such parts of space and time supplying us with examples of a reverse universe. We have seen that the positive tenancy is characterized by a constant running down of energy levels and a storage of energy into an inaccessible reserve store, which can in its turn be utilized and built up a gain into differences of energy level only by the negative tenancy. That is to say, the positive tenancy stores are preserved energy, and the negative tenancy once more utilizes it. Since most of the substances within our observation follow the positive tenancy, we may obtain characteristics of the two tenancies to some extent by observation, using our observations

Starting point is 01:18:04 for the positive tendency and reversing for the negative tendency. For instance, it has been observed on the Earth that there is constant dissociation of atoms coming on, especially in the case of substances of very great atomic weight, e.g. uranium and radium. It must be supposed that these substances must have been there in the first place in much larger amounts than at present, when the Earth was in a hotter condition than at present and accordingly we might expect, in very hot bodies such as the sun and stars, define many substances with large atomic weight and few with small atomic weight,

Starting point is 01:18:38 and in nebulous and newly formed stars define substances almost entirely with large atomic weight and almost no substances as hydrogen, helium, etc. His atomic weight is very small. The contrary, however, is true. In the sun, there is very little to be seen of substances of very large atomic weight, even such a substance as gold, which is more stable than uranium or radium, and much more common on the earth. But with a large atomic weight, he is conspicuously absent, while hydrogen and helium are present in large quantities. Helium was first discovered in the solar spectrum, as its name indicates.

Starting point is 01:19:15 Furthermore, the nearer a star is to the nebulae stage, the more conspicuously is this true, while the nebulae, temporary stars, etc., hydrogen, which has the very lightest atoms of any known substance, constitutes most of the substance of the star or nebula. It thus follows that in such hot bodies as stars are nebulae, there is an opposite process going on, which may be called the integration of atoms, the building up of larger atoms out of smaller ones. All this is occurring under the positive tendency.

Starting point is 01:19:47 If we suppose a section of the universe, either in space or in time, in which the negative tendency prevails, the reverse will be true. The integration of atoms will be. take place at lower temperatures. The disassociation at higher temperatures. It follows that if we consider a cycle in time of a body, or rather of a large group of bodies, or of a spatial section of the universe, while we have two stages of mechanical efficiency, first building up

Starting point is 01:20:12 reserve energy, then using up that same reserve energy for available energy. We have in a corresponding period a cycle of four stages in the evolution of atoms. In the first part of our positive epoch, atoms have been built up into more and more complicated forms. In the latter part of our positive epoch, they are disassociated once more. During the beginning of the negative epoch, the atoms are integrated, until sufficiently large differences of heat level are built up to reverse the process, and the atoms become once more dissociated. Why this process should take place in just this way, I cannot attempt to explain. But it may easily be that both dissociation and integration of atoms is constantly

Starting point is 01:20:54 taking place, and the excess of one over the other would differ under different circumstances. However be that, as I may, under the neutral tenancy, there would be no tenancy whatever for the ultimate particles of matter deform into bodies or compound particles. So we may expect that even should the neutral tenancy be found to exist, that there would be no neutral bodies, but that it would be entirely whatever the ultimate particles may be, e.g. that it would consist of separate electrons, if, as is at present believed, the electron is the ultimate material particle. However, the positive or the negative tenancy starts out by building up more and more

Starting point is 01:21:33 complicated atoms, but the neutral tendency does no such thing. Accordingly, we can take this as one of the characteristics of the neutral tendency. Another characteristic of the neutral tendency would be that, though it requires impenetrable matter, yet, since any friction resulting from the motion of bodies through it, would tend to be counterbalanced by the equal negative element of building up motion. The result will be an apparent lack of resistance, characteristic again only of the neutral tenancy. And, inasmuch, as it is now supposed that, though radiant energy is vibration transmitted by the ether, yet it is electrons scattered through the ether that are in vibration. And since the ether with the supposed electrons seem

Starting point is 01:22:16 to be the only thing known that offers no resistances to the passage of moving objects, it follows that the ether, or the electrons it contains, is the example of neutral tenancy to be found in our universe. But we have said before that the probability of their neutral tenancy is zero. How then does this come? As we have said before, a zero probability is merely an extreme in probability, but not necessarily an impossibility. For instance, if we have a finite segment of a line and we select a point on the line at random, the probability that that point would be the middle point is precisely zero, since there are on the line an infinite number of points, of which only one is the middle point, so that the probability of the

Starting point is 01:23:00 selected point being the middle point is one divided by infinity that is zero. A diagram is displayed on the page. Or to take another example, the probability that a point selected in space a random will be within the Earth is, the Earth's volume divided by the volume of space, which is zero, since the latter quantity is infinite. Here there are an infinite number of possibilities of the point being within the Earth, and yet the probability is zero. Thus it is with the neutral tendency. Its probability is zero, and yet there is a chance for an infinite amount of matter in the universe to come under it, provided that there is infinitely more matter, that is either the positive or the negative tendency.

Starting point is 01:23:47 In fact, we know from the theory of error that a mechanical efficiency of 100% been exactly the average of the universe is more probable than any other given mechanical efficiency, let us say 85%, and yet at spite of that its probability is zero. In fact, we figure out the probability of the position of the universe at a given moment

Starting point is 01:24:06 having come out exactly as it did, we also arrive at the conclusion that the theoretical probability of the universe being as it is is zero, and yet the universe exists in spite of its zero probability. Now let us consider the chemical structure of the positive and negative tendencies. For this purpose, it will be necessary to distinguish between exothermic and endothermic compounds, that is, between compounds on a lower level of chemical energy than their constituents, and compounds on a higher level of chemical energy than their constituents.

Starting point is 01:24:39 We might expect that the former would be built to abundant the positive, is it under the positive tenancy, and the latter under the negative tenancy, because the composition of the former, and the constituents, involves the conversion of some chemical energy into heat, or the composition of the endothermic compound from its constituents involves a conversion of heat into a higher level of chemical energy. However, we must draw some distinctions here. The positive and the negative tendencies merely tend to build up, respectively, exothermic and interthermic compounds. Under special circumstances, exceptions can be found.

Starting point is 01:25:17 It is true indeed in general that the negative tendency tends to build up more and more intothermic substances, though many exothermic substances result, either from exothermic substances or where a substance, on account of its exothermic properties, has very little chemical activity. Also, the positive tendency does as a whole build up exothermic substances. though endothermic substances may be produced usually as a result of a difference of energy level higher than that of the endothermic compound. However, whether the negative tendency, for instance, builds up endothermic substances in negative or impulsive objects is a question which cannot be considered until we consider a little in relation to the reactions of one another of the positive and negative substances. We will accordingly proceed to investigate that. End of Section 8

Starting point is 01:26:08 Section 9 of the animate and the inanimate by William Sidus This is a Libri Fox according or Libri Fox according to the public domain For more information on a volunteer Please visit Libravox.org Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 9

Starting point is 01:26:32 The relation between the tendencies It would seem that the negative tenancy depends for its possibility on certain special combinations of position taking place Which combinations would probably take place anyway by accident, but which would be much more likely to happen as a result of other similar combinations. In other words, if we take the negative tenancy, we will find that any negative event must have been immediately preceded by an extremely improbable sort of combination, but is followed by a more probable combination. This can be seen if we take the simplest example of the negative tenancy, the superlastic collision, which nor would happen at all,

Starting point is 01:27:12 must be preceded by a rather unlikely sort of concentration of particles and energy at the exact point of collision. This is not in the least contradict our conclusion that the positive negative tendencies are equally probable. For on analysing the positive tendency, we find that it is followed by a similarly improbable condition. Thus in the negative tendency, the cause is where the improbable stage comes in, but in the positive tendency, that same improbable stage comes in at the effect. However, the two varieties of improbable stage do not correspond exactly, for that of the negative tenancy consists in a concentration of motion, or that of the positive tenancy consists of a divergence of motion.

Starting point is 01:27:54 Hence the effect of a positive event could hardly serve as a starting point for a negative event. Outside of some accidental combination, a negative event must have a negative combination for at least part of the cause. The reverse of this rule is, as a positive event, must give rise to positive effects, at least partially. In other words, we have such things as a negative or a positive event giving rise to another event of its own kind, but with only positive causes, a negative result would hardly be

Starting point is 01:28:24 expected to arise. If we identify the negative tendency with life, the statement reduces to this, all life comes from some living cause. On the contrary, there is no such improbability in a pure negative cause giving rise to positive effects. In fact, as we have seen, a positive universe could not have existed for an infinite time past, nor a negative universe for an infinite time in the future. In either kind of universe, the change from negative cause to positive effect must take place. In fact, it is to be expected that it will be very common for a negative cause to give rise to a positive effect.

Starting point is 01:29:00 We thus see that the transformation from positive to negative takes place in a very different way from the change from negative to positive. The latter can take place as a comparatively sudden transformation, a sudden cessation of all life activity, while non-living bodies cannot become alive except by accretion on other living bodies. The transformation on positive to negative can occur only as an extension of the negative tendency from some sort of centre that is already negative, that is, by a living body growing. It might be supposed that this difference between one kind of transformation and its inverse indicates an irreversible law, and we've already seen that if we give up the second law of thermodynamics.

Starting point is 01:29:44 We must replace it by the statement that all physical laws are reversible. Hence would seem as though we had arrived at an inconsistency. But if we examine into the question, we will see that one former transformation is not the actual reverse of the other, but that each process is symmetrical in time, and is really the reverse of itself. But the transformation, but the transformation. for instance of the negative cause in a positive effect suddenly and completely is a strictly reversible one. If we consider the fact that a negative cause corresponds in the reverse universe to a positive effect and vice versa, so that when in the real universe we have a negative cause and a positive effect, we will have the same in the reverse universe

Starting point is 01:30:27 so that the process remains unchanged when reversed. The same is true of the other process by which a positive cause might give a negative effect. However, in the latter case, there is a different element, whose reverse is not quite identical with itself, and therefore whose reverse can be used to supplement the proposition. That is to say, whereas such a transformation must, as we have seen, requires some negative element to enter into the cause. The reverse of this requires some positive element to enter into the effect. That is, such a transformation not only cannot be spontaneous, but it also cannot be complete.

Starting point is 01:31:03 If a positive substance be absorbed into a negative body, some positive matter must at the end of the process be rejected. In other words, we come to the following conclusions. 1. Life cannot generate spontaneously except by an accident that is so extremely unlikely that would hardly happen once in a whole universe. 2. Life extends to new matter by a process of growth, that is by accretion around a living centre. 3. Where living body absorbs inanimate matter, some inanimate matter. matter must be rejected. For, however, the transformation of living into lifeless matter may take place suddenly and completely manifesting merely a sudden cessation of life activities. A cessation, which would be an irreparable one.

Starting point is 01:31:52 End of Section 9. Section 10 of the animate and the inanimate by William Cydes. This is a Librevox recording, all Librevox recordings in the public domain. For more information to volunteer, please visit at Librevox.org, recorded by Leon Horrivy. Chapter 10. Exothermic and endothermic substances. To come back to the question that we began to consider, and which we left off in the middle, namely, that of the sort of chemical substances that would be built up under the two tendencies,

Starting point is 01:32:30 we will have to distinguish between the case where we are dealing with a positive section of the universe and that where we are dealing with a negative section of the universe. To take the former case first, let us suppose. that the positive is the prevailing tenancy. This tenancy would tend to build up exothermic substances, which the comparatively few cases of the negative tenancy would form those same substances into endothermic substances for their own constituency. Some of these endothermic substances, it is true, will be rejected as positive or inanimate matter, but on the whole there will be a tendency for the more endothermic substances to go into the negative tenancy, or into life, and for the more

Starting point is 01:33:11 exothermic substances to be found in lifeless matter. Since each process must chemically build up substances from their elements, which existed as three elements when the world was at a high heat, it might be expected that there might be a tendency towards complex compounds, so that substances tend, to a great extent, to combine with the tetravalent elements, which form the most complex compounds. The two most common tetravalent elements are carbon and silicon. The complex compounds of silicon being extremely exothermic, while the complex compounds of carbons are extremely endothermic. It might therefore be expected that inanimate matter would tend to build itself to a great extent

Starting point is 01:33:53 into complex silicon compounds, silicates such as earth clay, many rocks, etc. While on the contrary, living matter might be expected to form as much as possible into complex carbon compounds as endothermic as possible. Such is known to be the case. In fact, such carbon compounds are generally known as organic compounds. Furthermore, one substance that forms compounds of a high chemical energy, though itself having very low chemical energy, is nitrogen. This element forms extremely ectothermic compounds, which are in many cases explosive. At every ordinary chemical transformation involving nitrogen, some free nitrogen goes off into the air, by the reverse process,

Starting point is 01:34:34 the fixation of nitrogen, that is to say, the formation of nitrogen compounds from nitrogen itself, together with other necessary substances is a process requiring an immense amount of energy. By one process, a temperature of about 3,000 degrees, by another process, a pressure of about 200 atmospheres. Since nitrogen forms such extremely endothermic compounds, we might expect that, where the general tenancy is positive, life will tend to include not only as much carbon as possible, but also as much nitrogen as possible.

Starting point is 01:35:06 It would therefore, in a section of the universe where the positive tenancy, prevails seem to follow that life would tend as far as possible to be found in complex carbon nitrogen compounds. The simplest of these compounds of carbon and nitrogen itself an endothermic compound is cyanogen, CN2, and we might expect that the CN radical would be the foundation of life. On the contrary, where a living body reacts with an inanimate body in any way, it is also likely to build up such complex carbon nitrogen compounds, not only as a living product, but but also as the lifeless product which we have seen must be formed. Hence these products must be formed to some extent not merely in living matter,

Starting point is 01:35:49 but also in inanimate matter. For instance, this very process of the fixation of nitrogen that we have already referred to, we might expect to be found accomplished by living bodies which can absorb nitrogen and react with it, leaving nitrogen compounds as rejected matter, besides forming themselves into nitrogen compounds. We do in fact find such a process operating among what are called the nitrogen-fixing or nitrifying bacteria, which absorb nitrogen and injection non-living nitrogen compounds in a manner that could hardly be explained as anything but reversing the second law of thermodynamics. Thus is a result where the prevailing tenancy is positive, and where the negative tenancy is the exception.

Starting point is 01:36:32 To trace this result further, we must remember that life, the negative tenancy grows by accretion on a living centre, which is necessary. Living bodies absorb inanimate matter, extending life more and more, absorbing to some extent exothermic substances, rejecting to some extent endothermic substances, until this living activity begins to take in the majority of the section of the universe. Meanwhile the living, the negative, activities will have absorbed most, if not all, of the exothermic substances, while the positive tendency will be kept up by the constant rejection of mostly endothermic substances as lifeless matter. Thus will the extremely complicated carbon nitrogen compounds tend in a section of the universe where the prevailing tenancy is negative, to be found

Starting point is 01:37:18 more and more as positive as lifeless bodies. Furthermore, since such a section of the universe is the exact reverse of a positive section of the universe, such positive bodies will tend to be formed as exactly such complex organisms, as are in our section of the universe found in living bodies. We will have a complex life-like organism, but with none of the life activities, with some exceptions as we shall see, we may call such organisms swedore living organisms. In our reverse universe, the swedo living organisms will take the exact shapes of the living organisms in our real universe. Such extremely entothermic compounds are unstable under the positive tenancy, but require the negative tenancy to stabilize them.

Starting point is 01:38:03 Under the positive tenancy, these compounds will tend to decompose into exothermic tenancies very quickly, but the tendency of negative activities, to extend, from a negative centre, will be very active when most of the universe is negative, and hence such exothermic substances will be likely to be quickly absorbed by the prevailing negative tendency. While on the contrary, the prevailing negative tenancy will tend quickly to build up, as rejected positive matter, these same endothermic compounds into the positive swatohlixt. living organisms. Thus these swatter living organisms differ from corpses in that there is a constant cycle of chemical reaction with the surrounding world, a constant building up and decomposition

Starting point is 01:38:45 of substances, since these organisms are the exact reverse of living organisms as we know them. It follows that in a section of the universe where the prevailing tendency is positive. Any living bodies much exist in the form of chemical machines that constantly absorb inanimate matter, build up into living matter, and it constantly make partial decompositions of their own substance into more exothermic substances which are rejected as inanimate matter. That is, both living substances in our section of the universe and the swatter living organisms in the negative sections of the universe have in common a property of metabolism.

Starting point is 01:39:21 All these conclusions hold except, as a heat so great that the formation of compounds is impossible, e.g., on the sun, metabolism is thus not a property of life. property of life, but of the minority tenancy. The same is true of the chemical composition of organisms. In a positive section of the universe, the organisms are living. In a negative section of the universe, they are essentially lifeless. With the heat is too great to permit the formation of chemical compounds. Such chemical machines cannot exist, but the minority tenancy, whether positive or negative,

Starting point is 01:39:54 would probably exist. The chances of its non-existence been extremely small. In any conditions, the chances are overwhelmingly in favour of there being a mixture of the two tendencies. Yet though both tendencies are present, there will be a majority and a minority tendency. But what such minority tendency may be like is difficult to imagine. For instance, it would be difficult to imagine what sort of phenomenon life would be on the sun.

Starting point is 01:40:21 It would certainly have to be different from any life that we know of, though with the common properties of irritability, apparent teleology, and reserve energy. End of Section 10 Section 11 of the Anamet and the Inamet by William Sidus This is a Librevox according or Librevox according to the public domain. For more information or volunteer, please visit Librevox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 11 Theories of the Origin of Life

Starting point is 01:40:57 According to our hypothesis, life Life always has existed and always will exist under all conditions in some form, though that form may be quite different from any form of life that comes within our experience. If we trace back the ancestry of present-day life, we will always be able to trace it back to some life, though it may be in such a form that it might be extremely difficult to recognize it as life. Thus, there never was a time when life started on the earth. It merely developed in its present complex form from some simpler form that existed on earth when the earth was in a molten or even in a vaporous condition.

Starting point is 01:41:33 Still further back it can be traced as some extremely simple form of life that existed as far back as a nebula out of which the solar system originated. We shall let her attempt to trace it back beyond the nebula. Our theory of the origin of life is thus that there was no origin, but only a constant development and change in form. This belongs to the class of theories known as the biogenic theories, as contrasted to the abiogenetic theories, which assumed that some previous time life did not exist,

Starting point is 01:42:03 and that under certain special circumstances that existed where the Earth was in a heated condition, the necessary elements came together somehow and assembled themselves into a living body from which all other living bodies are descended. The nature of this automatic assemblage of constituents remains, of course, rather mystical, not to speak of the fact that the assumption of spontaneous generation is rather contrary to observe facts. Such abiogenic theories have very frequently been advanced, especially since every now and then,

Starting point is 01:42:33 there is a regrediscence of the belief that spontaneous generation of life is possible under present circumstances, the life could be produced in a laboratory, in spite of all observed facts to the contrary. Heckel represents this abiogenetic theory in its most general form, that when water first liquefied on the earth, its reaction on various substances, then present produces protead, which was the original life from which all life has descended. How this protead was formed remains a mystery. We have, however, a more detailed explanation of Fierre's theory, which is to the general effect that the original combination was that between carbon and nitrogen, forming cyanogen, which in as turn united with other substance,

Starting point is 01:43:17 especially the hydrogen and oxygen of water, to form more and more complex cyanogen, or other similar carbon nitrogen compounds. Such combination forming as a final result, proteate, the chemical basis of which would thus be the cyanogen radical C.N. Here we have a very likely explanation. In the first place, even many simple cyanogen compounds have many chemical reactions, very similar to those of proteed. In the second place, whereas protein has, in itself, been found to constitute a very great poison, is also known that cyanogen is one of the most powerful poisons known, and that its compounds

Starting point is 01:43:54 are in general extremely poisonous. Though in certain combinations found in living bodies, e.g. almonds, such compounds seem to be quite harmless. One difficulty with this is that this idea of spontaneous generation is somewhat contrary to observed facts. There is no instance observed as such a thing as spontaneous generation of life, but the main difficulties to explain the formation of cyanogen and especially of its compounds from their elements. It is perfectly true, as alleged, that carbon and nitrogen being together at a high temperature will form a little cyanogen, but with the large amount of oxygen present, this cyanogen could not last long, since cyanogen is a very much.

Starting point is 01:44:32 very endothermic substance, and under the second law of thermodynamics, it will reduce to the combination that has less chemical energy, losing the difference in the form of heat, resulting carbon dioxide and nitrogen as a product. Accordingly, we must suppose some peculiar sort of carbon and nitrogen that will not only unite into cyanogen, but which will form such a peculiar form of cyanogen that instead of oxidizing on contact with oxygen, as ordinary cyanogen would, it not only holds itself aloof from oxidation, even forms more complex and more endothermic compounds. We must suppose some form of carbon and nitrogen, which would reverse the ordinary chemical

Starting point is 01:45:11 reactions under those circumstances, or since those reactions are based ultimately on the second law of thermodynamics, we must suppose that there was, at that period of first history, some carbon and nitrogen that possess the ability to reverse the second law of thermodynamics. If we suppose that, our theory of life can easily harmonize with the future idea as to the origin of organic life from cyanogen compounds. In fact, as we have seen, our theory of life is such that we would theoretically suppose that living organisms would have a chemical construction based on the cyanogen radical, thus falling in exactly with the future's idea

Starting point is 01:45:49 that life on the earth originated in cyanogen and its compounds. So much for the abiogenetic theories. Turning now to the biogenic theories, we can hardly find them much more satisfactory. We have, for instance, Praio's theory that the Earth itself, in the heated state, was itself an immense living organism, from which all living organisms existed, yet present are descended. All inorganic matter on the earth being merely the rejected excretions of the former living Earth, while the living substance came more and more to resemble protoplasm. Absurd as this theory may sound, there is nothing impossible about it. However, the astronomy of the proposition is rather poor. There is no reason to believe that the Earth, in a heated state, was in any different condition

Starting point is 01:46:35 from all other known bodies which we find in a similarly heated state, e.g., the major planets and the sun. And these heavenly bodies are hardly in a condition which could by any stretch of imagination be called living. However, if by living is meant that there is a potentiality of the generation of life, of course the Earth in a heated condition must have come under that heading. But since the heated planets have no particular resemblance to life, what is more likely is that on the earth in a heated state there was life, and there was such life even in the nebula, almost as different from the life that we know at present as a kind of Earth organism that Preo supposes, but having some properties in common with present life. This is precisely

Starting point is 01:47:21 what our theory of life would lead to. We come now to the bi-genetic theory most commonly advanced. which numbers among its supporters, Helmholtz and Sir William Thompson. This is the so-called theory of Cosmosoa, otherwise known as the theory of seed-bearing meteors. This theory is the effect that two planets, at least one of which had developed life on it, came into collision, so that each of the planets was broken into small pieces which were scattered all over in different directions. Some of the pieces of life-bearing planet in the former meteorites passes another, always bearing within them the seeds of life. These meteorites finally came into the solar system and entered the Earth's atmosphere,

Starting point is 01:48:03 then striking the Earth and planting these seeds of life on the Earth, which afterwards developed into the various forms of life that now exist. This theory sounds very plausible, but again it is based on very poor astronomy. The common meteors, or shooting stars, which are the actual bodies that seem have passed from one system to another in this manner, never actually reached the Earth's surface, but are completely burned up before they have penetrated very far into the atmosphere.

Starting point is 01:48:31 The larger bodies that actually reach the UF's surface are the so-called meteorites, which are as much parts of the solar system as the planets, and even move around the sun in the same direction as the planets, which are, in fact, simply stray asteroids. Tracing life to such bodies is not tracing it to any other stellar system, but merely to the solar system, and makes it more impossible than ever to trace back where the supposed seeds of life came from,

Starting point is 01:48:57 or how they got into the meteorite. There is, of course, nothing to prove that such a meteorite as this hypothesis assumes could not be formed, or that it could not thus transplant life from one planet to another. But since such meteorites are as large enough to reach the Earth's surface, at the same time, are not members of the solar system, do not seem to be a regular occurrence. There be no known instance of such a body. It would seem that such an occurrence is a very rare one, if indeed it can happen at all that any life in its present form,

Starting point is 01:49:28 could survive such a collision or such a long trip through space. Should two planets happen to collide, as the hypothesis assumes, and should any life on those planets survive the collision, the chances are almost nil that, in the case when it happens, any of the pieces of record would strike another planet at war, much less that it would strike one at the very period when that planet was ready to receive the very form of life carried by the meteorite. Thus not only is the hypothesis improbable, per se,

Starting point is 01:49:56 is also contrary to any observed facts, since the actual bodies that could be supposed to come from other stellar systems are as far as observation goes, so small that they are burned by friction with the atmosphere long before they can reach the surface of the Earth. It might be interesting to note that in the time of Helmholtz and Thompson, the distinction between the meteors were shooting stars that come from other stellar systems and their meteorites or heliurites, which form part of the solar system,

Starting point is 01:50:25 was a distinction which had not yet been clearly drawn. We thus come to the conclusion that the theory of Cosmozoa is entirely unacceptable in the point of present facts, while Praia's theory of the Earth organism can only be accepted in the extremely modified form that the Earth, in its molten and vaporous states, contained life, instead of having been alive, as Prey himself would have it. Thus we come to the conclusion that life is as eternal as inanimate, and is to be found as universally under as varying conditions as inanimate phenomena.

Starting point is 01:51:01 On the other hand, we can also accept the future idea that life, as it exists on this earth, originated from the formation of cyanogen and its compounds. Our theory of the origin of life is really biogenic, in that it supposes that all life originated from life for an eternity past, but on the contrary, inasmuch as a past life from which the present life is derived, was in an almost unrecognitive. recognizable different form from which that in which life at present appears. It supplies a basis for the abiogenic theories of the origin of life from non-living organisms, which are, according to my theory, in organic life.

Starting point is 01:51:39 End of Section 11. Section 12 of The Animate and the Inanimate by William Cydus. This Librevolved recording is in the public domain. Recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 12 The Astronomical Universe The consideration of the question of the origin of life and the various theories formed on that question

Starting point is 01:52:07 has led us into astronomical considerations so it may be worthwhile to examine the astronomical aspects of our theory or the reversibility of the universe. As we may well, after dealing both with objects of ordinary size and with very small and even ultimate particles, turn to the consideration of objects of a different, a large scale of magnitude, the heavenly bodies. We shall therefore consider our theory in connection with such objects. Astronomy deals not only with individual planets in our solar system as a whole,

Starting point is 01:52:40 but also with the almost inconceivably vast extensive space which stand between the various stars and their special systems, and finally with the theory of that general group of all stars, which is known to astronomers as the stellar universe, or simply as the universe. Accordingly, one of the first things we should investigate should be the astronomical theories of the universe, especially since our theory of reversibility is essentially a theory of the universe. When we come to examine the astronomical theories of the universe, we find that they divide themselves into two groups, just as the biological theories of the nature of life are, generally speaking,

Starting point is 01:53:20 to be divided into the mechanistic and the vitalistic. So the astronomical theories of the nature of the universe may be divided into the theories of the finite universe and the theories of the infinite universe. And as our theory affects a compromise between the two kinds of theories of life, we may try to see whether our theory cannot also reconcile the two kinds of theories of the universe.

Starting point is 01:53:44 Let us therefore examine more detail each of the two kinds of astronomical theories of the universe and the various arguments that can be adduced in support of both kinds of theories. Let us take the theories of an infinite universe. The general idea of these theories is that space is infinite, and there is no special reason why matters should be confined to one portion, and at that, only an infinitesimal portion compared to the infinity of space. Thus we get the picture of an infinite geometrical space filled with stars,

Starting point is 01:54:17 here to a somewhat greater density, there is somewhat less density, but on the whole, with a certain average density. This reasoning on the basis of the theory of probability is a perfectly good one, and it is, furthermore, not the only argument in favour of an infinite universe. There are arguments that are based not on theory but on actual observation. The most important of these is the gravitational consideration if the universe is infinite, and matter approximately uniformly distributed throughout the, universe. Then on the average the gravitational pulls on a given stellar system should on the

Starting point is 01:54:53 whole completely balance each other so that gravitation would not tend to pull any stellar system in any particular direction. And the proper motion of any star should be, in accordance with the law of inertia, a uniform motion in a straight line. But on the contrary, if the wear of the universe a center of density, and especially if there were a finite universe, then all stellar systems would tend to be pulled on towards that center density, and in general evolve round that center. The facts indicate that the proper motion of stars is actually uniform motion in a straight line, and that there is no center about which all stars move, so that this argument would

Starting point is 01:55:33 point most distinctly to an infinite universe. We've matter distributed throughout space approximately uniformly, one part of space being in this respect no different from another. But there is one outstanding objection to this theory that the stellar universe is infinite. There may be supposed to be no reason why the average brightness of stars should be any different in one part of space from what it is in any other part, multiplying this average brightness by the average number of stars per unit volume. The average star density that we suppose for the finite universe we will get the average

Starting point is 01:56:08 number of light issuing from a unit volume anywhere in space. Let us call this product L. as the apparent brightness of any source of light is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between that source and the observer. Then if we call that distance D, the average apparent brightness of a unit of volume at distance D from the observer could be represented as L divided by D squared. If we divide space into an infinite number of concentric spherical shells, with the observer at the center, each with equal thickness.

Starting point is 01:56:43 to say the unit distance divided by 4 pi, then, especially when the sphere is very large, the volume of each shell is approximately d squared. Multiplying the average apparent brightness of a unit volume by distance D by the volume of the show of distance D, we find that the volume of each such shell is a constant L. Since the stellar universe consists of an infinite number of such shells, each of which has the same apparent brightness, it follows that the brightness of the sky, or indeed of the smallest part of it must be altogether infinite. The consequence of the theory of an infinite universe is obviously contradicted by facts. On account of this objection to the universe being infinite,

Starting point is 01:57:24 there arose the theories of the finite universe, which seemed to depend mainly on the observed distribution of light in the sky, outside of the light from the sun, moon, and other members of the solar system. These theories of the finite universe started with the great observer. Sir William Herschel, one of the three ordrinators of the nebula hypothesis, whose theory is that of the so-called drum universe. According to Herschel's theory, the universe is in the shape of a very flat circular drum, or in other words, a thin, wide circular slab, with possibly another secondary slab at a plane inclined a few degrees to the first, the two slabs being concentric, and the centre being the sun. It seems that even Herschel had the idea that our solar system is a centre of all things, which is somewhat a survival of the ancient doctrine that the Earth is the centre of the universe. In fact, we may say that Herschel's theory of the universe is a modernised version of the ancient

Starting point is 01:58:21 Primum M. Obile, containing the stars and having the Earth for a centre. However, the drum or double drum shape of the universe is intended to explain the distribution of light. For in a plane of the drum, we should have to look through such an immensely greater amount stars than in the direction with any considerable inclination to the plane so that we should have the appearance of a white streak running all around the sky which we actually have under the name of the nooky way the double drum shape would require a bite for occasion of this white streak at the two opposite parts which again is strictly in accordance with absurd facts

Starting point is 01:58:57 Hirschel was perfectly willing to believe that there are other similar drum shaped universes two of which according to him are visible to us and known to as the megalanic clouds. These clouds were first observed by the famous explorer McGillian, and are circular patches in the sky of the southern hemisphere, which look like detached portions of the Milky Way, though at a considerable distance from the Milky Way. The modern theories of the Finite universe,

Starting point is 01:59:28 though not accepting Herschel's explanation as to the megalanic clouds, rather tend to suppose that those objects are within a right stellar universe, a very similar to Herschel's drum theory in general outline, and all had the same characteristic of been attempted explanations of the distribution of light actually found in the sky. The tendency, however, is not to suppose that the solar system is at the center of the universe, but rather to suppose that the solar system is considerably south of the centre, being almost on the southern side of the drum,

Starting point is 01:59:58 and much nearer the southern part of the drum edge that it is to the northern. There is, further, a tendency to suppose that this, stellar universe is a result of a collision of two semi-universes, which is what we have seen, would be the result of pushing the second-law of thermodynamics to its logical conclusion. It has been an absurd fact that the star is seen to move in two general currents. However, just as the theory of infinite universe cannot be supported on the grounds of the distribution of light, so similarly the theories of the finite universe cannot be supported on the grounds of the consideration of gravitational attraction. We thus find that considerations of gravitational attraction lead us to suppose an infinite universe

Starting point is 02:00:40 with stars approximately uniformly distributed threat space. Similarly, with considerations of probability which lead us to the same conclusion. But on the contrary, the observed distribution of light in the sky leads us to the directly opposite conclusion, that our stellar universe is finite, though there may be straight stars outside that universe that occasionally come in, and though similarly, some stars may occasionally stray out of the limits of the universe. There may be other such finite universes in which we may conceive of things in such a series as the following. Electrons are the particles and make up atoms. Atoms are the particles and make up molecules. Molecules are the particles and make up masses.

Starting point is 02:01:26 Masses are the particles and make up planets, etc. are the particles and make up stellar systems. stellar systems are the particles that make up universes. Universes are the particles that make up existence. All of which sounds perfectly reasonable, but the gravitational consideration spoils this simple series, and it is a consideration that cannot easily be disposed of. It would seem then, as if there was gravitationally an infinite universe, while in relation to light, the shape of the universe is something like Herschel's drum.

Starting point is 02:02:01 In other words, stars are uniformly distributed throughout the whole of infinite universe, space, so that the gravitational phenomena will be like those of an infinite universe, while somehow, rather, beyond Herschel's drum, stars do not give out light. This phenomenon cannot be explained by a partial opakness of either, for then the apparent shape of the universe would be spherical with ourselves at the centre instead of double drum shaped with ourselves on the southern side. Hence there must be some other explanation, especially since this same question of probability, indicates that Ether is likely to be uniformly distributed through infinite space.

Starting point is 02:02:41 Some other explanation then must be found. Beyond the boundaries of Herschel's drum, for some unknown reason or other, stars fail to give out light. Either they are all cold or they are hot but not bright. And furthermore, stars must be constantly entering and leaving the limits of this Herschel drum. We may easily suppose that a star, after having passed all the way across this part of space, has cooled down so much as to give no light,

Starting point is 02:03:07 but on entering they are much hotter than later on, because stars constantly lose heat to the surrounding ether. Hence, if these stars were cold before entering the Herschel drum, something must have happened to them near the boundary to heat them up suddenly. If there is, around the boundary of the drum, any material which would heat up a star by collision, friction, or contact, then it would follow that cold stars leaving the drum will be similarly affected,

Starting point is 02:03:32 which is highly in accordance with the theory, as deduced from observation. Hence we conclude that the stars which enter the Herschel drum are, to a great extent, at least, hot, but give out no radiant energy light. Thus outside the limits of the Herschel drum, as far as we can judge, stars exist, and many of them are even hotter than the stars within our observation, and it would seem that the ether is there to receive radiant energy from them, but no radiant energy is forthcoming. The result, then, is that we do indeed have an infant stellar universe, but that Herschel's

Starting point is 02:04:09 drum has the peculiarity that, within it, stellar heat is converted into radiant energy, while no such conversation takes place outside the Herschel drum. There may furthermore be other Herschel drums and other parts of space having similar peculiarities. In order to understand the special peculiarity of these Herschel drums, let us examine why stellar heat is converted into radiant energy at all. In the first place, the ether of interstellar space is at a very low temperature, while in other, a star is at an extremely high temperature,

Starting point is 02:04:43 many stars being much hotter than our sun. According to the second law of thermodynamics, the energy should tend to run down towards a common level. That is, the star's heat energy would radiate into the surrounding space and appear in the form of ether vibrations, that is in the form of radiant energy, under which heading is included light. If, then, outside Herschel's drums, there are many hot stars, hot enough to give out light of all vibration periods, white-hot, by which do not issue any radiant energy.

Starting point is 02:05:16 It follows that somehow the second law of thermodynamics applies only within the Herschel drums, but is somehow suspended or even reversed outside them. In other words, the actual stellar universe has manifested. by gravitational phenomena is infinite, and stars are approximately uniformly distributed throughout infinite space. But we can only see the stars in that section of space where the second law of thermodynamics prevails, and therefore the section of the stellar universe that it's visible is, after all, only finite. We thus come to the conclusion that the boundary of the Hurtle drum is really the limiting surface between positive and negative sections of the

Starting point is 02:05:56 universe, and now we come to the question of whether, starting with our theory of the positive or the negative tendency prevailing in different parts of space and time, according to the theory of probability, we can draw any more detailed conclusions in respect to the exact appearance of the stiller universe. In the first place, we have come to the conclusion that, taking any given moment of time, the positive and the negative parts of the universe,

Starting point is 02:06:20 should be approximately equal. As a matter of probability, in fact that, if we take the whole of space and time, the positive and negative sections bear towards one another, a ratio of exactly one. Since we are dealing with only the present time, no time is near the present, in dealing with the present appearance of the universe, we may confide ourselves to the statement that, in a given portion of time there should be approximately equal, positive and negative sections of space,

Starting point is 02:06:46 and if matter is approximately uniformly distributed throughout space, that the volumes or the two kinds of sections should be approximately equal. The next question is, in what way the negative section of space can be distinguished from the positive section? Our previous consideration on the production of radiant energy from the stars indicates that such production of radiant energy is only possible where the second law of thermodynamics has followed. That is, in a positive section of the universe.

Starting point is 02:07:16 In a negative section of the universe, the reverse process must take place, namely space is full of radiant energy, presumably produced in the positive section of space, and the stars use this radiant energy to build up a higher level of heat. All radiant energy in that section of space would tend to be absorbed by the stars, which would thus constitute perfectly black bodies, and very little radiant energy would be produced in that section of space, but would mostly come from beyond the boundary service.

Starting point is 02:07:46 What little radiant energy would be produced in the negative section of space would be suedo teleologically directed only towards stars which have enough activity to absorb it, and no radiant energy, or almost none, would actually leave the negative section of space. The peculiarity of the boundary surface between the positive and negative sections of space then is that practically all light that crosses it, crosses it in one direction, namely from the positive side to the negative side. If we were on the positive side, it seems to be the case, then we could not see beyond such service, though we might easily have gravitational or other evidence of bodies existing

Starting point is 02:08:22 beyond that service. Furthermore, just as in the positive section of space, flight is given out uniform in all directions. So in the negative section light must be absorbed by a star equally from all directions. Thus, to any star in the negative section, light must come in about the same amount from all directions, and since most of this light comes from the positive sections, it follows that the negative sections must be completely surrounded by positive sections, and must therefore be finite in all directions. By reversing this, since we have seen that all fiscal laws are reversible, It follows that any positive section must also be finite in all directions,

Starting point is 02:09:02 and be completely surrounded by negative sections. We thus find the universe to be made up of a number of what we may call bricks, alternately positive and negative, all of approximately the same volume, a sort of three-dimensional checkerboard. The positive space is counting as white, giving out light, and the negative spaces is black, absorbing light. Thus what we see is simply the white space that we are in, that surrounding black spaces are invisible, and in addition absorb the light from the white spaces beyond,

Starting point is 02:09:32 so that even those cannot be seen, and if we judge from the distribution of light in the sky, we get an idea merely off the size and shape of our special white space. Let us try, now, to get a theoretical idea as to approximately what should be the shape of these white and black spaces, so that it can be compared with observation. For developing the theory in this direction, we must remember that the proportion of positive matter in any part of space should, according to probability, be about 50%. But this same theory of probability will tell us that it is extremely improbable in any given part of space that this proportion should be exactly 50%, whether there should be a discrepancy

Starting point is 02:10:12 between the percentage of positive and that of negative phenomena. This discrepancy becoming increasingly improbable, the greater the discrepancy is. Accordingly, we may suppose that there are services where the proportion of positive events is 50% out boundaries, and other similar services where there are other special proportions. While, in the middle of the positive bricks, there will be a maximum percentage point, and in the middle of the negative bricks, there will be a minimum percentage point. Around these maximum and minimum points, our white and black spaces will be built. The fundamental variation of the percentage away from these points being presumably based on

Starting point is 02:10:49 three principal directions or dimensions, of which the variation of the directions will be compounded. Proceeding from, let us say, one of the maximum points, center of a positive section of the universe in any direction, the discrepancy from the normal of 50% should become first positive, then negative in a sort of vibrationary form. This vibration should be irregular, according to the theory of error, though with a certain average, but in the three principal directions, approximately perpendicular to each other, we should expect to find them more uniformly periodic. If these vibrations were regular and perfectly periodic in these three directions, the boundary surfaces would be planes midway between the maximum and minimum points,

Starting point is 02:11:37 and the sections on the universe would take the shape of rectangular, parallel pipeheads. With such shape, the sections of the universe would indeed be bricks, but such regular uniform vibrations are hardly to be expected. The theory of error would lead us to expected regularities from even that, by the volume of the sections should remain on outward. Furthermore, a positive section must touch another positive section along an edge, or else at that edge two negative sections will form a continuous section, and we are thus liable to get a continuous line of negative space to perhaps an infinite extent, which is contrary to anything that we should expect.

Starting point is 02:12:16 Hence we must expect that, in the irregularities, both the edges in the volume would be slightly changed. The faces of the parallel of pipette, however, may, even under these conditions, be considerably changed. We may, for instance, expect that the vibrations of the percentage, instead of being the simple harmonic vibrations which would produce plain boundary surfaces, midway between the maximum and minimum points, may be compounded with its harmonics, that is, may be compounded with vibrations of multiple frequency, or which the double frequency is the most important. The double frequency would be likely to make a whole face of the parallel pipette, either cave in or bulge out. The higher frequencies will simply introduce further irregularities,

Starting point is 02:12:59 since there is to be little alteration or volume in the sections, two of the opposite pairs of surfaces must be changed in one direction, and the third in the other. The longer dimensions of the parallel of pipette are those in which more irregularity is likely to show itself, so that the biggest alteration would show itself are one of the larger. two smaller pairs of opposite faces. The other two pairs of faces will then have to be altered in the opposite way to make up for this, presumably the largest and the smallest, the medium pairs of faces showing the greatest irregularity.

Starting point is 02:13:32 The irregularity may thus be of two varieties. Over the medium pair of faces caved in and the largest and smallest bulged out somewhat less, or the largest and smallest pairs of faces are caved in slowly, and the medium pair of faces extremely bulged out. Taking each of those two shapes, and they are liable to alternate to some extent, some sections of the universe being of one kind of shape and some of the other, we can suppose that each one that it represented a positive section of the universe, an attempt to predict the distribution of light in the sky as seen from somewhere near the maximum point.

Starting point is 02:14:08 Either parallel pipe heads are comparatively flat, as they are likely to be, the three dimensions of these figures probably being widely different. It follows that in the sky, the plain parallel to the largest pair of faces would seem to be filled with a thick white strip. According to which the forms of irregularities, we suppose, the shape of the strip will vary. If the largest, the smallest faces are bulged out, this white strip will be much less conspicuous. There been in the other directions a good distribution of stars visible.

Starting point is 02:14:40 But the strip would still be visible, and the hollow in one pair of faces would mean that, in In one place on the strip, as well as in the opposite part, there would be a widening, due to the medium pair of faces being nearer than the smallest, and consequently appearing wider, with a dark space in the middle of this widening. Midway between these dark spaces, the strip becomes narrow, due to the fact that there the surface bonding the section of the universe receives to a great distance. If the other shape of the positive section were adopted, we should have something similar, except that the strip would tend more to be of uniform width.

Starting point is 02:15:16 and if anything, the coal sacks would be in the narrow part of the strip. We may represent the two forms of the strip somewhat as follows. A diagram is displayed on the page. These coal sacks would tend to be oval in shape instead of pointed at the ends, as Herschel's double drum would lead us to suppose. If we are on the southern side of the positive section, then on the southern side more irregularities would be seen, such as striations of the strip, occasionally small, coal sacks and the other parts than were expected, while some of the irregular wavy variations on the largest face of the brick on the south side would result now seeing near this strip,

Starting point is 02:15:57 apparently detached sections, presumably approximately circular. As a matter of fact, the so-called galaxy or Milky Way has the shape indicated in the first of the two above diagrams, where exactly such irregularities as we have predicted. The shape of the colesax is indeed approximately oval and not pointed, as Herschel's theory would lead us to expect. Furthermore, such circular detached sections in the Milky Way actually do appear in the southern hemisphere and have been phenomena, which have always been difficult to explain. They are called the megalanic clouds, and we can see that, according to our theory, they are exactly what they look like, detached sections in the Milky Way.

Starting point is 02:16:39 It either result from what we suppose, namely, the largest of the three southern faces of the brick, becoming wavy and extending suddenly a great distance out. It follows that the neighbouring regions, which are the opposite phase of the same waves, should be so near to us that there should theoretically, around the megalanic clouds, be very few stars visible. This is indeed the case. The megalanic clouds are found in a region of the sky that is almost completely devoid of stars.

Starting point is 02:17:07 Thus we find that not only does our theory of a reversible universe actually reconcile the theories of the infinite universe with the theories of the finite universe, but it actually enables us to predict the distribution of light in the sky much more accurately than any theory has yet been able to do. We thus see that the universe is infinite, but divided into alternatively positive and negative spaces of approximately equal volume, and that the apparent stellar universe is merely the positive section in which we are.

Starting point is 02:17:33 The galaxy consists merely of the distant sides of the regular brick that constitutes this positive section. To get an approximate idea of the size of this brick, The temporary star, Nova Percy, which appeared in 1902, was in the Milky Way, and was probably as distant. Its distance has been estimated at about 3,400 light years, so that this gives us the length of the brick is about 7,000 light years. The Milky Way knew the coal sacks being about twice as wide as here, the width of the brick would be about 4,000 light years, and the greatest width of the Milky Way being about 15 degrees, that gives the thickness of the brick at about 1,000 light years. in reducing to ordinary measurement, we may notice that a light year is about 5.8 trillion miles.

Starting point is 02:18:22 End of Section 12. Section 13 of the animate and the inanimate by William Cydes. This Librevolts recording is in the public domain. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 13, The Nebula Hypothesis So far we have considered only a single cross-section in time of the universe in our astronomical considerations. That is, we have only considered the appearance of the universe at a given moment of time,

Starting point is 02:18:58 and thus come to the conclusion that, at a given moment, the universe is built of positive and negative sections with a tolerably well-defined shape, as a consequence of our theory of the reversibility of the universe. But we have not yet considered the changes in the universe, or in its constituent parts, the stars, that are brought about by time, What the universe was in the past, what it will be in the future, in short, the course of events that generates the individual stellar systems or in the universe, its past, present and future conditions.

Starting point is 02:19:31 This branch of astronomy is known as cosmogony. Let us then examine the recent theories on the matter of cosmogony. The first theory which had a scientific basis was a so-called nebula hypothesis. This hypothesis is interesting partly from the fact that originated in the mind, of three men independently at about the same time. These three men, having arrived at it, formed three different points of view, and been in three different countries, while each was among the most prominent men in his own specialty.

Starting point is 02:20:03 One of those three men was a manual count, the famous philosopher, who originated this hypothesis as an incidental speculative conclusion from his own philosophy. Another was a well-known mathematician in the place, who arrived at the hypothesis from considerations of his studies of celestial mechanics. or the third originator of this hypothesis was Sir William Herschel, who was well known as an astronomical observer, and who arrived at the nebular hypothesis as an explanation of many phenomena he observed among the stars. According to this theory, which was quite generally accepted almost throughout the 19th century, the universe was once what the originators of the hypothesis had been pleased to call, probably after the Greek mythology, a chaos, which seems to mean undifferentiated matter, uniformly distributed throughout infinite space. Centres of attraction were formed where, in any spot, the matter was slightly denser than in its vicinity,

Starting point is 02:20:57 and surrounding matter was drawn into these centers. Thus were formed whirlpools, which set up a great rotation at its center, increasing with the increasing condensation at the centers. It was further assumed that the original chaos was at an intense heat, so that, at the centers of attraction, great hot rotating bodies were formed. The rotation became faster and faster as the matter was drawn in toward the center. The centrifugal force finally becoming so great to the rings of matter were thrown off. In each ring a center of attraction was formed, and the process was repeated. From the primary whirlpools there thus came the stars. From the centers of attraction resulting from the rings came the planets, and these planets

Starting point is 02:21:41 themselves threw off rings which finally became satellites. Since larger bodies cool off slower than smaller bodies, the stars and the largest planets remained hot. The smaller planets and satellites cooled off to a solid condition. This theory was exceptionally throughout the 19th century, with occasionally some minor modifications. For instance, the assumption that the original chaos or universal nebula was in a state of intense heat had since been dropped, because the energy of matter coming in from a distance under the influence of gravitation would be sufficient to explain that heat would arise in immense amounts. When potential gravitational energy at a high level is reduced to a smaller amount at a proportionally lower level, the difference is converted to heat

Starting point is 02:22:25 without loss under the second law of thermodynamics. This theory was corroborated by the supposed fact that the planets and stars in the various stages were visible to astronomers, such as hot planets, the major planets such as Jupiter and Saturn, and even the rings around Saturn, stars in the various stages, from extremely heated stars to almost dark stars. Algol's companion star being an example of a completely dark star while the very first stage of star formation would be indicated in the many nebulas that are visible in all parts of the sky. One stage, of course, that was not exemplified in observation, was a chaos or universal nebula, from which all stars supposedly originated. Further in the explanation of

Starting point is 02:23:08 how this chaos gave rise to stars, it is supposed that the centres of attraction arose at these places of maximum density. But since in the original chaos the density was assumed to be uniform throughout, the question naturally arises as to what miracle could have given the start by condensing some spots and rarifying others. In fact this theory leads us back more obviously to some creative miracle than even the second law of thermodynamics. In the last half of the 19th century further facts about the stars and about the solar system in particular began to be discovered, which made the original nebula hypothesis very improbable indeed, and which necessitated the formation of

Starting point is 02:23:48 a new cosmogenic hypothesis. This gradually took shape in the form of what is now known as the phantasmal hypothesis, which is partially based on the old nebula hypothesis, had altered the main ideas. This phantismal hypothesis originated from the theory of tidal friction, as developed by George Darwin. According to this theory, when two dark stars, of which the universe is supposed to be four come close together, being led to pass close to each other by their respective proper motions. The extreme proximity results in the two dark stars mutually raising immense ties on one another, the tidal friction being so great as the heat both stars to an immense heat, and at the same time to produce in each star a rotation in the plane of the relative velocity of the

Starting point is 02:24:33 stars. Incidentally, the mutual attraction of the two stars would probably make a great change in the proper motions of both. The total force setting on each star would furthermore be strong enough to overcome the cohesion of the parts of the star, and thus tear almost all the exterior parts of the star away from the star into the surrounding space, forming a spiral nebula. This nebula, as thus formed, will contain many condensations of larger a smaller size. These on cooling absorb surrounding portions of the nebula,

Starting point is 02:25:04 and become planets, satellites, asteroids, and meteorites. All these will tend to revolve around their sun in the same direction as their sun itself rotates, as well as to rotate on their own axis in the same direction. The plantesimal hypothesis thus tends to assume that the universe always was somewhat as it is now, but that stars come and go in generations as it were. There are thus supposed to be a present stars of all sorts of ages, stars of the older generation and young, warm stars of the newer generation. The very younger stars are surrounded with nebulaes, which are indeed usually found to take form of spiral nebulas.

Starting point is 02:25:48 The life of a star is somewhat as follows. After the process that has just been described, then first the planets, and then the star itself cools off, possibly becoming dark, to a proximity with another star comes about again, when the systems are once more heated up, and proximity the two stars generates in both a new planetary system. From the proximity of two stars there is two new stars, and so the process keeps on from one star generation to the next. This plentissimal hypothesis is undoubtedly a plausible one, though like every other theory there are plenty of observed phenomena that either does not explain or explains only imperfectly.

Starting point is 02:26:32 No doubt if two dark stars come into such proximity, that proximity will generate new stars with a planetary system to each, as that hypothesis assumes. And it is also true that almost all stages of growth of a star under the planetesimal hypothesis are actually observed in the sky. But, as in the case of the nebula hypothesis, the initial process is a missing link. The main common ground of these two hypothesis is that there was a nebula which condensed into a stellar system, the stars, planets, etc., of the stellar system becoming constantly cooler as they radiate their heat into outside space. So much can almost be observed directly. For all these stages, from the nebula on, are exemplified in the sky.

Starting point is 02:27:15 The ring stage, as supposed in the original nebula hypothesis, has, however, never been observed in any star, and the only possible example of that is Saturn's rings, which, however, is a spurious example. Since spectroscopic observations show that the rings around Saturn are not true rings, but simply collections of small satellites at approximately the same distance from the planet, and which from this distance look like rings.

Starting point is 02:27:41 However, practically all stages of the planetismal hypothesis can be exemplified in the sky. The planetesimal hypothesis does not deny that sometimes a new body can arise by rotation, but even in such a case there is no ring process. In the case of the Earth, for instance, it is supposed that the Earth was rotating with extreme rapidity, the centrifugal force finally elongating it into a sort of pear shape. He'll engage and continue until the centrifugal force at the end of the pair exceeds the gravitational attraction. Then the part of the Earth at the smaller end of the pair is separated and became the Moon. Tidal friction afterward saw the rotation of both parts and the reaction moved the Moon away to its present distance from the Earth.

Starting point is 02:28:27 The same origin may be supposed for many multiple stars. In fact, the various stages of this process can actually be seen among the stars, for there are variable stars whose variation in brightness could only be explained by this pear shape, and again there are those whose variation indicates that they are very close binary, physically double stars, and again we have the visible binaries. It may be interesting to note that this process of origin of new bodies by rotation has a remarkable resemblance to the process of cellular reproduction, only in the latter case service tension and not centrifugal force produces the constriction and division.

Starting point is 02:29:05 As we have stated before, one strong test of these hypothesis is the observation in the sky of stars and various grades of formation from the nebula to the dark star. The dark star itself is, of course, invisible, but all grades up to that can be observed. And, in fact, all the great star development is discerned by the plantesimal hypothesis, as far back as a spiral nebula stage, are actually observed in the sky. However, the crux of differentiation between the hypothesis is, what will be the way? once the pre-nebula stage? What brought about these nipulas? The observational method of answering this would be, do we see in the sky any phenomena that would likely lead up to the formation of a nbula? The only such phenomena that can be observed are the so-called temporary stars, or novi. These are stars that suddenly flare up, last a few months, and then gradually

Starting point is 02:29:57 fade out. Before the flare-up, nothing whatsoever is visible in the place where afterwards the temporary star appears. After the star fades out, it has simply radiated a great proportion of its newly acquired light and settles down to the usual brightness of the stars in its vicinity. However, it is a general rule that most temporary stars, and not all, are surrounded by nebula. We may suppose that the explanation of the nebula condition is generally observed, most nebulaes having one or more stars of star-like condensations in the centre, could be found in the flare-up of the temporary star. The explanation would be very satisfactory if we only knew just what happens when a temporary star suddenly appears. It would seem that by observation the history of a stellar system cannot be traced back farther than the appearance of a temporary star.

Starting point is 02:30:45 So that if we wish to trace back the development of such a system, it would be important to find out just what makes a temporary star flare up. It seems to be the general consensus of opinion among astronomers that there is nothing in the appearance of a temporary star to make it even remotely possible to assume that they are due to collisions of bodies. A common theory is that the flare-up is due to explosions of hydrogen. This may sound reasonable until we notice that hydrogen is not an explosive substance, unless in contact with a sufficiently large amount of some other substance as oxygen. We would thus have to suppose a body consisting of hydrogen meeting an oxygen shawl and then explode in. A temporary star, however, consists mostly of hydrogen, and hardly contains enough oxygen to make

Starting point is 02:31:30 or that hydrogen explode. Furthermore, at such a heat as that of ordinary stars, still more so at that of temporary stars, order, which is a product of an oxyhydrogen explosion, could not exist, as decomposition under the influence of the explosive heat would absorb just as much heat as the explosion produced, thus leaving a temporary star without any heat or light at all. Under the planetesimal hypothesis, it has been suggested that a temporary star actually consists of two stars approaching proximity to each other and drawing out of one another, heat and a nebula. This sounds very plausible, but is a bit difficult to support. Besides, it is difficult to see why most of these phenomena should occur in the Milky Way, that is, near the edge

Starting point is 02:32:18 of the Herschel drum. In fact, it is not easy to understand exactly what does happen when a temporary star appears. We may possibly, however, benefit by the more detailed observations taken of Nova Percy 1902, a temporary star which appeared in August 1902 and in connections with which many strange phenomena were observed. This star was first discovered by a man, who though not a regular astronomer, was a habitual stargazer. One evening in August 1902 he noticed in the constellation of Perseus a new second magnitude star that he had never seen before.

Starting point is 02:32:55 This discovery being made public, it turned out that, on the previous night, a photographic plate of that part of the sky had been taken at the observatory, showing stars down the 12th magnitude, and yet the spot where this new bright star appeared was vacant on those plates. Evidently, within 24 hours the star had flashed up to the second magnitude, from a magnitude certainly less than the 12th. If indeed it gave any light at all, there is to say it flared up suddenly at least 10,000 times its original brightness. If indeed it gave any light at all before the flare-up. One characteristic of this flare-up, then, was its suddenness. The time the star took to flare-up in this manner is not known, but it certainly was only a matter of hours. But a

Starting point is 02:33:39 far more interesting aspect of the affair appeared later. The star indeed appeared a bit hazy, but sooner was seen surrounded by a nebula, which kept on increasing in size. The nebula was approximately circular in shape, the radius of the circle increasing by about five seconds of archa-teachers. month, which would make in a year about one minute of arc. Since the star showed no parallax, so that its actual distance was too great to be measured, that meant that its distance was more than merely hundreds of light years, but rather ran into the thousands. The rate of which this nebulent motion was spreading being about a minute of arc in a year,

Starting point is 02:34:17 must be in a year about one in three thousand four hundred of the distance of a star, a minute of arc being about the fraction of the radius of a circle. This meant if the distance of the star was to be measured in thousands of light years, that the rate of spread of the nebula was at least one-third the velocity of light, if not more. The most probable hypothesis was that the rate was exactly the velocity of light, making the distance of the star about 3,400 light years. Now, since we could hardly suppose that any explosion, however violent it may be, or especially any result of tidal disruption, would produce matter, which would actually move in all directions

Starting point is 02:34:59 with a velocity so great as that of light. The observers were led to the hypothesis that the nebula was actually there before the star flared up, and that the apparent spread of the nebula was an illusion due to the actual spread of light through the nebula, first in the central parts, then gradually toward the edges. In other words, the conclusion was arrived at that the star was in a nebulous condition long before it began to give out light. This is hardly in accord with either the nebula or planetism or hypothesis. For on the first, light would not be a sudden development, and on the second, both light and nebulae originate at the same time, the light reaching outside points long before the nebula.

Starting point is 02:35:39 In fact, we may say as a matter of observation that only the stars which appear to be of the older generation are surrounded by nebulars. We should therefore conclude that a nebula is some super-vaparous phenomenon, which is only possible, as a result of such extreme heat, that the vibration of many particles gets them almost altogether away from the influence of gravitation. Thus the conclusion that the nebula existed previously to the flare-up can only mean that the star was, before it suddenly flared up, in as hotter condition as afterwards. This can only mean that the flare-up could not have been due to the sudden accession of heat than might be. might be supposed under the influence of either tidal friction or of a collision or explosion. The heat was there before, but somehow or other it did not transmit itself into outside space. But since such transmission of heat into outside space in the form of radiated energy, and in particular of such great heat in the form of white light,

Starting point is 02:36:34 is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics and must be a result of the second law of thermodynamics. It is supposed true. We must suppose that Nova per se, 1902, had all the necessary heat, by that until that day, the second law of thermodynamics was, for some reason, not operative on it. Before the flare-up then, the starring question was in a condition in which it showed little or none of the positive tenancy. The tendency could hardly have been the neutral tenancy, for, as we have seen, the neutral tenancy does not form bodies at all, though there may possibly such a thing as a body going through the neutral stage temporarily, when it is half positive and half negative.

Starting point is 02:37:16 It follows then that the flaring up of this star must have consisted in its changing over from the negative to the positive tenancy. And we may really assume that similar circumstances gave rise to other phenomena of temporary stars. And since the temporary star seems to be the phenomenon that precedes the nebula. We may come to the conclusion

Starting point is 02:37:34 that the pre-nebular condition of any stellar system is a stage in which that system follows the negative tendency, followed by a sudden change to the positive tenancy, accompanied by a great outburst of radiant energy. If we take 18 million as an approximate number of visible stars allow about nine times as many that are dark or two faint to be seen, and take as an average speed of proper motion of the stars 10 miles per second,

Starting point is 02:38:02 then if we suppose that every star on entering the Herschel drum with the dimensions we have supposed, flare is up as a result of the change from negative positive. Such flare-ups should happen, on the average, a little more frequently than once a year. This is indeed the apt frequency of the appearance of temporary stars, and it is remarkable that most temporary stars appear to be near the service of the Herschel drum. Accordingly, we may take this as a general explanation of temporary stars.

Starting point is 02:38:31 End of Section 13. Section 14 of the animate and the inanimate by William Sidus. This Librevolk's recording is in the public domain. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 14 The Reversibility Theory of Cosmogony We have seen that according to the results of observed facts It seems probable that the pre-nebulous stage of a star

Starting point is 02:39:02 Was a negative, a living condition Now let us say what would be the theoretical result Of supposing our theory of a reversible universe As far as such results may relate to cosmogony We have seen that the structure of the structure of. of the universe, according to the theory of reversibility, is that it consists of irregularly shaped sections, alternately positive and negative. In the positive sections or heated bodies give out radiant energy, according to the second

Starting point is 02:39:30 law of thermodynamics. In the negative sections, on the contrary, hot bodies instead of giving out light or other radiant energy would tend to absorb it and convert it almost entirely to heat, thus heating themselves up with light received from outside sources. This is in strict according with the reversal of the second law of thermodynamics. In the first place, when we examine the changes that take place in time, we may first notice that the structure of the universe probably remains somewhat the same always. The positive and negative sections do probably indeed change their position, but on the whole

Starting point is 02:40:05 such change would consist of a general motion of all the sections alike through space, so that the sections do not move relatively to one another. Further, there may be slight changes in the shape of the various sections. But by far more important is the motion of the individual stars relative to the various sections. The motion of a star being a uniform motion in a straight line under the law of inertia, the infinite universe assuring us that there will be no gravitational disturbances and that's by accident the star should come very close to another star. We will have the result that the star will constantly be crossing from one section of the

Starting point is 02:40:40 universe into the next, from a positive section into a negative and from the negative section into another positive one, and so one, add infinitum. In a positive section of the universe, the star, which was at first hot and bright, radiates its heat into outside space and gradually becomes cold and dark. We've already seen in chapter 10 that, as this cooling process goes on, life gradually extends itself at the expense of the opposite, the positive tendency, until when the cooling process is well underway, life has absorbed practically all in organic matter, leaving as non-living matter the organic compounds formed by life, which it builds up into swedo living organisms.

Starting point is 02:41:21 We may suppose that when a stellar system crosses over from a positive to a negative section of the universe, there happens this slow process of development of life growth, changing the star from a positive one to a negative one very gradually. To trace this process of development further, we must note that the evolution of the evolution of living stars and planets consists to a great extent in their absorbing radiant energy from outside space and using it to build up higher heat levels in themselves. The life of these stars and planets depends on their being constantly fed, so to speak, with radiant energy uniformly from all directions, which is something that is not obtainable

Starting point is 02:42:01 in the positive section of the universe, where the distribution of light is very irregular. In the negative section, however, we are surrounded by positive sections, and in such a way that the light obtained from them is approximately uniform, so that the negative stars and planets contain therein can be properly fed. The tidal forces produce, under those conditions, no tidal friction, as they would under the positive tency, but a sort of tidal irritation, speeding up all motions of rotation, etc. These living stars and planets, building up in themselves ever higher levels of heat, finally pass into the molten and then into the vaporous stage, and finally the star develops a nebula

Starting point is 02:42:42 stage, this nebula, taking a spiral form on account to the rotational motion of the star, ever increasing through the process of tidal irritation. Thus we get to a nebular stage, and the dissociation of atoms that goes on in the last part of the negative stage when we have great heat, will make the stellar system largely one that is constituted of hydrogen, the smallest atom node. While, we might expect that not only the star and its planets, but also a number of small masses on the star, would have life, that is, would follow the negative tendency, besides the existence of a number of swedo living organisms.

Starting point is 02:43:20 These simple living masses would, when in the heated condition, also tend to live by absorbing radiant energy from outside space. Now we may suppose that after the nibular stage has been reached, and the star and all its planets are but more condensed vapours in the nibular. The stellar system in question finally comes toward the end of that part of its path, which is in the negative section of the universe. The stellar system, Nebula and Or, is quickly approaching the boundary service, with a positive section shining brightly ahead of it.

Starting point is 02:43:51 The sudden absorption of an immense amount of light from the front will tend to cause a great sudden additional building up of heat, so that we will have an immense amount of heat developed before the boundary surface finally reached. planets, nebula and ore are constantly absorbing ever more and more heat, including also the smaller living masses on the stars and planets, with the possible exception of the sway of living organisms, all are dependent on the constant ascension of radiant energy to sustain their life. Now when the system comes near the boundary service, when it is on that surface or very close to it, the ascension of radiant energy suddenly ceases to be uniform in all directions, and once the

Starting point is 02:44:32 boundary surface is crossed, no light water is just to be very close. seat from behind, because light crosses the boundary service in only one direction, that from the positive to the negative side. The uniform access of radiant energy that the system has to feed on is suddenly cut off, and the stars and planets can no longer continue to live. The proper supply of radiant energy food being suddenly cut off the death of the system results, and therefore, after crossing the boundary service, if not a little before, there occurs in the stars and planets of that system the transition from the negative tendency to the positive.

Starting point is 02:45:07 As we have seen before, in Chapter 9, the transition in this direction might be theoretically expected to be a sudden and complete one. Hence, somewhere near this boundary surface, we might expect a sudden reversal of this process due to the death of the system, to its suddenly ceasing to be alive, as it was when in the negative section of the universe. And the moment this transformation occurs, the second law of thermodynamics immediately begins to apply and the heat of the system being at a higher level than at the outside space would suddenly begin to spread itself at a rapid rate into outside space by a sudden outpost

Starting point is 02:45:41 from the star of radiant energy. The nebula being more scattered gives out much less light, but has to be lighted up to a great extent by the central star. This will produce the phenomena of the nebula in motion as seen in Nova Percy in 1902. In other cases the nebula itself will give out enough light to be visible immediately. However, this reason for the death of the star, planets, nebula, does not by any means apply to the small living masses that existed on those bodies. The swato living organisms that formerly existed on those bodies will then, with very little change, become simply inanimate bodies.

Starting point is 02:46:22 But the small living bodies, unlike the stars, planets, etc., will suddenly get a new and possibly better supply of their food. radiant energy from the flare-up of the star, instead of having to depend on the radiant energy coming in from a distance, there was suddenly opened up for them an immense new supply of light on the star itself or on the planets. The small living bodies thus begin to feed on the dead bodies of the stars and planets. The death of the stars and planets gives an opportunity for new life

Starting point is 02:46:51 to develop as a sort of parasite on the dead bodies. From this survival of life, further life on the planets of that system is descended. After this sudden flare up, the light and heat would then proceed to fade out gradually, and the system would continue to evolve along the lines indicated by the plantesimal hypothesis. This being the precise reverse of the evolution as it took place before and in the negative section of the universe. Finally, the world's cool off. Life extends, and by the time that the system leaves the positive section, life has again gradually extended so as to take on the large bodies. Now the cycle is complete.

Starting point is 02:47:29 and we are back at the original stage. End of Section 14. Section 15 of The Animate and the Inanimate by William Sidus. This is the Librivox According, or Librivox Accordings in the public domain, recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 15. The Swato Living Organisms We have seen that organic structure is likely to be found in either section of the universe in the minority tenancy. In the case of the negative section of the universe, where most objects are alive, this minority tenancy will be the positive tenancy.

Starting point is 02:48:15 Thus the organic structures in the negative part of the universe are not living but lifeless beings, though having certain appearances of life. These we have called swedow living organisms, which, though in certain respects they appear like living beings, yet their emotions are of a passive rather than an active character. Inasmuch as, on reverse with respect to time, a negative, universe becomes a positive one, and the inorganic life that is found in the negative section of the universe corresponds to the ordinary lifeless inorganic bodies that we observe, so we may notice that these swadowed living organisms are the exact reverse of the living organisms that can be observed in the positive section of the universe. We have seen that, at ordinary temperatures, these swedoidoidoid living organisms, in order to keep existing, must have a constant

Starting point is 02:49:05 metabolic process always going on. This being the exact reverse or the metabolic process going on in living organisms in the positive section. In fact, take any process going on in living organisms, as exact reverse with respect to time will give us the corresponding process going on in swedo living organisms. Take, for example, the sensitiveness that is characteristic nearly all life. This will indeed be found also in the inorganic life in the negative section of the universe. But the sweater living organisms have nothing of the sort. They are not sensitive to causes but to effects.

Starting point is 02:49:43 For a small effect may in these organisms be the result of a large cause, as we should expect from the second law of thermodynamics. Thus while all living substance is sensitive to the past, all lifeless substance is similarly sensitive to the future. This is indicated in ordinary physical objects by the fact that it is easier where both are unknown to trace the future than the past. The same will be true of the swed of living organisms, which are but complicated physical bodies surrounded by living substance.

Starting point is 02:50:16 Such organisms will be organised to be able to feel what is coming, but not what has already happened. As to the past, anything in those organisms that may possibly be called feeling would be absolutely blank. In the case of living organisms, this feeling, in its most elementary form, consists merely of that irritability which we have already identified with the reversal of the second law of thermodynamics. That is, feeling consists in its most elementary form,

Starting point is 02:50:47 of a stimulus-releasing reserve energy, and making it available energy or else actually using it. On the contrary, the sweater of living feeling would be exactly the reverse, turning available energy into a store or reserve energy as effectually as may be. In the more complex living organisms, special organs of feeling are developed, which are of special irritability, organs which are specially efficient in extracting available energy out of reserve energy. In fact, when those special organs are feeling, the nervous system, is concentrated in most of the mechanical efficiency with respect to extracting available energy

Starting point is 02:51:24 to be used as molar motion. Finally, we have the development of a brain, a central organ in which the reserve energy is stored as a result of special stimuli, and which can use that energy to produce mal in motion. In the swed of living organism, which is the exact reverse of the living organism, this nervous system and brain would constitute a system of extremely low mechanical efficiency, that is, a system for doing as nearly nothing as possible. It would indeed store up at medicine amounts of reserve energy, or rather of partially available energy, which would be almost as good as unavailable. Thus the nervous system in the brain, which in living organisms is the most active part of the organism,

Starting point is 02:52:08 would also be found in the swed of living organism, with the same size, shape, precision, substance, etc. But would instead of been extremely active be the dead as part of an apparently dead organism. And the reason for this obvious, if we will but consider, The physical body and especially the swatter-living organism is sensitive only to the future. If something strikes out, or if any other stimulus is applied to it, this immediately becomes a past phenomenon, and the organism can no longer take cognizant's solid. But should it ever happen that the body itself produces a visible effect in the manner of motion, sound, heat, etc. The body shows it by its eternal condition before the effect is produced.

Starting point is 02:52:51 though as soon as the effect appears this abnormal condition and the body disappears. The body can feel what is going to happen. Not indeed what is going to happen to it, but what is going to happen as a result on it. And the moment the event happens, all is forgotten, as it were, that is, no resulting internal condition is noticeable. In swed of living organisms, special lifeless organisms built up by living surroundings to resemble in certain respects the living beings that we see, This phenomena will, in the more complex cases, be specialized into a nervous system. Thus the phenomena are of the positive tendency, and in particular in the swatter of living organisms, that are analogous to feeling, refer not to past causes, nor indeed to future causes.

Starting point is 02:53:39 This not been the true reverse of past causes, but to the direct reverse of past causes, namely to future effects, where, in a living organism, we have enough complexity to find such an organism, as a brain, we immediately have the brain reactions which are known as mental phenomena. These are the centralised stores of available energy, which the nervous system has extracted from the outside reserve energy and which can be used under a stimulus to produce molar motion. The mind is thus part of the brain machinery, a highly complex and specialized machinery for the extraction of reserve energy

Starting point is 02:54:15 and its final conversion into molar energy. The extraction of reserve energy in the regional, process is sensation. The energy stored up in the brain at a high level is the mental process, and this mind can only fill sensations and retain traces of processes that have already happened, and refer them to the past. On the contrary, in the swated living organism, the similarly complex and specialized process will merely produce reserve energy for the outside world to use. And any dental process in such organism could only refer, not to the past causes, but, like all feeling under the positive tendency to future effects, which, however, would be felt as stimuli

Starting point is 02:54:57 and not as effects, for the oedritic self would be under a strain as if stimulated. In other words, dissuaded a living mind, this machine for doing nothing as effectually as possible, could only perceive and remember the future, and would conceive of that future as a reverse of what it really is, namely a stimulus instead of effect. Since the ordinary organic bodies are the simplest forms out of which the Swedo living organism develops has a higher degree of complexity, just as a organic life of the negative section of the universe is a simple form of which living organisms are a higher development. We may easily suppose that ordinary inorganic bodies, such as we constantly observe,

Starting point is 02:55:40 have this reversed feeling, but as a mental process are a result of a highly complicated and specialized organism, we cannot attribute to ordinary physical. physical objects anything like a mind. It has been a favorite theory of the late professor Josiah Royce, that physical objects were alive and even endowed with the mind, but that we cannot communicate with them or observe that mind on account of the difference in reaction time. According to his theory, while we react to his stimulus in, let us say, a tenth of a second, let us suppose that there is a being that reacts in a thousand years. The motions of that being will be so slow that to us he will appear practically motionless and dead, while on the other

Starting point is 02:56:23 hand our emotions will be so rapid that he will be totally unable to perceive them, so that he will also think us dead. This theory indicates that difference in reaction time might be the cause of our not attributing life and feeling to physical objects. Under our theory of reversibility, the same will be true. Only the reaction time of the physical object will not merely be different from ours, but negative, so that all means of observing the stimulatory will be cut off. This is not, of course, mean that there are no observations or experiments possible from which we could indirectly infer such similarity, but merely that we could not possibly observe it directly, because it is superficially different, almost in kind from living feeling.

Starting point is 02:57:09 It is not, of course, quite true, that physical objects do not show the effect of stimuli. They do indeed, in some cases, but to a markedly less degree than they show the incubation of future effects. Thus, if this sensitivity could be at all called feeling, a physical object, once an event is past, would feel it vaguely if at all, and with a great uncertainty. To the swedo living organism, the past has the same vagueness and uncertainty as the future has for us. Though some dim guesses as to the past might conceivably be made by the Swedo Living

Starting point is 02:57:44 mind. But it still remains true that if we were transported into a negative section of the universe, though the swed of living organism would appear in shape, substance structure, etc., exactly like the living organisms we are accustomed to, yet we should not recognize the existence of sensitivity or mental phenomena in them all, and they should appear to us as lifeless bodies, which indeed they are. They would appear to us merely as extremely well-preserved corpses, and because we cannot feel what the sweared living analogue of a mind would conceive as a stimulus and would not react to it, those organisms would similarly think of us as dead. End of Section 15. Section 16 of the animate and the inanimate by William Cytis.

Starting point is 02:58:41 This Librevolve recording is in the public domain. Recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 16 Psychological aspect of reversal This matter brings up the question as to how the Swedo living analog of a mind, this machine for doing nothing, would conceive of its own portion of the universe. In trying to solve this question, we must remember that its memories directed not toward the past but toward the future. Because memory being but the stored up feeling in a higher formative element and feeling

Starting point is 02:59:14 being that a reserve energy, it follows that feeling in energy must in any organism be directed towards that direction in time, in which that organism had less reserve energy, and away from that direction of time in which the organism acquires more available energy. Now we know that the method by which we really distinguish between the past and the future is by the fact of our remembering the past, while the future to us is an uncertain matter. It follows, therefore, that to the swed of living mind, the past will be conceived of as future, and the future is past. An organism conceives, therefore, of the flow of time in the inverse direction to that in which its memory is directed,

Starting point is 02:59:56 that is, in the direction of time in which that organism builds up reserve energy into available energy. Or, since organic phenomena are found in the minority tenancy of a given section of the universe, such an organism must conceive of time as flowing in that direction in which the majority tenancy, That is, the general surrounding world decreases the amount of available energy and increases the amount of reserve energy. In other words, an organic bane, whether living or suede of living,

Starting point is 03:00:23 must conceive of time as flowing in such direction that the second law of thermodynamics prevails, independently of whether that conclusion is correct or not. This arises from the fact that the swato living organism, though existing in a world in which the second law of thermodynamics is regularly reversed, does not perceive its surroundings, as they are. but on account of the fact that it is not life, but reversed life.

Starting point is 03:00:48 It perceives the world as reversed in time. Its perceptions form a sort of time mirror, which would thus produce the illusion of reversal, with the result that such a perception would show the organism itself is alive, not as a swedoid of living organism, and the surrounding world, which is really alive, as lifeless, and as following the second law of thermodynamics. Thus, if we were swedoedo living organisms,

Starting point is 03:01:14 in a universe, the exact reverse of ours. That is to say, in the corresponding part of the reverse universe, we should, as swed of living organisms, be under this reversal, delusion, and conceive of the world and of ourselves, exactly as we do now. And, in fact, we would have exactly the same ideas as now in relation to everything. Thus, there is actually no way for us to tell

Starting point is 03:01:36 whether we are living organisms in a positive universe or swed of living organisms in a negative universe. In both cases, the form of woodwork be the apparent situation. Under the condition under which a complex organization like a mind can be produced, that mind must conceive of its surroundings in such a way that the second law of thermodynamics would follow. It may be that the law is or is not a physical fact of that particular part of the universe,

Starting point is 03:02:03 but conceiving of things in that matter is a necessity for an organized mind. In other words, the second law of thermodynamics is not a physical but a mental law. However, this must be constructed with limitations. There are certain physical facts as to whether the second law of thermodynamics is actually true or not in every given part of the universe. We cannot say that the real universe and the reverse universe are one and the same on the strength of this reasoning, for were we transported into the reverse universe, we should notice a difference. And similarly, the swed of living organisms transported into our real universe would also easily perceive the difference. But the difference rather suggests the difference between.

Starting point is 03:02:44 right and left rather than anything else. There are many substances which form two species, one with right-handed molecules and one with left-handed molecules. The reaction of two right-handed substances is the same as that of two similar left-handed substances, but we get entirely different reactions if a right-handed substance of one kind is brought into contact with the left-handed substance of the other kind. We must regard similarly the difference between any possible combination of events, and it's a reverse with respect to time. They are similar, and at the same time different, in much the same manner as right and left. There is no really essential difference between the forward and backward direction and time any more than difference between right

Starting point is 03:03:29 and left is an essential one. Time is really a two-direction of phenomenon, and the two directions are practically interchangeable, instead of being a single-direction flow with one direction essentially different from the other. The fact that the two directions of time appear essentially different is due to the fact that our mind is so constructed as to face one direction. There might seem to us to be an essential difference in space between the forward and backward directions, if not for the fact that we are able to turn around. The swatter of living mind is one in all aspects like ours, with the difference that it is so constructed as to face the other direction in time, and it has the illusions of difference between two directions accordingly.

Starting point is 03:04:10 20 mind the past is merely the direction of time, which the memory faces. And the future is the opposite direction of time. Hence the swed of living mind will see past, where we see future, and vice versa. The first shall be the last, and the last shall be the first, for the swated living mind. And the reason that there is no way of telling whether we are living organisms in a positive universe or swedew living organisms in a negative universe, is that the difference is really one merely between two directions of time. and though those two directions are opposite to each other,

Starting point is 03:04:42 they have no physical properties which are in any way different. There are other cases for such conjugate relations, where two phenomena are different, but can be mutually interchanged without the possibility of any test to indicate the difference. The case that is nearest to that which we are considering is that of any two opposite directions in space. If two opposite directions in space were interchanged, we should merely have a mirror world,

Starting point is 03:05:07 but no different physical properties. And if we were supposed that in that world we should conceive of right as left and vice versa, there will be no way to tell such a world from the one we live in. A much more clear-cut case of such a conjugate relation is to be found in the domain of algebra when dealing with imaginary quantities. The quantity I is defined as a square root of minus 1, but we might remember that any quantity except 0 has 2 square roots, each of the negative of the other.

Starting point is 03:05:36 So it is with minus 1, and we thus get two quantities. I and minus I. And what makes absolutely no difference of any possible formula in connection with the theory of imaginaries, which of the quantities we call I, and which minus I, they are absolutely interchangeable, and yet the two quantities are anything but identical. For instance, the difference between two identical quantities is zero, and the difference between these two quantities is anything but zero, but is twice one of the quantities.

Starting point is 03:06:09 The difference can be made to be twice either of the quantities, according to which is abstracted from the other. In fact, we may notice that perfect interchangeability is not identity. The test of identity is, not that the two things may be to change in any statement without vitiating the truth of the statement, but rather that either may be substituted for the other, in any statement without vitiating the truth of the statement.

Starting point is 03:06:35 In applying this test for identity of A and B, we should substitute A for B without, at the same time, substituting B for A. We may then say that the mind conceives of time as flowing, because the mind is not symmetrical with respect to the two directions. It faces one direction, according to the laws governing the special machines that would have to pump reserve energy, and therefore according to the phenomena manifested by reserve energy, and, under the conditions which produce such mechanisms, the resulting law is that an organized mind must conceive of time as flowing towards that direction in which is more reserved energy in that particular part of the universe. This may be either direction in time, either that which is, in our particular minds, forwards

Starting point is 03:07:20 or backwards, but if we conceive of past and future with this mental definition, the second law of thermodynamics follows is a necessary mental law. True, were we transported to a negative section of the universe, we should not see things as conforming to the second law of thermodynamics, but the chances are very small that we would be able to live under those special circumstances, under which a sensitive living air might take an aversion to our breathing it, or what would be more likely would send us its carbon dioxide and leave the oxygen for itself, as it would do to the swed of living organisms.

Starting point is 03:07:58 If we represent the percentage of available energy in a given part of the universe by a curve showing the variation of that percentage through time, we get a wavy curve, resembling somewhat the sinusoid. If the past is placed at the left and the future of the right, then as we go along the curve from left to right, the upward sections of the curve represent the negative portions, and the downward sections of positive portions. Time, then, is a two-dimension affair, like the bottom axial line, but a mind at any part would conceive of that time as a flow towards the lower part of the curve, though that may actually take it towards the past and set it towards the future. To that mind, however, no difference is noticeable. The diagrams are displayed on the page. In the diagram, the abserica represents time, and the ordinance the percentage of available

Starting point is 03:08:52 energy in that particular section of the universe. The law then is that whatever kind of mind would be reduced under the various circumstances would be so constructed as to conceive of time as flowing towards the lower part of the curve, that is, towards the troughs of the waves, in the diagram, while memory would always look towards the crests of those waves. It makes no difference whether either of those directions is actual past or future, that is, on the diagram, whether these directions point towards the left or towards the right. Left on the diagram representing past and the right representing future. In relation to the physical time, the second law of thermodynamics may or may not be true, but as far as concerns, the mental conception of time, the second

Starting point is 03:09:38 law of thermodynamics must be true as a majority tency in that particular section of the universe. Hence in the last analysis, the second law of thermodynamics is to be interpreted as a mental law, as the law determining the direction in which I give in mind will conceive of time as flowing. It must further be remembered that time itself is not a mental phenomenon, but only the appearance of flow. There is actually no more flow in time than in space, and either direction in time may be called past and the other future without any difference in the properties of the universe. But the actual existence of intervals of time, we must assume to be a physical reality and absolutely necessary for the explanation of physical phenomena.

Starting point is 03:10:24 Inasmuch as it makes no difference in which direction we suppose time to be running, we may fix either direction arbitrarily without changing the physical properties of the universe. It is more convenient in order to avoid any dispute as to the nature and direction of time, to call that direction past in which our memory points, and to call that direction future towards which we conceive time is flowing. In relation to this direction of time, then, we may say that our own section of the universe is positive, and that in that section the second law of thermodynamics prevails. In fact, we may readily conceive of time as a sort of fourth dimension of the universe.

Starting point is 03:11:04 This could readily be done theoretically, only there is a different relation to physical objects. If we used such a conception, we should have to imagine each particle as a sort of thread infinitely extended in the time dimension. And, further, measurements and time cannot be compared with space measurements. But although we should not suppose that what we have is a network of threads in a four-dimensional space, yet we can use this as a possible illustration to show what a two-direction time is. Suppose then a four-dimensional space with a perfectly stationed loom, full of threads and tabled in all sorts of ways. The ends of the loom must be supposed to be removed to infinity in their respective directions.

Starting point is 03:11:49 If then we suppose the three-dimensional film to be moved towards through this loom, the cross-sections of threads would change about, so as to appear as the motion of particles. If now we suppose that certain sections of thread has some sort of consciousness, and can perceive what is in the film when the film passes them, and their previous condition, or other words, the conscious section just above, that part. We should have the effect of mental activity. If instead of supposing this film, we now simply support that certain sections of the thread are conscious, and that each cross-section can perceive only the surrounding objects of its own level and the higher cross-sections of itself,

Starting point is 03:12:29 that we may say that each cross-section can perceive the higher cross-section, but not vice-versa. This would give the impression of a flow from the higher to the lower cross-sections, thus giving the illusion of one flowing and three stationary dimensions. In other words, of one dimension of time and three of space. Probably this is not the correct explanation of the conception of time, but it illustrates the fact that the two opposite directions in time are no more different than two opposite directions in space. If we suppose in it the illustration that any conscious bunch of threads always proceeds parallel cross-sections in the direction in which

Starting point is 03:13:08 the threads are less entangled. It will give the illustration of flow in the fourth dimension, but in such a direction that motion of particles will always seem to scatter. That is, if the threads in this illustration are constituted to perceive in that manner, they will not merely conceive of one dimension as being time instead of space, but they will actually conceive at that time as so flowing that the second law of thermodynamics will be true. Though all of this is but illustration, we may conclude, the second law of thermodynamics is really a mental law into cany the direction of the illissory flow of time. Time itself really exists as a two-dermection affair, and really has no more flow than space.

Starting point is 03:13:51 End of Section 16. Section 17 of The Animate and the Inanimate by William Sidus. This Librivox recording is in the public domain. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 17 General Summary of the Theory According to a theory of the theory of the reverseability of the universe, the second law of thermodynamics represents one of two opposite tendencies found in the universe in equal proportions.

Starting point is 03:14:29 These tendencies we have named the positive and the negative tenancy. The positive tenancy is that which follows the second law of thermodynamics, while the negative tenancy reverses it. The phenomena of the two tendencies correspond to each other to the smallest detail, each being the reverse of the other, with respect to the time element. Thus, a moving picture of the negative phenomena could be attained by taking a moving picture of ordinary, that is, positive phenomena, and running the reel backwards when the reel has been projected onto the screen. The ordinary physical bodies obeyed the second law of thermodynamics, that is, they belong to the positive tenancy, while living bodies, on the contrary, follow the negative tenancy,

Starting point is 03:15:12 and therefore reverse the second law of thermodynamics. If we reverse ordinary events with respect to time, as for instance with the device of running a motion picture real backwards, the living and the lifeless would change places, though indeed the shapes and the structures of everything would remain unchanged. So also would every physical law not derived from the second law of thermodynamics, so that everything in such a reversal could be explained on the basis of the ordinary physical laws. The reverse of the ordinary physical body is an organic form of life, or the reverse of an ordinary living body is what we have called a swedow living organism, having the organic structure of life but not its vital activity. Occasionally in moving pictures, in order to get an effect which cannot be obtained in actuality, such as a man going up a smooth vertical wall,

Starting point is 03:16:04 the device of reversing the reel is used, in watching the picture produced by such a reversal reel, and apparently a natural effect is noticed, though it is difficult to say what is so unusual about it. For instance, in one case, a motion picture represented a number of persons diving into the ocean from a high springboard and finding out of the water something that fight in them.

Starting point is 03:16:26 They were then represented as immediately jumping backwards out of the water onto the springboard. This last part of the film was obviously a reversal of the part representing the diving, but it was noticeable that there was circulated. the water waves converging towards the centre before anyone came to the surface. And just as a waves came to the centre to produce a big splash, the undercurrents brought the people to the service, while instead of jumping, the picture represented them as being splashed

Starting point is 03:16:55 by the water into the air. The people themselves, on the other hand, lost in this reversal, all appearance of activity. Around them, the water and everything else was jumping and moving. They were being moved in a passive way, as though the water and springboard were living and they dead. Another way of expressing the distinction between the two tendencies is by drawing the distinction between available energy, energy which can be used under the second law of thermodynamics on the one hand, and reserve energy, energy below the level required by that law on the other hand. Of the energy of the universe, part comes under one heading and part under the other.

Starting point is 03:17:35 The positive tenancy uses up available energy and builds it up into a sense. store of reserve energy, while the negative tendency, on the contrary, utilizes the store of reserve energy that the positive tenancy is built up and creates available energy out of it once more. In other words, lifeless objects build up the energy of the universe into a reserve store, which they themselves cannot use. For them, the energy is running down into an unavailable form, but there are always present living bodies which utilize the reserve energy, and again build it up into an available form. Our section of the universe is one in which the positive tenancy prevails, but this is true for a finite section of space.

Starting point is 03:18:16 In general, there are certain places and times of which one tenancy prevails. Taking a given amount of time, this division between the two tenancy divides space into an infinite number of approximately brick-shaped sections, alternatively positive and negative. Whether we are in a positive section, we can see only the particular section we are in, though we may have other evidence, e.g. gravitation. of matter beyond that section. A stellar system as moves from one section into another gradually evolves from a set of lifeless bodies with life on them, through a living stage where there are some swed of living organisms into a nebula stage, then finally on entering a positive section,

Starting point is 03:18:57 becoming a temporary star, and going through the reverse process, from their nebula back to the cooler stages. One tenancy is as universal as its opposite. Life must be found everywhere, under all conditions precisely as lifeless bodies are. There is no spontaneous generation of life, and therefore life can be traced back as far as we can trace back to the matter of which the solar system is made, that is, to an eternity past.

Starting point is 03:19:23 But the basis of the distinction is that living bodies are sensitive towards the past, and lifeless bodies are sensitive only towards the future. If a lifeless body can develop a sufficiently complicated organic structure to manifest mental phenomena or anything analogous. This sensitiveness towards the future involves a memory of the future only, and, as a result, an illusion of a flow of time from the future towards the past, instead of the reverse as we suppose it to be. The sensitiveness of living bodies towards the past

Starting point is 03:19:55 and of lifeless bodies towards the future is due to the fact that, under the second law of thermodynamics, large causes are likely to produce small effects, or under the reversal of their law, it is more causes than are likely to produce larger effects. Another consequence of the same fact is that lifeless phenomena are more easily explained by their causes, while living phenomena, on the contrary, though equally the rigid result of causality, that be more easily explained by the future chains of the casual relation, or as that which is to produce certain effects.

Starting point is 03:20:31 That is, living phenomena, phenomena which follow the negative tenancy are characterized by an apparent teleology or functionality that is absent, or at least apparently so, in lifeless phenomena. There are also the properties of both tenancies as a majority or as minority tenancies. For instance, in one part of the universe, the positive tenancy is a majority tenancy, and the negative tenancy is a minority tenancy. In other parts of the universe, on the contrary, that reverses the case. The majority tendency is the negative or life, while the lifeless phenomena constitute the minority tenancy. We may note that there are various characteristics of the minority tenancy, such as the formation of complex interthermic compounds, and of an organic structure, while the majority tenancy, whether positive or negative, is characterized by an inorganic structure

Starting point is 03:21:28 and the formation of exothermic compounds. The minority tenancy, again, whether positive or negative, is characterized by a metabolic process, wherever there is not too much heat to permit of such chemical reactions going on. We may use the diagram in Chapter 16 to illustrate the alternation in any point of the universe between the positive and negative tenancy, remembering that the lowest parts of the curve represent a condition where there is less available and more reserve energy. We may make an additional remark that the curve in that diagram that atoms integrate where the curve is concave towards the left and dissociate where the curve is concave

Starting point is 03:22:09 towards the right. In other words, the concave side of the curve always faces the direction in time toward which we find smaller atoms. Besides the positive negative tenancy, there is also a bordering tenancy which we have called the neutral tenancy. This is comparatively rare, and it suffice to say that it has been a positive negative tenancy. there's no tenancy even to form compound particles, but remains decomposed into the separate ultimate particles. It therefore is not to be found, and this may be for a single moment

Starting point is 03:22:38 of time, in any known substance, for no substances will be formed under the neutral tenancy. But the neutral tenancy is probably to be found in the spaces between the heavenly bodies, where it represents a phenomenon of a substance with impenetrability, but with no resistance to the passage of a body through it. It may tabulate as follows the similarities and differences between the positive and the negative tendency. On the following pages, two columns are displayed, the positive tendency and the negative tenancy. One follows the second law of thermodynamics. One reverses the second law of thermodynamics.

Starting point is 03:23:17 Two, decreases difference of energy level. Two increases difference of energy level. Three, forms unavailable reserve energy. 3. uses this reserve energy. 4. uses up available energy. 4. Forms available energy. 5. Lifeless appears passive. 5. Living appears active.

Starting point is 03:23:39 6. Inelastic collisions. 6. Superelastic collisions. 7. Mechanical efficiency less than 100%. 7. Mechanical efficiency over 100%. 8. Larger causes produce smaller effects. 8. Smaller causes produce larger effects. 9. Explained easiest by cause. Apparent rigidity of causality. 9. Explained easiest by effect, apparent teleology.

Starting point is 03:24:07 10. Appear'd living when reversed. 10. Appear'd lifeless when reversed. 11. Absence of irritability. 11. Irritability. 12. Adams integrate at great heat, otherwise dissociate. 12 atoms dissociate at great heat, otherwise indiviate. 13. Chemical reactions tend towards exothermic compounds. 13. Chemical reactions tend towards endothermic compounds. 14. Spontaneous a complete generation from opposite Tennessee possible. 14. spontaneous or complete generation from opposite Tennessee impossible. 15. Can generate opposite Tennessee only by gradual growth from a living center.

Starting point is 03:24:51 15. Generates opposite Tennessee spontaneously, suddenly and completely. 16. Partially remains when there is transformation into the opposite Tennessee. 16. Is needed if more is to be formed. 17. Hot bodies give out light, etc. 17. Hot bodies absorb light, etc. 18. Light tends not to insert a positive section of the universe. 18, light tends not to leave the negative section of the universe. As a majority, Tennessee, 19, tends to include exothermic compounds, 19 tends to include exothermic compounds.

Starting point is 03:25:30 20, ordinary lifeless objects. 20, inorganic life. As a minority, Tennessee. 21, tends to include complex interthermic compounds. 21, tends to include complex endothermic compounds. 22, swat of living organisms. 22, living organisms. 23, metabolism.

Starting point is 03:25:53 23, metabolism. Other miscellaneous properties 24 obeys the three laws of motion and the laws of gravitation 24 obeys the three laws of motion and the laws of gravitation 25 conservation of mass and of energy 25 conservation of mass and of energy 26 sensitivity only to the future

Starting point is 03:26:15 26 sensitive only to the past 27 organisms conceive of time and events as a reversed 27 organisms conceive of time and events in the order in which they occur 28 memory must refer to future 28 memory must refer to past 29 allusion in positive mental phenomena or flow of time from future to past 29 allusioned in negative mental phenomena or flow of time from past to future 30 all positive phenomena fully determined by either cause or effect

Starting point is 03:26:52 30 or negative phenomena fully determined by either cause or effect End of section 17 Section 18 of the animate and the inanimate by William Cydes This Librivox according is in the public domain Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 18 Some objections to the reversibility theory And chapter 19

Starting point is 03:27:25 Conclusion The Reverseability Theory of the Universe which has here been set forth, as only advanced as a mere speculation, as a possible hypothesis. There are many objections to the theory of the reversibility of the universe. All that is attended here is,

Starting point is 03:27:43 not to prove this theory scientifically or even to claim it as perfectly consistent with itself or with facts, but merely do indicate that there are, on the question of reversibility, other possible theories than the one at present generally accepted by physicists, and yet not more absurd

Starting point is 03:27:59 or more inconsistent with facts. The theory of the second law of thermodynamics, as we have seen, leads to many absurdities, and we have seen a number of facts indicating the possibility of a reversal of the second law of thermodynamics. Having examined all the facts and all the arguments that we have already marshaled on the side of this theory of the reversibility of the universe, we might as well examine a few facts mitigating against that theory in favor of the generally accepted theory of the universality of the second law of thermodynamics. In the first place, one essential point of the reversibility theory is a supposition that there are such things as the reversals of the second law of thermodynamics, and that those reversals in our section of the universe constitute the phenomena known as life. This immediately involves the question, does life really reverse the second law of thermodynamics? We have no proof that it does, and it may indeed be considered extremely doubtful whether it does.

Starting point is 03:28:55 If we look down the list of properties of the negative Tennessee, both in general and as the minority Tennessee, excluding the name Life, wherever it occurs in that list, we will still find that nothing under our direct observation except Life could come under that heading, so that unless life is that reversal, there are certainly no reversals of the second law of thermodynamics within our observation. Now among the characteristics of these reversals, we find superlastic, collisions, the mechanical efficiency over 100%. These are very important distinguishing characteristics, and yet it is doubtful if we could find a single authenticated instance of a superelastic collision occurring, even in the case of living beings. And if that is possible,

Starting point is 03:29:42 it certainly is true that inelastic collisions are the more common phenomena with living as well as with lifeless bodies, which would not be true if life were a reversal of the second law of thermodynamics. For instance, when we clap our hands together, it does not result in a larger rebound, in fact the rebound is slight, and the applause, if kept up a long time, produces a distinct sensation of heat, the heat finally subsiding. Here we have an inelastic collision, molar motion resulting in heat which finally runs down to a common level, exactly what we might expect under the second law of thermodynamics. In other words, there certainly a living phenomena which obeyed the second law of thermodynamics instead of reversing it.

Starting point is 03:30:27 Furthermore, turning to chemical products, the final product of living forces is carbon dioxide, the most exothermic compound of carbon. Does not this then indicate a process of production of carbon dioxide by the oxidation of more complex or more endothermic carbon compounds, precisely as we might expect under the second law of thermodynamics, and precisely as we should not expect under its reversal? And the accompanying result is the liberation of a large amount of chemical energy which might be used to explain the energy of life without having recourse to the reverse energy which the second law of thermodynamics says is unavailable. In fact, this process of the oxidation of carbon compounds to carbon dioxide is a process distinctly characteristic of the positive rather than of the negative tendency, thus indicating that life obeys a second law of thermodynamics instead of reversing it. In other words, it would seem as though our theory of the reversibility of the universe

Starting point is 03:31:24 is based merely on a superficial resemblance of living phenomena to theoretical appearance of a supposed negative tenancy. The actual proof that such a negative tenancy is actually to be found is wanting, and it seems indeed extremely doubtful whether it does exist. Further, if our theory of temporary stars, as stars which are already in a heated condition and with the nebula, but suddenly give out light on taking on the world. positive instead of the negative ternsey, we may notice that we have depended on the peculiar observation of the nebula in motion, in the case of Nova Pursay, 1902.

Starting point is 03:32:01 It certainly is remarkable that, while temporary stars are saying about once a year or of the Earth, that such phenomena should have been observed on only this one star. Thus the theory of the universe and of the evolution of stellar systems based on the observation of this star is one that is not likely to apply in general. because this star is an exceptional phenomenon. If the reversibility theory is correct, the phenomenon of that nebula in motion should be much more common than it really is. Further, the theory of the reversibility of the universe supposes that life exists under all sorts of circumstances, even on such hot bodies as the sun.

Starting point is 03:32:41 Certainly on the sun, there is no possibility of anything of the sort that comes under the heading of life within our experience. If life exists on the sun, it must certainly be so different from anything. so different from anything that we used to call life, and there could hardly be any points of resemblance. And similarly, under many other circumstances, such as complete absence of air, water or both, as, for instance, on the moon, in short as much as we can observe of life, would rather seem to indicate that life, far from existing under all sorts of circumstances everywhere in the universe, is rather an extremely complex phenomenon that can only exist under very special circumstances.

Starting point is 03:33:20 Furthermore, if we come to the conclusion that the second law of thermodynamics is fundamentally based on a conceptual illusion, it would be just as logical to emit the same possibility for the other physical laws, which case the theory of the reversibility of the universe would almost carry with it its own reputation, since the reversible fiscal laws are the foundation of that theory.

Starting point is 03:33:42 If observed facts can be explained, in one case, as a conceptuality, illusion, why not in another case? Chapter 19. Conclusion. The reversibility theory is presented here, as I have said before, as a possibility to be considered. It being a mere hypothesis I have considered fair to present not only the hypothesis itself and the arguments for it, but also the arguments against the hypothesis. I may also state that I cannot supply any satisfactory answer to most the objections stated in Chapter 18. Having thus presented a general theory of the phenomena of the universe, I will now leave

Starting point is 03:34:23 the reader to compare for himself the reversibility theory with the prevailing theory of the second law of thermodynamics, and weigh the various arguments four and against each, as they have been here presented. End of Section 18, and The End of the Animate and the Inanimate by William Sidus.

Classic Audiobook Collection - The Animate and the Inanimate by William James Sidis ~ Full Audiobook [science]

There aren't comments yet for this episode. Click on any sentence in the transcript to leave a comment.