Classic Audiobook Collection - The Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman ~ Full Audiobook [science]

Episode Date: February 27, 2026

The Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman audiobook. Genre: science In The Intelligence of School Children, psychologist Lewis M. Terman opens a window onto the early scientific effort to measure childrens mental abilities and use those measurements to improve schooling. Drawing on large-scale testing of students in American public schools, Terman explains how intelligence tests are constructed, how scores are interpreted, and what patterns emerge when results are compared across ages, grades, and classroom performance. The book follows the practical challenges faced by educators and examiners: identifying students who are struggling for reasons beyond effort, recognizing those whose abilities outpace the standard curriculum, and deciding what kinds of instruction, placement, and support actually fit a childs needs. Along the way, Terman confronts controversies that still feel modern - the difference between native ability and learned achievement, the risks of misclassification, and the ethical stakes of turning a number into a label. Part research report and part call for evidence-based education, this work captures a formative moment in educational psychology and invites listeners to think critically about testing, opportunity, and what schools owe every child. For ad-free listening try our premium subscription Chapters (Approximate) (00:00:00) Chapter 00 (00:10:46) Chapter 01 (00:33:53) Chapter 02 (00:44:01) Chapter 03 (00:58:38) Chapter 04 (01:32:03) Chapter 05 (01:45:23) Chapter 06 (02:09:24) Chapter 07 (02:41:07) Chapter 08 (03:17:27) Chapter 09 (03:50:14) Chapter 10 (04:31:36) Chapter 11 (05:22:31) Chapter 12 (06:14:04) Chapter 13 (06:50:18) Chapter 14 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

The Intelligence of School Children, How Children Differ Inability, The Use of Mental Tests in School Grading, and the Proper Education of Exceptional Children, by Lewis M. Terman, Professor of Education, Leeland Stanford Junior University. Preface This book has been written for the rank and file of teachers, school supervisors, and normal school students. Its purpose is to illustrate the large individual differences in original endowment which exist among school children and to show the practical bearing of these differences upon the everyday problems of classroom management and school administration. It does not treat, except incidentally, the psychological principles underlying intelligence tests.

Some of these problems the writer has touched upon elsewhere. The technique of giving the tests of the revised Bennett scale and the general significance of mental tests for education have been set forth in some detail in another volume of this series, the measurement of intelligence, which should be read in conclusion. connection with the present volume. In the preparation of this volume, the writer has drawn heavily upon the data from investigations made by a number of his students at Stanford University. His debt to them is very great, not only for the generous way in which they have placed valuable data at his disposal, but, if possible, even more for the loyalty and enthusiasm with which

they have worked together in carrying through cooperative undertakings of the most laborous nature. What a single individual working alone can accomplish in research with mental tests is well-nigh infinitismal. Substantial progress can come only from the cooperative work of many on closely allied problems. This volume is in large measure the outcome of studies made by various members of the author's classes in intelligence tests during the years 1916-1917 and 1917 and 1918. The central topic for each year, been the relation of school-saclasses. success to intelligence. Students who have contributed important data to the various chapters include the following. Virgil E. Dixon, tests of first grade pupils. W. M. Proctor, tests of high school pupils. Irene Cuneo, tests of kindergarten children. Margaret Hopwood Hubbard, tests of superior

children. O.S. Hubbard, tests of fifth grade pupils. Isabel Preston, analysis of discrepancies between mental age and school success, J. K. Flanders, tests of Express Company employees, H. E. Nolan, tests of unemployed, prisoners, and businessmen. Dr. J. Harold Williams, tests of juvenile delinquents. Lowry, Howard and Virgil Dixon, tests of retarded children in the schools of X County. Various students who cooperated in gathering the data on which the Stanford revision of the Bennett scale was based. Among these were Dr. George Ordal. Dorle, Grace Lehman, Never Gold Breath, and Wilford Talbert. These studies are but parts of a larger

investigation of mental growth and individual differences. Several of them are far from complete at the time of this writing. Hundreds of children who have been tested in the vicinity of Stanford University are being followed up in order to discover the value of mental tests as a means of forecasting the educational achievements possible to children of various degrees of intelligence. The investigation, involves the retesting of a large number of children in successive or alternate years in order that typical curves of mental growth may be established. The writer believes that studies of this kind should entirely replace controversial literature on the value of Bennett and other mental tests. There is no other foundation for science, whether pure or applied, than positive, definitely for revival facts. Psychology is no exception.

Another study should be mentioned in this connection, although circumstances, it prevent the publication of its results at present. With the assistance of a number of Stanford University students, the group intelligence scale devised for use in the United States Army was given during the school year of 1917, 18, to approximately 6,000 pupils from the third grade to the senior year of high school. The purpose of the investigation was to secure data on the reliability of the Army tests, and to this end, a large amount of supplementary information regarding each pupil was secured for correlation, with the test results. This information included age, grade, years in school, nationality of parents,

occupation of father, teacher's ratings of the children and on intelligence, quality of school work, and several character traits. Approximately 600 of the same pupils had been tested with the Stanford revision of the Bennett scale. In every respect, the results of this investigation support the data and conclusions present in the various chapters of this volume. The Army tests, which were given to approximately 1,700,000 soldiers demonstrated beyond question that the methods of mental measurement are capable of making a contribution of great value to military efficiency, that their universal use in the schoolroom is necessary to educational efficiency, or doubtless soon be accepted as a matter of course.

The fact that the conclusions here offered are based chiefly upon the results secured by the use of the Stanford revision of the Bennett-Simon tests must not be understood to imply that the writer looks with disfavor upon other intelligence scales, to the extent that the conclusions are valid at all. They can be confirmed by any system of tests which affords a reasonably accurate measure of general mental ability. However, it is not the purpose of this volume to summarize the hundreds of interesting and valuable investigations which have utilized either Bennett or other tests of school children. For the most part, such investigations have been directed towards the improvement of methods. The writer's present aim is the more practical one of

showing how the results of mental tests may be put to everyday use in the great classification and in the educational guidance of schoolchildren. The author is indebted to Professor R.M. Hierkees for reading several chapters of the manuscript and for many helpful criticisms. Stanford University, March 1,1919. End of the preface to the Intelligence of School Children, read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 1 of the Intelligence of School Children, read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 1 of the Intelligence of School children by Lewis Terman. This is a Librivox recording.

All Librivox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey The Intelligence of School Children, Chapter 1. Some Principles of Intelligence Testing. The Bennett tests, a method of a saying intelligence. In order to find out how much gold is contained in a given vein of quartz, it is not necessary to uncover all the ore and extract and weight.

every particle of the precious metal. It is sufficient merely to ascertain by borings the linear extent of the load and to take a small amount of the ore to the laboratory of an assayer who will make a test and render a verdict of so many ounces of gold potavre. A half century ago, Francis Gauton predicted that it would sometime be possible to obtain a general knowledge of the intellectual capacities of a man by sinking shafts, as it were, at a few critical points. Already, Galton's dream is in process of realization, for in the last decade, mental testing has become one of the most fruitful branches of psychological science. The credit for pointing the way belongs largely to the French psychologist, Alfred Bennett, who, after more than 15 years of patient research, gave to the world in 1908,

a system of mental tests, now known as Binet Simon Intelligence Scale. In various revised forms, the method has come into general use in public schools. Institutions for defectives present reasons, reform schools, and juvenile courts in the United States and in Europe. Adept to Bennett is very great, for he succeeded in bringing psychology down from the clouds and making it useful to men. The Binet scale is made up of an extended series of tests, in the nature of problems, success in which demands the exercise of the intellectual processes. As left by Binet, the scale consists of 54 tests, ranging in difficulty from tests which are passed

by the average child of three years, two tests, which are difficult enough for the average adult. The Stanford revision has increased the number of tests to 90, and has extended the scale far enough to measure the intelligence of superior adults. The 90 tests in the revised scale constitutes an extremely variegated series. This is necessary, since their purpose is to measure the subject's general intelligence, not his special ability in a particular line. They include tests of memory, language, comprehension, size of vocabulary, orientation in time and space, eye-hand coordination, knowledge about familiar things, judgment, ability to find likenesses and differences between common objects, arithematical reasoning, resultfulness and ingenuity in

difficult practical situations, ability to detect absurdities, a perception, the speed and richness of association of ideas, the power to combine the dissected parts of a form board or a group of ideas into a unitary whole, the capacity to generalize from particulars, the ability to deduce a rule from connected facts, etc. Thus the tests give a kind of composite picture of the subject's general mental ability, and since standards of comparison have been established for each of the individual tests by trying it out on hundreds of unslegged normal children of all ages, it is possible to express the total result of an examination in terms of mental age norms. Why a mental test is significant?

Are we justified in attributing real diagnostic significance to the little intellectual stunts called for by an intelligent scale? Some of these may even appear trivial. What does it signify, for example, whether a given 10-year-old subject names 40 words or 100 words in 3 minutes? Whether he puts together the parts of a form board in 30 seconds or in 2 minutes. Whether he defines 30 words or 60 words of a 100-word list. whether his definitions of words are stated in terms of use or in terms of superior to use. Whether a series of five digits or only a series of three digits can be repeated backwards after a single auditory presentation, whether there are three, two, one or no successes

in the attempt to draw a diamond-shaped figure from copy. The secret lies in a standardization of the tests upon normal children of different ages. Without such a standardization, the tests would mean nothing. Standardization is coming to play the same role in psychology that it has long played in the various branches of applied science. The architect or bridge engineer plans his structure with constant reference to foot pounds of strain which various materials will withstand. The physician analyzes a drop of blood and by comparison of corpuscleum and hemoglobin with the norms for health and disease is able to render an important diagnosis. The psychologist working with mental tests may be considered. compared with the paleontologist who finds in a gravel bed of some prehistoric age a skull cap,

a fragment of jaw, and a broken humorous. Although the layman might not even recognize the human origin of such remnants, the paleontologist is able to tell us that the bones are those of a middle-aged male, that the species to which he belonged has not yet learned to stand erect, that he probably did not know the use of fire. Worn teeth indicate that he is subsisted on uncooked foods, that his intelligence was inferior, cranial contents, only two-thirds that of modern man, and that he had probably evolved but limited power of speech, diminutive points of attachments

for the speech muscles. A little technical acquaintance with the standards of shape, size, and structure of human bones has transformed the meaningless fragments into a missing link, homo-neadrithelisus. Perhaps no two things could be more alike to casual inspection than the balls of two thumbs, yet one who has been taught to read fingerprints can ordinarily find from 40 to 70 separate and individually sufficient points of identification. Just as many a man has been hanged on the evidence of his fingerprints, so many an individual might safely be committed to an institution for the people-minded.

On the evidence of 10 or a dozen tests, which have been standardized according to age norms. The meaning of mental age. Both the individual tests have been at scale and the scale as a whole have been standardized on the basis of age norms. The tests themselves are located in age groups in such a way as to bring that the average child of eight years will earn by the scale a mental age of eight years, the average 12-year-old, a mental age of 12 years, etc. Such an arrangement was arrived at empirically by trying out a series of tests upon hundreds of normal children of different ages. The Stanford revision, for example, was based on tests of 1,700 children and 400 adults.

To illustrate the use of the scale, let us suppose we are testing a child of eight years. If our subject passes successfully, as far as the average child of eight years, we say these mental age is eight years, or in this case normal. If he goes as far as the average 10-year-old, we say that he's mental age of 10 years. If he earns no more credit than the average 6-year-old, his mental age is 6 years. Bennett merely took a standard of comparison which everyone uses, namely the standard of age, and made it definite by finding out what intellectual performances representative children of different ages are capable of. It is necessary that the reader should at the onset arrive at a correct understanding of what the term mental age is

and is not intended to signify. Two misconceptions are to be avoided. 1. That each mental age is a separate and qualitatively distinctions. distinct level of mental attainment, contrasting markedly with both the mental age which precedes it and that which follows it. Such use the term is not in harmony with the facts. Mental development is consecutive and gradual. There is probably no mental power, capacity or function which has a manor of a birth.

The faculty in question develops first in rudimentary form, then grows gradually stronger and more definite until, by imperceptible stages, it reaches a state of maturity. 2. Another misunderstanding comes from the assumption that those who use the term believe a given mental age is a stage of development which all normal individuals pass through at the corresponding actual age. Such a belief would imply that at the age of 10 years, for example, old children who do not belong to some special type, defective, genius, etc., should be found at the 10-year mental age, 8-year children at the 8-year mental age, etc. It is one of the main purposes of this book to show how widely children of a given age differ in mental age,

and how greatly children of adjacent ages overlap each other in mental age. The real meaning of the term is perfectly straightforward and unambiguous. By a given mental age, we mean that degree of general mental ability, which is passed by the average child of corresponding coronological age. Mental age are basis for school grading. The significance of mental age for the teacher lies in the fact that it can be used as a basis for grading the pupils, so as to secure class groups of homogeneous ability. As will be shown in succeeding chapters, the pupils of given grades,

or even the pupils of one grade in a single classroom, are far from equal in general intelligence or an ability to master the schoolwork. Generally speaking, not far from a fourth of pupils in any given grade have a mental level too low to make satisfactory work in that grade possible, while another fourth have reached a mental level, which would enable them to succeed in a higher grade. The Intelligence Quotient The mental age merely indicates a level of development

which a child has reached at a given time considered apart from chronological age it does not tell us whether a child is bright, dull or average of three children all testing at the mental age of eight years one might very well be exceptionally superior, one average, and one feeble-minded. Such would be the case if their chronological ages were six, eight and twelve years. In addition to an index of absolute mental level,

we need an index of relative brightness, such as the intelligence quotient IQ, which is a ratio of mental age to chronological age. The six-year-year-year mental age has an IQ of eight out of six, or 133. The 12-year-old with a mental age of eight years, an IQ of 8-12 or 67. In computing the IQ of an adult subject, years of chronological age in excess of 16 are disregarded, as the development of native intelligence seems practically to cease not far from this age. An idea of how greatly the school children differ in brightness is shown by the analysis of the IQs of 1,000 representative children

in which it was found that, the lowest 1% go to 70 or below, the highest 1% reach 130 or above, the lowest 2% go to 73 or below, the highest 2% reach 128 or above, the lowest 3% go to 76 or below. The highest 3% reach 125 or above. The lowest 5% go to 78 or below. The highest 5% reach 122 or above. The lowest 10% go to 85 or below. The highest 10% reach 116 or above.

The lowest 15% go to 88 or below. The highest 15% reach 113 or above. The lowest 20% reach 113 or above. The lowest 20% go to 91 or below, the highest 20% reach 110 or above. The lowest 25% go to 92 or below. The highest 25% go to 103 or above. The lowest 33% go to 95 or below. The highest 33% reach 106 or above. The intelligence quadrant, a basis for prediction. Just as mental age indicates a school grade in which a child normal,

belongs at a given time, so the IQ is the basis for prediction in regard to the child's later mental development. The possibility of such prediction comes from the fact that the IQ has been found in the large majority of cases to remain fairly constant, at least for the ages between 3 or 4 and 14 or 15. For illustration, we will take the case of a 4-year-old child who is found to have a mental age of 5 years and whose IQ is therefore 125. The probability is that this child will continue to have a mental age not far from 25% above his chronological age, with the consequences which may be expressed as follows. Table is displayed with three columns, chronological age, probable mental age, probable school ability.

Chronological age, four years, probable mental age, five years. Probable school ability, upper kindergarten. Chronological age, six years, probable mental age, seven and a half years. Probable school ability, second school grade. Chronological age 8 years, probable mental age 10 years, probable school ability, high fourth grade. Chronological age 10 years, probable mental age 12 and a half years. Probable school ability, low 7th grade. Chronological age 12 years, probable mental age 15 years, probable school ability, first year high school.

It would, of course, be absurd to expect the IQ to maintain itself at an absolutely constant figure. Fluctuations occur for at least three reasons. One, there may be in exceptional cases a certain amount of regularity in the actual rate of mental development. Two, the results of a test may be influenced to some extent by the conditions under which it is given. The state of a child's health, his attitude towards a test, fatigue in other temporary or accidental factors. Reutests after a brief interval indicate that errors from this source are ordinarily not large. 3. There is inevitably a certain amount of error in every IQ rating. Due to imperfections in the scale, used, if the scale has been so standardized that it yields mental ages which are too low, the IQ found will be too low.

If the scale errors in the direction of being too generous, the resulting IQ will be too high. A scale may err in one direction at one level, and in the opposite direction at another level. It was the most serious fault of the original Bennett scale that in the lower range of tests it yielded the mental ages which were too high, and in the upper range mental ages which were too low. The effect of such errors is greatly to exaggerate the amount of fluctuation to which mental growth is subject. It was the main purpose of the Stanford revision to reduce these constant errors. Chapter 11 shows in detail the degree of constancy which may be expected for the IQ when the standard revision is used, while the law of constancy is subject to minor revisions.

Few things are more certain than the essential untruth or the widespread belief that mental development knows no regularity, and that the dullard of today becomes a genius of tomorrow. The fact is that apart from minor fluctuations due to temporary factors, and apart from occasional instances of arrest or deterioration due to acquired nervous disease, the feeble-minded remained feeble-minded, the dull remained dull, the average remained average, and the superior remains superior.

There is nothing in one's equipment, with the exception of character, which rivals the IQ in importance. Effect of Environment on the IQ The question is always raised whether in estimating a child's intelligence on the basis of the IQ, it is not necessary to make allowance for the influence of social environment, for example.

It is often argued that the child cannot know his age if he has never heard it, cannot read and report the memory passages if he has never attended school, cannot count from 20 to 1 if he has never been taught to count from 120. Cannot name the days of the week or the month of the year, unless he has heard others name them, and that therefore the IQ can have little significance except possibly as an index of the subject's social and educational environment. It is of course true that an individual who for his entire life had been entirely deprived of human environment. Assuming such a thing as possible, could not pass a satisfactory Bennett test, however normal his original endowment may have been.

To use an extreme illustration, a child of ten years who had been reared in a cage, whose once had been supplied while he was asleep, or by means of ingenious mechanical contrivances, who has never seen a human being could hardly be expected to make a brilliant showing in defining words in the vocabulary test, detecting absurdities, repeating sentences, reading the Binnet passage, answering comprehension questions,

or naming 60 words. We may go further and assume that such a subject would be as little successful with the three-year as with the 10-year test. Needless to say, the Binnet scale was not intended for subjects of the type we have just described.

its use of a given case takes for granted that the ordinary and all but the inevitable social contacts have been made that the subject is not deaf or blind and that he has had reasonable opportunity to learn the language in which the tests are given children who have attended school for any considerable time meet all of these requirements whatever the social status of the home as a matter of fact limited acquaintance with the language employed in the examination does not put the subject a great disadvantage in many of the tests In sum it does, and in testing subjects who are under this handicap, the vocabulary test, and a few others may very well be admitted. Following her two illustrations which show that the validity of the scale does not hinge entirely upon the subject's knowledge of English. 1. Coes tested a Belgian refugee child of nine years who had been in America but two years.

Although this child's equates with the English language was very limited, the IQ earned on the Stanford Binnett scale was 99. The child was also doing schoolwork of average quality in the fourth grade. 2. Dixon tested a Japanese boy, aged five years, two months, who had never attended school and who had little opportunity to learn English. Yet this boy earned a mental age of seven years and an IQ of 133. That lack of schooling does not prevent a subject from earning an average or superior score

in the test is shown by the cases of SS and Gypsy Mary. S.S. was tested at the age of seven years. He had never been to school, and although his home advantages were excellent, he had no formal instruction and had never learned to read. The parents believed, perhaps rightly, that the important needs of childhood, apart from simple moral instruction, of food, fresh air, and freedom from play. Nevertheless, S earned a mental age of 10 years, eight months, and an IQ of 153. In 1916, a gypsy girl of 16 years was given the Stanford had been at test in a clinic in Oakland, California. This girl had been stolen by the gypsies when she was about four years old and lived with them continuously until a few days before the test

was made and had never attended school. The IQ found was approximately 100. It is not denied that the cultural status of the home, even apart from heredity, may affect the result of the test to some extent, although the influence has never been accurately determined. If it were considerable, Mark Rye's VIEW in the case of children who had been removed from an inferior to a satisfactory home environment. Our data on this point are not extensive, but of a dozen more children of this kind whom we have retested, not one showed improvement. Two such children, Walter and Frank, have been under observation for several years. Until the age of five and seven years, they lived in an exceptionally poor home. The mother was dull, the father illiterate, and a drunkard. Both of

the parents died within a year, and the boys were adopted. by a woman of decidedly more than average ability who treated them as her own sons. At the time of adoption, one tested at 73, the other at 82. Four years later, the IQs were 70 and 77. It is a general rule that children of borderline intelligence improve little, if at all, in IQ as they get older, notwithstanding their increased school experience and the extra attention they receive in special classes. That the environment of the home affects the results of the test, but little is further shown by the fact that occasionally in a very inferior home all of the children except one

test low, as would be expected, while that one test exceptionally high. In one such family, Portuguese, there are three children who test between 76 and 88, while the brother of these tests at 130. The latter is making a very superior record in high school, which he entered at the age of 13 years. The others have not been able to complete the eighth grade. All have been in the same home environment and the same educational opportunities. Scales for group testing To test each year the intelligence of all the children by the Bennett method would involve a larger task than the schools likely to undertake. There is accordingly a wide field for the tests which have been applied to an entire group or class at once.

The various scales have been devised for this purpose. The group scales are given as written tests and can be applied to an entire class of 50 of more pupils in about an hour. To score the records requires about 10 minutes for each pupil, or a total of about 5 or 6 hours for a class of average size. This can be done evenings or at odd times. Most group scales have the advantage of requiring little special psychological training, either for giving the tests or scoring them. An unfortunate limitation of such scales is that they are not satisfactory in the lower grades where the need for testing is greatest. As measures of intelligence, they are probably somewhat less accurate, then scales for individual testing, but their obvious advantages makes them deserving of wide use

with pupils over the upper grades in high school. However, no group scale will ever do away with the necessity of individual testing, rather it makes the need for individual testing more obvious. All the pupils in the fourth grade and beyond should be given a test by the group method every year, and those whose scores are either very high or very low in the group examination should be given a Bennett test. As will be shown later, Chapter 5. 4. It is highly desirable that every pupil will be given a mental test within the first half year of his school life. End of Chapter 1 of the Intelligence of School Children, read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 2 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman.

This is the Librevox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain. For more information on to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 2 Amount and Significance of Individual Differences Individual differences exist for all traits When many unselected children of a given age are examined for any trait large individual differences are found

This is true whether the trait in question is height, weight, strength, lung capacity, number of blood corpuscles, hearing, vision, intelligence, courage, consciousness, social adaptability, vanity, already one of a hundred others. Figures 1 to 5 illustrate typical individual differences among school children in sense of humor, cheerfulness, eveness of temper, quality of schoolwork, and ability to give sustained attention. The graph shows the upper cent of pupils who were classified by their teachers as very inferior, inferior, average, superior or very superior in regard to each of the traits.

The above graphs represent the distribution of teacher's ratings, that is, estimates based on personal observation of the pupils rated. Actual measurement of the traits would have been preferable to readings, add such measurements being possible, but there are still many domains of mind and character for which measuring scales have not been devised. It may be argued that the individual differences represented in the above graphs are spurious, that they merely reflect the varying degrees of error in judgment, of those who furnish the ratings. It is an extremely significant fact, however, that whenever we succeed in devising a method for actually measuring a mental trait, as large individual differences are found

for it as such physical traits as height or weight. The latter are of course suspectable of as accurate measurement, as practical purposes are likely to demand. The progress of children through the grades of a school system can be measured in terms of age-grade status with sufficient accuracy. In the case of intelligence also,

the individual differences can be measured perhaps less accurately than height, yet far more accurately than they can be estimated on the basis of common observation. Figure 6 illustrates typical differences among 10-year-old boys in height. Figure 7, typical differences among 10-year-old boys inability to win promotions in school. Figure 8, typical differences among 12-year-old boys in IQ. And figure 9, typical differences among 1,458 children as shown by teachers' ratings for intelligence, attention is directed to the fact that individual differences are equally in evidence for the four traits. The causes of individual differences in school progress.

In the case of a physical trait such as height, perhaps few would deny that the differences found represent in the main differences in original endowment, that the progress children make through the grades of a school system is also chiefly dependent upon original endowment is neither so obvious nor so generally believed. their common opinion seems to be that nearly all children are capable of satisfactory accomplishing eight grades of school work in eight years, and that if they fail to do so, it's because of faulty school management. The remedies most often proposed, for the prevention of retardation, a better attendance laws, school census reform, extension and improvement of medical inspection, flexible grading, and adaptations

of the course of study. That reform in all these lines is needed, for other reasons, as well as for the reduction of retardation will be omitted by all. We are beginning to learn, however, that all of these measures combined are powerless to reduce greatly the number of overage children in the grades. Notwithstanding the persistent campaign which has been waged against the evils of retardation for the last dozen years, the number of retiredates remains today much the same as it was when the campaign begun. We are justified in raising the question wherever the most important cause of retardation

has been located, and whether it is one that can be removed. In the various chapters of this book, certain data from intelligence tests will be analyzed in the attempt to formulate an answer to the above question. The facts which will be presented point fairly definitively to the conclusion that the differences which have been found to exist among children in physical traits are paralleled by equal differences in mental traits, particularly intelligence. It will be shown that these innate differences in intelligence are chiefly responsible for the problem of school laggard, that the the so-called retarded children on whom we have expended so much sympathy are in reality nearly always above the grade where they belong by mental development, and that the real retardates are the underage children, who are generally found from one to three grades below the location, which their mental development would warrant. In other words, it will be shown that the

retardation problem is exactly the reverse of what it is popular is supposed to be. Overlapping of Mental Ages in the different grades The extent of the school's failure to grade children, accordingly to their ability, will be evident from an examination of figure 10, which shows the actual distribution of mental ages disclosed by the Stanford Binnett scale in the first grade, the fifth grade, and the first year of high school in typical public school systems of California. It will be seen that not only do the first grade children greatly overlap those at the fifth grade, and fifth grade children those of the first year of high school, but that the brightest child in the first grade

has all but reached a point in mental ability corresponding to that of the lowest pupil in the high school. The brightest of the fifth grade pupils is above the median mental level for the first year of high school, and the brightest of the first grade reaches the median for the fifth grade. That there are children in the first grade,

as old chronologically as a youngest in the eighth grade, is generally understood and deplored. but few teachers are aware of the fact that mental ages are scattered through the grades hardly less promiscuously. Table 1 shows the grade distribution by mental age of 676 unselected pupils below the high school who are mentally eight years old or older. The failure of school grading to give groups of homogeneous chronological age is a matter of hardly any importance compared with its failure to give groups of homogeneous mental ability.

The chronologically old and the chronologically young may and often do belong together. The mentally old and the mentally young do not. Notwithstanding the sifting which takes place the end of each school year, the resulting classification of children has been so far from successful that, generally speaking, the lowest 25% of pupils in any grade belong mentally in a lower grade and the highest 25% in a higher grade. Only the middle half are classified approximately where they should be. usually more than 15% are at least two grades removed from the one in which they belong by mental age.

The tendency to promote by age. It was stated in an earlier part of this chapter that the grade's progress of the school child is governed largely by original endowment. However, facts such as those just presented show that endowment is by no means a sole factor. For if it were, children would be more correctly graded according to ability. The other factor is the persistent tendency of teachers to promote by the calendar. The dull are allowed to become somewhat retarded, but are nevertheless promoted beyond their

ability to do the work. Occasionally, the brightest are allowed to become excelebrated, but comparatively rarely, and almost never as much as they deserve. Here are two children, both in the fifth grade, who offer a typical illustration. A. Boy aged 14.3, mental age 8 to 6, IQ 60. years in school seven and a half quality of school work very inferior grade status on the usual basis of reckoning retardation of three years in reality this boy is accelerated two years for his mental

level of eight and a half is at least two years below that necessary for satisfactory work in the high fifth grade b girl age nine eight mental age 13 one IQ 130 years in school three quality of school work very superior. Grade status reckoned on the usual basis, two years acceleration. This girl is not really accelerated, but retarded. For a mental level of 13 years, would enable her to do average work in the seventh grade.

The one criterion for fitness for promotion should be ability to meet the requirements of the next higher grade. Pupils of the type of child A kept away at tasks that are hopelessly beyond their ability, never learn the meaning of success. Those like Child B missed the, mental and moral stimulus which comes from intense application to task commensurate with ability. We see how badly misplaced any measure of reform would be which was designed merely to prevent

retardation in the usual sense of that term. But what is the solution of the problem of over-aged children? Are they to be required to repeat more grades than they now do? Would not the policy of rigidly holding these children in the grade corresponding to mental age be even more discouraging than the present practice of over-promoting them? It was, It would be unfortunate indeed if we were obliged to choose between the two evils. Perhaps another solution is possible if we will only cease to think exclusively in terms of cross-section education. Instead of a single curriculum for all, merely divided into eight successive levels, it would

be better to arrange parallel courses of study for children of different grades of ability. Some such solution seems necessary. If we were to adjust schoolwork to the abilities of the children and at the same time avoid the admittedly serious evils of repetition. End of Chapter 3 of the Intelligence of School Children, read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 3 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman. This is a Librevox recording.

All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 3. Individual differences among kindergarten children. Tests were made by Miss Cunio of 112 children attending five kindergarten classes in the cities of San Jose and San Mateo, California. The majority of the pupils came from middle-class homes, a few from each extreme of the social scale. All were American-born. The ages were as follows. Boys, aged three and a half to four, five, aged four and a half, nine, age to four and a half, nine, age four and a half to five, eleven, aged five to five, nine, aged five to five to five, nine.

Aaged 5 to 5.5.5.12. 20. 8 6.6 to 6.5. 6.5. 6. 8. 6.5 to 7. 1. Total? 64. Girls. Age 3.5 to 4. 4. 4.5 to 4.5 to 7.

age 4.5 to 5. 9. age to 5.5 to 5.5. 1.8. age 6.5 to 6.1.2. 2. 8.5 to 7.1. Total. Total, ages 3.5 to 4, 9, aged 4 to 4.5. 16. Age 4.5 to 5.20. Age 5 to 5.25, 26.

Age 5.5 to 6.31. Age 6.5 to 6.8. Age 6.5.7.2.2. Total. Range in mental age. Although the total range of actual ages was from 3.5.5.5.5.5.5. 2. Total.5. Although the total range of actual ages was from three and a half to seven years, all but 19 of the pupils were between four and six. As we'll be saying from table two, the range of mental age was greater than this, namely from three to four to seven, seven. Of the 112 pupils, five were mentally below four years, 35 between six and seven, and three above seven. The kindergarten group, all but overlaps in mental age, the fifth grade group described in chapter five. The highest mental age found in the

kindergarten was 7-7, the lowest in the fifth grade, 7-9. The chances are that if twice as many had been tested, an actual overlapping would have been found. Comparison of the mental ages of these 112 kindergarten children with the mental ages of 150 unselected first-grade children tested by Dixon may be made from figure 11. Nearly a fourth of the kindergarten children equaled or exceeded the median mental age of those in the first grade, and more than half equaled or exceeded the lowest fourth of first grade children. A large proportion of these kindergarten children have a mental maturity which will enable them to do satisfactory work in the first grade. The most abrupt break in the curriculum is that from the kindergarten to the first grade, at all other points

every effort is made to bridge the gaps. The transition from first grade to second, from fifth to six, etc. is almost imperceptible. Even the first year of high schools, being integrated with the last year of the grammar school so as to give the child an unbroken educational path which he may transverse from the first grade to the university. The kindergarten alone holds aloof, worships at the shrine of a special methodological cult, and treats his children as belonging to a different order of human beings. The tests of Dixon and Cunio show how little justification there is for such an attitude. The fact that nearly a fourth of kindergarten children do not differ at all a mental ability

from average first grade children and that a fourth of first grade children are on par with a median kindergarten child indicates that it would be well for the teachers of these two grades to come to some kind of understanding. Distribution of Intelligence Quodians The IQs of the 112 children listed below in the order from highest to lowest. The range is from 61 to 152, that is, from feeble-mindedness to very unusual superiority. While only one could be certainly classed as a deficient. there are at least three others who are at the borderline of mental deficiency. The lowest 25% fall to 91 or below, the highest 25% reach 117 or above.

The median is 106. Figure 12 shows graphically the number falling in the IQ groups 60 to 69, 70 to 79, etc. Sex differences Is there a sex difference in intelligence at the kindergarten age? We have asked many kindergarten teachers this question and have often received an affirmative answer. The opinion seems to prevail that girls, even at this early age, are somewhat more precarious than boys. Comparison of Miss Cunio, 65 boys and 47 girls suggest that this opinion may not be without foundation. The medians and upper and lower quartiles were as follows.

A table is displayed with boys and girls going across the page with median lower quartile and upper quartile. For boys, median 103, lower quartile, 90, upper quartile 114. Girls, median 108, lower quartile, 96.5, upper quartile 116.5. Although the brightest subject tested was a boy, the median for girls is five points higher than for boys. This is not a large difference, but it is appreciable. It is probable that, age for age, girls are slightly superior to boys in the kind of intellectual ability measured by the usual type of intelligence test. This conclusion is borne out

by the results of many other investigations by the test method. It is also in harmony with sex comparisons based on teachers' ratings and school marks. In the present study, 56 of the boys and 47 of the girls were rated for intelligence and 46 of the boys and 36 of the girls for quality of school work. The results were as follows. Table is displayed on the page, teachers' ratings on intelligence. Three columns are inferior and very inferior percent. Average percent. Superior and very superior percent. Boys, inferior and very inferior, 17.9 percent. Average, 62.5 percent. Superior and very superior, 19.8 percent. Girls, inferior and very inferior, 6.4 percent. Average, 61.7 percent. and very superior, 31.9%.

Table is displayed. Teachers ratings on school work. Boys, inferior and very inferior, 23.9%. Average, 58.7%, superior and very superior, 17.4%. Girls, inferior and very inferior, 8.3%. Average, 58.3%. Superior and very superior, 33.3%.

Although the superiority of the girls in the tests is very slight, sometimes almost negligible, we have found in something like a dozen separate studies that for a given age or grade the girls invariably make a significantly better showing than boys when rated by their teachers, either for intelligence or for quality of schoolwork. We do not attempt to say whether girls make a better use of their intelligence or whether they are more responsive and so appear brighter than they are. Both causes may enter. Significance of the tests.

What do the large individual differences revealed by the tests signify in terms of future educational achievement? It is possible, as a result of a 40-minute test of a child who is only four or five years old to forecast with any degree of assurance his educational career? With accuracy, no, in general terms, yes. There is little likelihood that the child who tested at 61 IQ will ever go above median nine-year or ten-year intelligence. On the other hand, the three brightest children in the group, who tested its size 140, could ignore a probability be made ready of high school by the age of 11 or 12 years.

Ms. Cunio retested 77 of her pupils as follows. 1.25 pupils, interval of two days. 2.21 pupils interval of half year. 3.31 pupils interval of 2 years. The agreement between the first test and the repeated test was very close except in a few cases. The median amount of change in IQ was only six points. One fourth of subjects showed a change of three points or less and one-fourth eight points or more. Of the 31 pupils retested after two years, there were four who had earned an IQ 130 or above in the first test.

Two years later, all still tested above 130 in all were doing superior or a very superior, work in the second grade, three of them had gained an extra promotion, of the ten at the other extreme who had earned an IQ of 100 or less, not one had gained an extra promotional. However, there is a serious source of error to guard against when testing children of this age. Kindergarten children are in the bashful stage and are likely to respond only with silence to tests which they could easily pass. The examiner must, therefore, take care to get into a report with the child if you would avoid the error of mistaken difference for lack of intelligence. Special need of tests in the kindergarten

There is one reason why tests are more necessary in the kindergarten than anywhere else if the intellectual differences which exist among pupils are to be discovered. In other school grades of work itself constitutes the kind of intelligence test. The first grade child who cannot learn to read or the fourth grade child who cannot learn long division is readily recognized as inferior. The work of the average kindergarten offers no such clear-clock criterion for intellectual normality. The games drawing, sandpile activities and cardboard construction may disclose certain differences, but these are vague and lack meaning.

This difficulty was reflected in teachers' ratings of the kindergarten children for intelligence. When asked to estimate the intelligence of each child on the usual scale of five, very superior, superior, average, inferior, and very inferior, the teachers protested that there was almost nothing in a kindergarten work on which they could base a judgment. The ratings on intelligence were finally secured, but they correlated with IQs only to the extent of .29. There is not more than half the correlation usually found in the grades above the kindergarten. The correlation of IQs and the ratings for quality of schoolwork was only .27, and that

between mental age and ratings for quality of schoolwork only .43. Certain disagreements between IQs and ratings were due to failure to take account of age differences. The 6-year-old is rated superior on the IQ, about 10 to 20 points lower than a 4.5 year old must have to reach this class. The former gets into the superior class as easily, with 100 IQ, as does the latter with 115 or 120. The following cases illustrate this error. G.J.

age 38, mental age 4, Iq, 113, was rated as inferior. M.L also tested at 113, but aged 5.9 was rated superior. NW. age 311, mental age 4, IQ109, is rated inferior. J.M., age 611, mental age 66, IQ 94, is rated superior. MS, age 41, mental age 5, 4, IQ 130, is rated inferior. J.P. age 63, mental age 610, IQ109 is rated very superior. The kindergarten's demand on intelligence.

The correlation between mental age and quality of work is shown in table three. Table 3 is displayed. Correlation between mental age and quality of school work for 80 kindergarten children. Correlation 0.43. It will be seen that although there is a marked tendency for those of low mental age to do inferior work and for those of high mental age to do superior work, Children of every mental age from 3.5 to 7.5 are rated as doing average work.

This can only mean that the activities of the kindergarten do not make very serious demands on general mental ability. Is this a legitimate ground of criticism of the pre-primary curriculum? The answer will depend upon one's philosophy of the kindergarten. There is much to be said for the kindergarten as a combination of nursery and a place for socialized play. From this point of view, its purpose is to serve the life of instinct and emotion rather than to nourish intelligence. It is a point of view which is attractive because it has the supportive sentiment. Certainly no one will wish to see children of four or five years harnessed to intellectual work to the exclusion of play.

This, however, is not the only alternative. Perhaps some of the kindergarten activities could be so adapted as to neglect less than they now do the appeal to intelligence. Possibly a half hour of the day could be advantageously reversed for work of a somewhat more intellectual character than the hopping, skipping and digging or busy work of the typical conservative kindergarten, much of which has little to commend it from any point of view. Madame Montessori's injection of more serious activities into the kindergarten would seem to mark a distinct advance. The contrasts between the usual work of the kindergarten and that of the first grade could be justified

only on the theory that the child of four or five years is all instinct and emotion, and that suddenly at the age of six or seven, he is brought by a sudden metamorphosis into the life of intellect. A comparison of the intelligence tests of kindergarten of first grade children shows how untenable such a theory is. But if advancements are due on the part of the kindergarten, they are perhaps just as much needed in the first grade. The chasm must be breached from both sides. The mere fact that a child has passed his sixth birthday is not a sufficient justification for robbing him of all the freedom he's enjoyed in kindergarten and home. Chapter 3 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman, read by Leon Harvey.

Chapter 4 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman. This is a Librivox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 4. Individual Differences in the First Grade The Critical Importance of the First Grade The first grade is the most critical in the school system. It is the place above all others where the raw material with which the school is to work should be correctly evaluated.

Success or failure for the child's school career hangs often upon a success or failure in the first grade. In a way, school administrators appreciate this fact. Effort is usually made to place the best teachers in charge of the entering pupils. School doctors, school nurses and school dentists are commonly urged to give special attention to the younger children. Nevertheless, it is in the first grade that retardation scores its worst record. In the average city, approximately, a fourth of the pupils, fail a promotion at the end of the first year. Schools for backward children ordinarily do not draw from classes below the third grade. By this time, the dull pupil is already a lost cause.

Special classes for superior children, when they exist at all, are too likely to confine their efforts to bright pupils whose intellect, Progress has already been retarded by several years spent in the educational lockstep. By this time their intellectual ardor has cooled and the edges of their mental faculties have been dulled. We cannot deny that the task which faces first grade teachers and supervisors is very difficult. Every 12 months, the schools of the United States receives something like 3 million fresh recruits. What we are urging is the immediate saying of all this material year after year. The task is difficult, but we believe it is worthwhile.

A model study of school grading. The facts which will be presented are from an investigation by Dixon, who has analyzed the results of nearly a thousand Stanford-Binnett tests of first grade children. This account will include the results of the first 150 tests only. The group included all the pupils found in the first grade and five different school rooms in the vicinity of Stanford University. The rooms will be designated by letters A, B, C, D, and E. Room A included, chiefly pupils of Spanish and Italian descent, but American born.

Room B represented a mixture of races, with American predominating. Room C was similar to A, but contained a considerable number of Portuguese in addition to a few Italian and Spanish. Room D drew mainly from the upper and middle social classes of American extraction. The children of Room E were all from an exceptionally well-to-do residential district. Dixon user tests only as a point of departure for a more intensive state. study of the pupils. His purpose was the practical one of trying to translate individual differences into terms of classroom management. Accordingly, the cooperation of the teachers was enlisted

in the collection of a large amount of supplementary data regarding each child, including 1. Data of entering school. 2. Occupation of the father. 3. Nationality of each parent. 4. The teachers estimated the child's intelligence. 5. The teacher's rating of the quality of the schoolwork. Six, the teacher's rating of each child, on a scale of five, as in the case of intelligence and schoolwork, on each of the following 24 traits. Power to give sustained attention, persistence, social adaptability, leadership, initiative, even as of temper, emotional self-control, physical self-control, willpower, cheerfulness, courage, sense of humor, obedience, conscientiousness, dependability, intellectual modesty,

unselfishness, cooperativeness, speed, industry, personal appearance, popularity among fellows, self-expression, accuracy. Mental age differences. The age is extended from five years and seven months to 11 years, a range of nearly five and a half years. The mental age range is even greater, namely from three years to practically 11 years. The highest mental age among these first-grade pupils considerably overlaps the lowest we have found in the eighth grade. The number at each mental age is shown in figure 13. A graph is displayed on the page figure 13. Mental age distribution of 149 first grade children. Mental age necessary for first grade work. Children are expected to start to school at the age of six years.

The assumption is that the degree of mental maturity corresponding to this age is necessary for successful work in the first grade. Is this assumption justified? The question can be answered by a comparison of the quality of schoolwork done by the general. children of different mental ages. The agreement between mental age and the ratings for quality of work done is shown in table four. It is evident from this table that mental age is a fairly good index of a child's ability to do the work of the first grade. No child below the mental age of six years is rated as doing schoolwork above the average, while of the 22 pupils rated as very inferior in schoolwork, all are below the mental age of six. A table is displayed on the page, Table 4, showing how quills.

quality of work in the first grade depends upon mental age correlation 0.725. The agreement however is not perfect. Of the 41 children who are mentally seven years or above seven are rated as doing inferior work. All but two of these are enrolled in rooms D and E where the average mental age of the pupils is unusually high. The inferences that teachers have judged these pupils by two higher standard of performance if placed in room A, probably any one of them would rank average or above. On the other hand, 13 of the 92 pupils below the mental age of six years are rated as doing school work of average quality. A satisfactory explanation was found in every case. Two of the 13 were repeaters, one of whom was 10 years old

had to be in school over two years. Under the circumstances, they would naturally be expected to do average work, even though they are slightly below the mental level of six years. The other 11 were all enrolled in class A and B, in both of which the average mental age was extraordinarily low. In room A, 13 of the 38 pupils were below the mental age of 5 and a half years, and in room B, 18 out of 39. The 11 pupils whose ratings are in question averaged in mental age 5 years and 10 months. It is therefore not surprising that their schoolwork should have been rated as average in the inferior class. From such data as the above, collected from all these 1,000 cases. Dixon concludes that below the mental age of six years the child is not fully ready

for the first grade, and that below the mental age of five and a half years, the chances that really standard first grade work will be done are practically negligible. We are beginning to see why a fourth the pupils in the first grade fail of promotion for Dixon finds 38% below the mental age of six years and 27% below five and a half. On the other hand, there are in the first grade many pupils of the other extreme of ability who are kept in at work which is too easy to command their best efforts. Of the 150 children, 15, 10%, are above the mental age of seven and a half years. All of these, and in addition perhaps half of the 26 who tested between 7 and 7 and a half, could quickly be made ready for the second grade. By the present

regime, these are injured no less than the inferiors. The influence of age on the ability to do school work. The one condition that the school imposes upon those who would enter is that they shall have passed a given birthday. If the age criterion were adequate, we should invariably find the best records in the first grade made by the oldest pupils and the poorest records by the youngest pupils. The reverse is the case. Of the 39 pupils who were above the chronological age of seven and a half years, only three were rated above average in quality of school work. Of the 10 who had reached the age of 8.5 years, none. Conversely, of the 23 who were rated above average in quality of work,

12 were under 6.5 years, and 20 were under 7.5 years chronologically. This finding is not new. Everyone who is given mental tests to any considerable number of school children has found that the best pupils in a given grade are almost invariably the youngest, the poorest pupils, the oldest. In the present instance, this is true. notwithstanding the fact that most of the older pupils are taking the work for the second, third or fourth time. Some in fact had started to school before their youngest classmates were born.

Does age give any advantage of whatever apart from the degree of mental maturity which has been attained? Or does score success depend entirely upon mental age, except in so far as it is influenced by such extraneous factors as industry, illness, emotional instability, etc.? Dixon attempted to answer this question by comparing the quality of schoolwork done by older, dull pupils with younger, bright pupils of the same mental age. For the comparison, he took two groups of pupils, all of whose mental ages were between six and seven years. The pupils of one of these groups were also chronologically between six and seven years, with IQs ranging between 96 and 105. The pupils of the older group were between eight and nine years chronologically, with IQs ranging from 72 to 85. The average mental age in the two groups was almost exactly the same. The comparison gave for the older group an average rating of 3.7 in school work for the

younger group and average rating of 3.12. Since on our five-step scale of rating 3 means average and 2 means superior, it has seen that there is a difference of more than a half step in favour of the younger group. The significance of this finding is enhanced by the fact that the older group had attended school for an average period of 1.9 years, the younger for an average period of less than one year. The older group has two years, the advantage in age, with all the incidental experiences which age brings, and in addition the advantage of a year more school attendance, nevertheless their work is less satisfactory than that of the younger pupils who are at the same

level of mental age. We have found this to be the rule in a number of similar comparisons. The additional spontaneity and adaptability of young normal pupils slightly outweigh the advantage of the additional experience and schooling which older pupils of the same mental age have enjoyed. The distribution of IQs. The range of IQs for the 150 pupils is 45 to 145. The median IQ is 88, and it is interesting to note that the brightest child and the dullest child

are about equidistant from the median. The lowest 25% fall to 77 or below, the highest 25% reach 124 or above. Figure 14 shows the distribution of intelligence quotients grouped in ranges of 10, 40 to 49, 50 to 59, 60 to 69, etc. Figure 14 is displayed on the page, distribution of the 149 first-grade children. The low median IQ might be due either to real average inferiority of the pupils' studies, tested or to a defect of the scale causing it to yield mental ages too low. That the latter is not the true explanation is indicated by the high average IQ, 107, earned by Miss Cunio's kindergarten children, who were tested on almost exactly the same part of the

scale. All the supplementary data confirmed the test results in showing that in three of the five rooms enrolling 107 of the 150 pupils, there was an excessive number of children of low mentality. Had only rooms D&E been examined, the scale would have seemed to err in the direction of two great ease. Of the 150 children, 21 tested below 70 IQ and 12 below 60, those below 60 may safely be considered feeble-minded, and probably a majority of those between 60 and 70. Most of the low cases were in two rooms. It will be recalled that the teachers were asked to estimate the intelligence of each pupil on the scale of 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5.

The extent to which these estimates agree with the test is shown in table 5. Table 5 is displayed on the page. Agreement between the tests and teachers' estimates of intelligence, correlation 0.79. The correlation in table 5.79 is fairly high. By a painstaking analysis of individual cases of disagreement, Dixon was able to show that most of these were caused by the failure of the teachers to take the child's age into account. this is an error which we have found over and over, one from which it seems impossible for teachers to feed themselves even when expressly cautioned to do so as they were in this case. The child of eight years who had a mental age of six years, IQ 75, and as doing almost average work in the first grade is likely to be rated not far from average in intelligence. The teacher forgets that an average child of eight years ought to be doing average work in the high, second or low third grade.

How the five classes differed. These five teachers are expected to accomplish the same work to turn out a similar product at the end of the year. A comparison of the material with which they are working shows that any such explanation is impossible of realization and unfair to the teachers and to the children. Table 6 and 7 show how greatly rooms A, B, and C differ from rooms D&E in the mental age is represented.

Table 6 is displayed on the page. significant differences in the mental composition of five first grade classes. There are six columns down the page with the rooms, the median mental age, the median IQ, the percent below five and a half, the percent above seven, and the percent repeating. Room A, median mental age, six zero, median IQ, 87, percent below five and a half, point three one, percent above, seven, point two, two. 10% repeating 0.55. Room B, median mental age 5.7, median IQ 76.

Percent below 5.5. 46. Percent above 7.05. Percent repeating, 0.35. Room C, median mental age 60. Median IQ 85%, below 5.5. 0.20. Percent above 7. 0.26%

Percent repeating 0.56. Room D. Median mental age, 7.2. Median IQ, 108% below 5.5. 0.14% above 7.6. Percent repeating, 0.46. Room E. Median mental age, 7.8. Median IQ 112% below 5.5.

0.0 percent above 7.71 percent repeating 0.07. Table 7 is displayed on the page. Iq. distribution in the five classes. Again, six columns displayed down the page with IQs range you from 135 up to below 60, and room A, room B, room C, room D, and room E. Room A median is 87, room B median 76, room C median, 85, room D median 108, room E median 112. The average mental age in room E is fully two years above that in room B, and the median IQ 36 points higher. The average child of room E excels the average chart of room B in brightness as much as an average normal child of 100 IQ excels a feeble-minded chart of 66 IQ. Room A is three pupils who grade feeble-minded, room B anywhere from 7 to 13, room C 2 to 4, room D possibly 1, and room E, none.

Rooms A and C have no pupils who test as high as 120, and room B only 1. But 21.5% of the pupils of room D and 28.6% of those in room E grade this high or higher. These differences in relative endowment are reflected in the number of repeaters found in the five rooms. A third of the pupils in room A and half of those in room B are incapable of doing standard first grade work. They are not doing it. The lack of progress on the part of the pupils in room B was so evident that the teacher was in despair and their superintendent doubted her efficiency. But there was nothing wrong with the teacher.

Her task was simply impossible. On the other hand, half the pupils of Rumi have reached a level of mental development, which would enable them to do the work of the second grade, three or four of them, the work of the third grade. The lot of this teacher is a happy one. Her pupils are able to learn without instruction.

When a class is so far above or below the average inability, we would expect the teacher to be aware of the fact that these teachers were only partially so, is shown by the distribution of their ratings on school work in the different classes. Although the teacher in Room B correctly rates the work of her pupils very low, the teacher or Room D rates incorrectly more of her pupils below than above average. Plainly her standard is too high, and it is so because the average mental age in her room is about seven years. The teacher of Room E complained that six of her 14 pupils were not doing what she would consider good work.

The average mental age in this class was above seven and a half years. Dixon estimated that average work in Class E was in reality better than superior work in any of the other classes. Sex Differences Of Dixon's 150 subjects, 79 were boys and 71 were girls. Only a small difference was found in the IQs of the sexes, the girls having the advantage of three points in median. However, as rated by the teachers for quality of school work, the girls made decidedly the better showing. This was true even when the comparison was between boys. and girls of the same mental age. Among the 150 pupils were 15 boys and 11 girls who

tested between 95 and 105 IQ. The ages, mental ages and the IQs of these two groups were almost exactly the same, yet the boys secured an average rating of 3.4.4 below average, the girls an average rating of 2.81.19 above average. That is, boys of average intelligence may be expected to do less than average school work. Girls of average intelligence to do better than average schoolwork. As stated by Dixon, it may be that the school curriculum is better adapted to the needs and interests of girls, that girls excel in industry and application, that girls are more willing to submit to direction in a task, that girls are better behaved than boys,

and that school marks are influenced by deportment, that teachers or women are better suited to teaching girls and boys, or maybe that anyone or a combination of many of the causes that might be mentioned. Racial and social differences. Three of the five rooms, A, B, and C, contained a large element of Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian children. Also a number of North European parentage. Most of these were born in the United States and all-spoken English. The median IQs were as follows.

Race, Spanish. Number 37, median IQ, 78. Portuguese, number 23, median IQ, 78. Number 23, median IQ 84. Italian. Number 25, median IQ 84. North European. Number 14.

Median IQ 105. American. Number 49. Median IQ 106. The children were classified as to social status according to the occupation of the father. The classification was based on Torsiq's division of occupation into five non-competing groups. 1. Professional. 2. Semi-professional or higher business. 3. Skilled. 4. Semi-skilled. And 5. Unskilled. The correlation between IQ and the ratings on social status was found to be 0.48. The median IQ, or classes, 4 and 5 taken together, was 82.5. For classes 1 and 2 taken together, 112.5.

Only one child in class 5 tested above 115 And only one in class 1 and 2 below 85 2 thirds of these in classes 1 and 2 are above 100 And 7 eighth of those in class 4 and 5 below 100 However, bright children do occur in the lower occupational groups And when they do, they stand out by contrast Correlation between intelligence and other traits It will be recalled that as part of the supplementary dead

Dixon had the teachers rate their children on 24 mental and moral traits, in addition to intelligence and schoolwork. The interest in such ratings lies in their bearings on the debated question whether good traits tend to go together or whether superiority in certain lines is likely to be offset by inferiority in others. The latter belief is called the theory of compensation. It is commonly thought that the possession of a number of undesirable traits is almost certain to be compensated by marked superiority in other traits. Everyone knows that this is sometimes true in individual cases. If it were the rule, however, there would be negative correlations among some of the traits, and a given individual would show a great deal unevenness in the ratings received.

Such negative correlations were not found. The traits listed below or correlated positively with intelligence and with one another. The correlations with intelligence are shown in table light in order of amount, beginning with the highest. It is interesting to note that sense of humour, power to give sustained attention, persistence and initiative all correlate highly with intelligence. They probably depend in large measure upon intelligence. The correlation of social adaptability with intelligence is also high, indicating that there

is little true in the theory that bright children tend to be socially queer or outcasts. The low correlation of obedience, unselfishness, and emotional self-control with intelligence are of interest. Table 8 is displayed, a correlation between IQ and teachers' ratings on various mental and moral traits. Two columns with trait and correlation with IQ. 1. Sense of humor, 0.58. 2. Power to give sustained attention, 0.54. 3. Presistence. 0.53. 4.5.5. Accuracy, 0.52. 6.5. willpower, 0.50. 7. Consciousness. 0.48. 8. Social adaptability, point 47. 9. Leadership, point 44. 10. Personal appearance, 0.44. 11. Cheerfulness, point 43. 12. Cooperation. 43. 13. 13. Physical self

control. 42. 14. Industry. 14. 14. 14. 15. Courage. Point. 39. 16, dependability, 0.38, 17, self-expression, speech. 0.37. 18, intellectual modesty, 0.34. 19. Obedience, 0.34. 20. Popularity among fellows, 0.34. 21, even of temper, point 31. 22, emotional self-control, point 29. 23, unsalvishness, point 29. 24. Speed, 0.28.

As a rule, the ratings given an individual child ran fairly uniform through the list of traits. Few children showed numerous escalations from high to low ratings. Bright children, as a rule, were rated superior or very superior in nearly all traits, occasionally drop into average. Very dull children, as a rule, were rated inferior or very inferior in nearly all traits, occasionally rising to average. Figures 15, 16 and 17, reproduced from Dixon's Roald. report sample profiles of one bright, one Dell and one average pupil.

Figure 15, 16 and 17 are all displayed on the page. Figure 15, typical trait profile of a very bright child. IQ 133, average rating 1.34. Figure 16, typical trait profile of a child of average intelligence. IQ 103, average rating 3.04. Figure 17, typical trait profile of a feeble-minded child. IQ 45, average rating 4.46. Another table is displayed on the following page.

Table 9, showing agreement between IQ and average rating on 24 mental, moral, and personal traits, correlation 0.76. So marked was a correlation between IQ and average rating on the 24 traits that knowing only the average of these ratings, one could roughly predict what the IQ would be. As shown in table 9, the correlation is 0.76. Of the 10 pupils with an average rating above 2, 1 being highest and 5 lowest, not 1 tested below 110 IQ.

Of the 16 with the average as low as 4, none tested as high as 100, and only 1 as high as 90. Conversely, of the 6 pupils testing 125 or above, none had an average rating below 2.24, and of the 10 pupils testing below 65, none had an average rating as high as 3.24. predictions regarding school progress after the tests had been made and all the supplementary data had been analyzed dixon made a prediction regarding each child's probable school progress

following our samples of these predictions child number one aged five ten mental age six ten iq one hundred seventeen school work two low first grade in school one half year forecast work should continue superior should finish fourth grade in 3 to 3.5 years. Child number 15, age 64, mental age 5, 7, IQ 88, schoolwork 3, low first grade, in school one year. Forecast, child is dull and quality of school work will go lower. Present rating of 3 is explained by low average standard in the class, will probably lose one year before completing fourth grade. Child number 21, age 82, mental age 6, 8, IQ 81 School work 4 Low first grade

in school 2 years Forecast Very dull and probably Will not finish fourth grade By age of 14 years Not suited to the regular course of study Child number 35 Age 10-0 Mental Age 51

IQ 51 School work 5 High first grade In school 3 and a half years Forecast This child work never reached the fourth grade should be placed in an institution for the feeble-minded. Child number 122. Age 7-6, mental age 10-11. IQ. 145. Schoolwork 1. High first grade in school

half-year. Forecast should be coached on essentials and moved ahead. May be expected to complete the fourth grade within two and a half years after entering school and is capable of doing so in one and a half years. child number 117, age 7, 8, mental age 7.4, IQ 101, schoolwork 4. High first grade in school one year. Forecast, this boy is average normal, and in an average class, he would do satisfactory work without repeating. However, as the average IQ his class is 112, he is likely to lose half a year or more before completing the fourth grade. It is easy enough to make predictions. well, time will justify them is another question.

They will be checked annually as long as the children can be followed. Thus far, they have been checked up once. A year after the tests were made. The findings were in the larger majority of cases in perfect agreement with the forecast, in a number of cases in which the forecast was not borne out. It could be shown that either, one, the original supplementary information furnished by the teacher was incorrect, age misstated, etc. Or two, the teacher had erred in promoting.

a child who should not have been promoted or in holding a child back who should have been allowed to go on. The Retarded Group. Of the 150 pupils, 33 were retarded, according to the era's standard. Dixon examined the data regarding these 33 children with a view to discovering the cause of their retardation. The Retarded Group was divided into three classes. One, those showing lead entrance, two, those who entered at normal age, but broke

slowly and three children showing both late entrance and slow progress. The facts regarding these three cadillarses are stated by Dixon as followed. One, late entrance. Of the five children who show late entrance, only one has normal mental ability, IQ-99. She has made regular progress since entering school as now doing work of average quality. The remaining four are sub-normal children mentally, belonging either to the feeble-minded or in the border zone group. The very fact that these four children have a low mental level

is the most probable cause of their retardation. 2. Normal entrance slow progress. 18 children show entrance a normal age, but slow progress. All of these are repeaters. Several for the third or fourth time. The mental level of each one is low. Four are probably feeble-minded. The rest would classify in the border zone

or in the dull normal groups. Only one. IQ. 91. 7 even approaches the average normal mental level. 3. Both late entrance and slow progress. 10 children show both late entrance and slow progress. 8 of these have low mentality.

One has a mental level approaching the normal, 91 IQ, and is now doing average work. One has a normal level 97 IQ, and the facts at hand do not suggest any course of retardation. Of the 33 retarded children, only two have normal mentality. as shown by the tests. Stated in another way, 93.9% of all the retardation in these five rooms is found in children of low mental level. While there may be contributory causes,

low mentality is undoubtedly the chief course of retardation in these five rooms of first grade children. Feasibility of testing or first grade children. The first task for the school, when it gathers its newcomers together, should be to give each child a mental test determine the nature of his endowment.

The test should then be checked out by a large amount of supplementary data and by an annual appraisement of progress. Granting the desirability of giving every child in the first grade a mental test, is it possible to do so? One is tempted to answer that it is possible because it is necessary. Each teacher may very well test her own pupils, or if it is preferred, or the testing may be done by a few teachers who have had special training for such work. The latter plan has been followed in Providence, Rhode Island. where during a single school year, almost 1,000 first grade pupils were tested by teachers specially detailed for the task. It is reported that the experiment has been a great success,

that the test showed early why a third of their pupils were failing of promotion in the first grade. As a result of the experiment, the course of study for the first year was differentiated, and the mentally immature pupils were given a work of a pre-primary nature. In the schools of Council Bluffs, Iowa, all the pupils of the pupils of, of the kindergarten and primary grades are tested. An entrance to the first grade from the kindergarten is based entirely upon mental age. End of Chapter 4.

Of the Intelligence of School Children. Read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 5 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. recorded by Leon Harvey

Chapter 5 Individual Differences in the 5th grade Hubbard investigated the amount of heterogeneity in the classes from the 4th to 8th grades of the Alameda Public Schools The study took into account Age, Race, Sex, Social Status Achievement as shown by school marks, educational measurements and teachers' ratings on intelligence.

Data was secured from approximately 2,000. pupils, such wide ranges of individual differences were found that it was decided to select two classes in the fifth grade for more intensive study by means the Stanford-Binnett tests. The two classes were chosen at random, one enrolled 38, the other 41 pupils. Extent of differences The mental ages, ages, and IQs found the two classes are shown in table 10. The individual differences revealed in table 10, are enormous and startling.

Class A has an age range of 9.5 to almost 14 years. Class B from 9.5 to almost 15 years. This would not be so serious if all were approximately equal mental ability. Such equality was conspicuously lacking. The pupils of Class A ranged in mental age from less than 10 years to more than 15 years, those of Class B from 7 and 3 quarter years to 14 years. Two pupils of Class A have, reached a stage of mental development corresponding to that of the average pupil in the first

year of high school. Either of these pupils could by six months appropriate training be prepared to do good high school work. In the normal course of events, they would not reach high school for three and a half years. At least two pupils in each class are mentally equal to eighth grade work. Almost exactly half of the pupils of Class A are mentally ripe for promotion at the sixth grade, at least and one-fourth are ready for the seventh grade. Two months are appropriate training would doubtless fit them for such promotion. On the other hand, Class A contains eight pupils and Class B, 14 pupils, who are at the fourth grade level of mental development, nine and a half to ten and a half years,

while Class B contains seven who probably belong in the third grade. One of the letter, a pupil of 13 years, has a mental age below eight, and belongs more nearly in the high second grade. Taking the two classes together, we find all levels of ability represented from that normal in the second grade to that normal in the first year of high school. Consider for a moment the contrast between the brightest and dullest pupil in each class. In class A, the highest IQ is 148, the lowest 78. In class B, the highest is 144, the lowest 60. A child in the 140 IQ class should be able to attain mark success in 1.106.

one of the learned professions, but all the refinements of educational method are incapable of bringing a child of 60 IQ to the level of seventh grade ability. If Bob should remain in school, the former will be winning 5 Beta Kappa honors at college graduation while the latter is still struggling with simple fractions or long division. The difference between 140 IQ and 60 IQ is 80 points. The difference between an average child and a high-grade idiot who will never develop beyond three years is also about 80 points. In the former case we do not think of the contrast as being so great because our perception of intellectual differences in the

upper ranges is much less accurate than for the lower ranges. We are on guard against stupidity, we often fail to recognize superiority. Table 10 shows the usual relationship found between chronological age and mental age in a given grade. Low mental age goes with high chronological age and low chronological age with high mental age. Expressing it differently, the lowest IQ is possessed by the oldest pupils, the highest IQ is by the youngest. In Class A, the third highest mental age belongs to the youngest pupil.

In Class B, the second highest mental age is that of the youngest pupil. The two classes contrasted. Consider as two groups which are expected to cover the same work in a given time, Class A and class B present a striking contrast. In Class A, 44% of the IQs are 110 or above, in Class B only 10%. In Class A, 19% of the IQs are below 90. In Class B, 44%. In Class A, the median IQ is 108. In Class B, 91. The median mental age in Class B is slightly over 10 years, that in Class A, slightly under 12 years. In other words, the median mental ability of Class A corresponds to that normal to the 6th grade, the median of Class B to that normal for the fourth grade.

10% of the pupils of Class B test below 70. In Class A, none. In Class B, only 10% the pupils test as high as 110, in Class A, 49%. As would be expected, the two classes presented an entirely different picture. The pupils of Class A were interested alert and above the average in industry, those of Class B, inert and unresponsive. From what we know of the significance of the IQ and educational possibilities of these pupils can be predicted with a fair degree of assurance. Approximately 15 or 20% of the pupils of Class B will never, with any amount of instruction, be able to do the work of the 8th grade satisfactorily, and 50% are too inferior in endowment ever to complete a four-year course in the average American high school. Of class A, close to 80%

should be able to graduate from a high school. Necessity of an absolute standard of comparison. The teachers of these two classes were not literally training and devotion to their work. Both were above average, surely one would suppose, they must have been keenly aware of the intellectual composition of their classes. They were not, except in the vaguest sort of way. Each teacher knew that she had some bright and some dull pupils, how bright or how dull was not known. Each teacher could read her pupils only by comparing them with others in the same class. The teacher's classification of the pupils into the usual five groups, Very Superior, Superior, Average, and Very Inferior gave the following results.

Very Superior, Class A, 2.6%. Class B, 0%. Superior, Class A, 15.7%, Class B, 5.2%. Average, Class A, 63.1%, Class B, 76.3%. Inferior, Class A, 15.7%, Class B, 13.1%. Very inferior, Class A, 2.6%, Class B, 5.2%. Although the number rated above average is much larger in Class A than in Class B as it should be, the number rated below average is exactly the same in the two classes, namely 18.3%.

The teacher of Class B did not know that her pupils averaged nearly a year below fifth grade ability, nor did the teacher of Class A know that her pupils averaged a year above. Neither teacher suspected that her class covered a range of four or five years in mental ability. In both classes, the significance of over-agedness and under-agedness had been overlooked, for over-aged pupils had been consistently rated too high, and the underage pupils too low by each teacher. It had not occurred to the teacher of Class B that a high school education was out of the question for half of her pupils, even if she had stopped to consider the fact that several of her pupils were three or four years overage for the grade, how could she have known that this retardation would not be made up later?

The Intelligence Test Confirmed by Other Data The contrast between the two classes as shown by the intelligence tests is confirmed by the Cordes Test, the Stone Reasoning Test and the Error's Spelling Test. Following other median class in these tests and the median scores in the same test for the 5th grade classes of the city taken together. Addition Class A, 7.2, Class B, 3.16. Entire City 4.98. Subtraction. Class A, 8.12. Class B, 2.8. Entire City, 4.81. Multiplication, Class A, 5.43. Class B, 1.75, entire city, 3.56. Division. Class A, 3.66. Class B, 0. Entire City, 2.63.6. reasoning class a two point five six class b one point seven two entire city one point seven three spelling class a eighty class b seventy three point seven five entire city seventy four point one in the four fundamentals and in reasoning the average difference between the classes amounts to more than two grades the difference in spelling is considerably less retardation and acceleration

If we use the A-Riz standard and call the pupil retarded who is in the fifth grade and 12 or more years old, then a fourth of the pupils of Class A and 29% of the pupils of Class B are retarded. This is a rather liberal standard. If we use 11 and half years instead of 12 as a basis for figuring retardation in the 5th grade, the amount is increased to 41.5% in Class A and 37% in Class B. The normal mental age in the fifth grade is 11 years. Below 10 and a half a pupil cannot ordinarily be expected to do satisfactory work. Of the 11 over age pupils in Class B, i.e. over 12 years of age, only two are as high as 12 years, mentally and 7 are below 10.5 mentally. Five are at the third grade level of mental ability. On the basis of mental age, not a single pupil in this class is retarded, but 7 are accelerated.

Five of these are accelerated fully two years. The median IQ of the 11 overage pupils is 74. Of the 10 pupils in Class A who are over age, above 12, only three are as much as 12 mentally. Of the remaining seven, five are correctly located according to mental age and two are a full grade accelerated. Again we see that the chief cause of retardation is not irregular attendance, the use of a foreign language in the home, bad teeth, adenoids, malnutrition, etc. inferior mental endowment. Educational reform may as well abandon, once of all, the effort to bring

all children up to grade. We have just seen that over-age pupils were on the basis of mental age really accelerated. Turning now to the underage pupils, we find that these are the real retardates. Class B has one pupil and Class A has two pupils, who are less than 10 years in chronological age. The mental ages are 14-3, 13-10 and 12-8. Two of the three are, three, and 12-8. Two of the three are mentally ripe for the eighth grade, the other for the seventh. The accelerates are in fact badly retarded. It is always so. We cannot too often repeat that the retardation problem is exactly the reverse of what it is

commonly supposed to be. On the basis of chronological age, Class A with 24.4% of its pupils above 12 years makes a better showing than Class B with 29% above 12 years. On the basis of mental age, however, 49% of the pupils of Class A are retarded as contrasted with 10.5% of Class B. From the point of view of mental hygiene, the conditions in the two classes, while different, are almost equally unsatisfactory. Class A is 49% above the standard mental age for the grade.

Class B is 76.5% below. The 49% of Class A find the work too easy. Most of the 76% of Class B have a constant struggle to keep their heads above water. For both conditions, the educational lockstep, with its tendency to promote by the calendar, is responsible. Reform will have to be based upon a consideration of individual differences measured by mental and educational tests. End of Chapter 5 of the Intelligence of School Children Chapter 6

Of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman This is a Libravox recording All Libravox recordings are in the public domain For more information or to volunteer Please visit Libravox.org Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 6 Individual Differences in the First Year of High School

Noting that a third or more of the pupils who enter high school do not remain to begin the second year of work Proctor decided to attack the problem at its most critical point by investigating the abilities of first-year students. The aim of the study was, 1, to find out how greatly first-year pupils differ in intelligence. 2. To trace the dependence of school success upon intelligence as measured by the tests. 3. To find what relation exists between intelligence and elimination.

And 4. To investigate the possible value of intelligence tests in educational and vocational guidance. All the pupils who entered the Palo Alto California High School during the school year of 19, 16 to 17 were given a Stanford Bennett test. The number in this group was 107. The testing was continued the following year, in part with the Stanford Bennett and in part by the use of the modified form of the Otis Group scale. Altogether, intelligence measurements were made of approximately 850 first-year pupils in seven different high schools and of 250 pupils in the 8th grade. The purpose of the study was not merely to discover individual differences, but also to discover what

bearings, these have upon educational guidance. It was therefore necessary to check up the test results in as many ways as possible. Supplementary data secured at the time the test were given included nationality, age, school marks in all the subjects, vocational ambition, occupation of father, and teachers' estimates of intelligence. What was still more important, Proctor followed up the cases over a period of two years in order to note any changes that might occur in the quality of the schoolwork and to correlate school success with the test results. As typical of his findings, we will present in this chapter some of the results of the Stanford Bennett tests of 137 pupils who had just entered the Palo Alto High School. In every respect,

the results secured by the Bennett tests were closely paralleled by the group measured of more than 700 additional pupils. Age Differences The age range was from 13.0.30. The age range was from 13. 0 to 193, with a median of 1411. The median age for 1,000 unselected pupils entering in New York high schools was 145. The median for 142 in Iowa City, 149. While these age differences are of interest, they do not necessarily furnish ground for criticism of school grading. Far from maintaining the children ought to be graded more by age than they are,

it is one of the main purposes of this book to show that grading is based too much upon age. As will be seen presently, the oldest of these pupils are mentally far below the ability necessary for success in the first year of high school, while the youngest are invariably retarded one or more grades below the level of their mentality. Mental age differences In our discussion of mental ages of high school pupils, it is necessary to point out that mental ages secured by the Stanford Binnet, about 14 or 15 years, have something of an arbitrary meaning.

No one knows exactly what median intelligence is for the ages 15, 16, 17, etc., because it is practically impossible to secure unselected subjects above 14 years. By that age, the pupils of inferior ability begin to drop out of school. Accordingly, when we speak with a mental age, 16, 17, etc. We are using these figures rather as scores than as mental ages in the literal sense. We simply know that 16 denotes a higher mental level in 15, 17. 18 higher than 16, 18 higher than 17. With this understanding, however, we will continue to employ the term mental age as in preceding chapters.

The mental age scores of the 137 high school freshmen ranged from 12-8 to 196, the latter being the highest possible on the Stanford Binnett. The lowest was carried by a girl whose chronological age was 193, the highest by a boy whose chronological age was 13-8. Figure 18 shows the percent of total number at each mental age. Only four of the 137 pupils were below the mental age of 13 and a half years. All of these were overage, retarded pupils. It appears that but for the tendency of teachers to promote on the basis of age rather than

on the basis of ability, there would be few if any pupils in this high school much below the mental level of 14 years. On the other hand, of the 31 pupils who have a mental age score of 17 or above, 26 are less than 15 and a half years of age. The median mental age of the 1337 pupils is 1510. A graph is also displayed on this page with figure 18 mental age distribution of 137 first year high school pupils. The highest mental age in Hubbard's fifth grade classes, 153, not only overlaps those at

the first year high school, but almost reaches the median for the latter. However, the lowest mental age in the high school group, 12-8, is not nearly as low as a median for the fifth grade. If we consider the mental age 14-5 to 15-5 to be that normal for the first year of high school, then 27 or 20% are mentally below the standard mental age for the grade, and 80% or 58% are above. There are 41 pupils, or 30% above the mental age of 16 and a half, and 22, or 16% above the mental age of 17 and a half. It could perhaps hardly be maintained that all of these 22 ought to be doing the work of the junior year, as this work is now constituted, but one is attempted to raise the question whether a high school curricula are not framed for a high level of mental ability than is justifiable.

Mental age and school marks. Is success in high school lastly determined by mental age, as was found to be the case in the first and fifth grades? The answer will be found in Table 11, which shows the correlation between mental age and average school work for the 111 pupils who are still in school. Table 11 is displayed on the page, relation between school marks and mental age's correlation 0.45. The correlation is moderately high, but considerably lower than is found in the grades below the high school. The following facts are, however, very significant. One, of the five pupils with an average mark of A, not one is below the mental age. score of 17 years. 2. Of the 28 whose average score is B plus, not one is below the mental age of 15

years. 3. Of the 56 who earned mental age score as high as 16 and a half years, only 8 have an average mark below B. 4. Of the 12 with the mental age below 14 and a half, 8 earned an average mark of C or lower. 5. The only pupils tested whose mental ages were below 13 and half years for a number had already been eliminated because of failure and so did not appear in table 10. Throughout Proctor's study, it appears that the standards of work which are maintained in the first year of average California high schools cannot be satisfactorily met by pupils where the Stanford had been at mental age below 13 years, and that below the mental age of 14 years the chances of success are not good. In rare instances, the pupils of 12-year mental age

is able to make passing grades, but only by virtue of exceptional application. and an attractive personality. Intelligence Quedience For the group of 107 pupils entering in September 1916, the IQs ranged from 79 to 136 with a median of 105. The lowest 25% fell to 96 or below, the highest 25% reached 117 or above. The median for the boys was 107, for the girls 102.

The distribution of IQs is shown as meager-nobes, The most striking thing about the distribution is that only three cases appear below 85 and only eight cases below 90. Above 90, the number of cases increases with Mark Suddeness, indicating that entrance to this high school is pretty well barred to children whose test much below 90. Figure 19 is displayed IQ distribution of first-year high school pupils. Except for the smaller number in the lower range, the distribution of IQs are the first-year high school pupils, is similar, informed to that found in the lower grades.

However, the stave would have been at probably grades a trifle severely at the upper end, as is shown elsewhere. An IQ of 130 in the case of a child of 15 years is probably equivalent to an IQ of 140 for a child under 12. Even so, the range of IQs from 79 to 138 is very great. IQ and chronological age There was found, as would naturally be expected, a high negative correlation minus 0.74, between IQ and chronological age, which of course simply means that the children who went to high school young are generally brighter than those who went to late. Table 12 is displayed, showing negative correlation between age and IQ, correlation negative 0.72. As is shown in Table 12, no pupil below 13 and a half years tested lower than 120.

Of the 30 pupils below 14 and a half years of age, not one tested lower than 100, and only two lower than 110. It is evident that to enter this high school on schedule time ordinarily requires decidedly better than average intelligence. On the other hand, of the 38 pupils who were above the age of 15 and a half, only 11 tested as high as 100. and only two as high as 110. These 38 pupils constitute the retarded group, again indicating that the chief course of retardation is mental inferiority. Of the 38, 70% are below 100 IQ. As we have already stated, the lowest IQ was that of a girl who was over 19.

The negative correlation between age and brightness is further illustrated by the scores made in the vocabulary test. Table 13 shows in general, The largest vocabularies are possessed by the youngest pupils, the smallest vocabulary is by the oldest pupils. The positive correlation of vocabulary with mental age is shown in table 14 for comparison. Table 13 is displayed on the page. Vocabulary and age, correlation negative.4. Table 14 is displayed on the page. Vocabulary and mental age, correlation positive.

0656. IQ and schoolwork The correlation between IQ and schoolwork was somewhat higher than between mental age and schoolwork 0.545 as against 0.44. While the disagreements were fairly numerous, most of them could be accounted for by such factors as health, attendance, degree of application

and attitude toward work. Often it was the test which disagreed most with quality of schoolwork that contributed most to an understanding of the pupil. In general, however, schoolwork rose and fell with IQ, as is shown by tables 15 and 16. Table 15 is displayed, average IQ for different school marks. Where's three columns on the page? School marks of 50 to 59, average IQ 85, number of cases 12. School marks 60 to 69, average IQ 100, number of cases 16, school marks 70 to 79, average IQ, 10.

Number of cases 56. School marks 80 to 89. Average IQ 110. Number of cases 24. School marks 90 to 99. Average IQ 123. Number of cases four. Table 16 is also displayed. Average school mark for different IQs. Three columns with IQ, average mark and number of cases. IQ 75 to 84. Average mark. 63 number of cases 2 IQ 85 to 94 average mark 72 number of cases 17 IQ 95 to 104 average mark 74 number of cases 28 IQ 105 to 114 average mark 76 number of cases 24 IQ 115 to 125 to 12 number of cases 19 IQ 125 and o'clock 15 number of cases 19 IQ 125 and over average mark 83 number of cases 12 IQ and teachers estimates of intelligence the teachers were asked to estimate the intelligence of each pupil on the usual scale of

1 2 3 4 5 for 102 pupils the ratings were made by at least 3 teachers the ratings for each child were then average to secure a composing rating the teachers did not confer with one another in making ratings nor did they know the results of the tests the correlation of the Composite ratings with IQs is shown in Table 17. Table 17 is displayed showing agreement between IQ and teachers' ratings on intelligence, correlation .59. The correlation is fairly high. It would have been considerably higher, but for the fact that the earth-age children were rated too high, the underage children too low.

The tendency of teachers is to base their estimates of intelligence on the quality of the work, too little attention to age or degree of application. The correlation between the teacher's ratings and the class marks was .70. There were eight pupils below 95 IQ who received an intelligence rating of average. All but two of these were above the median chronological age of the class. Although the teacher's ratings were made independently of each other, there proved to be an average correlation of .677 between the ratings of one teacher and those of another. This would indicate that all the teachers based their estimates of intelligence on much the same thing, namely quality of school work. Relation of intelligence to elimination.

Of the 107 who entered the Palo Alto High School in 1916-17, all of whom were tested, there were 27 who did not re-enter the following year. Fourteen of these had transferred to other schools and 13 had left school to go to work. The IQs of the latter group were 79, 83, 85, 87, 902, 97, 901, 105, 106, 115. The boy with an IQ of 115 had left only temporarily on account of family finances. 10 of the 13 were below the median IQ for the class, 105. The average IQ of the 14 who transferred to other schools was 110. The average of the 13 who dropped out was 94.

or seven of the 13 had received marks to known in failure in more than half their school work. Plainly, most of these pupils did not really quit school to go to work. They went to work out of school because they could not do the work in school. Had there been a better understanding of the degree of mental ability necessary for success in certain studies, fewer eliminations would have resulted. In this high school, at least, the pupil of IQ below 90 is practically certain to fail in such studies as algebra and Latin. For purposes of educational guidance, it will be necessary to establish the lower limits of intellectuality necessary for success in the various high school subjects.

Other evidence that elimination is selective. In the average American city, not more than 40% of the pupils who enter the first grade remain to enter high school, and ordinarily not more than 10% graduate from the high school. Smaller cities make somewhat better records, but it is an exceptional school system that graduates from the high school as many as one-fifth of its children. In the case of 318 cities of all sizes studied by Strayer, the central Tennessee was for about 37% to enter the first year of high school, 25% to enter the second year, 17% the third year, and 14% the fourth year. The 58 cities studied by Ares and the 23 study by Thorndyke made a considerably lower record, particularly in the third and fourth high school grades. It is not uncommon for one-third

to drop out without completing the work of the first year. Not all of this elimination is traceable to inferior mental ability, but that a large part is due to this cause, there is no longer room for doubt. Van Denberg studied the school records of 1,000 representative children who went to the first year of high school in New York City. Of these 1,000 pupils represented, a A rather highly selected group is shown by the fact that although only one pupil in 23 in the elementary schools of New York gained special promotion, one third of those who entered high school had done so. We have already seen that pupils who went to high school considerably retarded are almost invariably pupils of inferior ability, and that those who enter underage are exceptionally bright.

Remembering this is interesting to note that Van Denberg found that pupils who entered late, are very much less likely to graduate than those who enter young. The same result was found for Iowa City over a period of 10 years. Table 18 shows a graduation expectancy of pupils who entered various ages. Table 18 is displayed, graduating expectancy of pupils entering high school at various ages. Three columns displayed. Age of entrance, Iowa City percent and New York percent. Age 12-13.

Iowa City 65% New York, 23% age 1314 Iowa City 50% New York 19% age 1415 Iowa City 39% New York 10%

age 1516 Iowa City 29% New York 6.5% age 1617 Iowa City 17% New York 3.5% Even when the late entrant remains to graduate, he normally requires more than four years to do so.

For example, King found that only 13% of those entering at 16 graduated in four years, only 9% of those entering at 17. Van der Beggs 1,000 pupils were rated by their teachers on ability shortly after they entered upon the first semester's work. Three grades were used, high, average and low. Of those rated low, 50% were dropped down in one half year or less. Of those rated average, 50% dropped out within one and one half years. Of those rated high, 50% remained for three years or more.

The marks given these pupils at the end of the first term proved also to have great value as an index of future elimination. The median expectancy for those securing various marks was as follows. Average first term's mark percent is displayed in one column and time during which 50% remained in schools as played in the second column. Average of first terms marks 0 to 49%, time during which 50% remain in school, half a year. Average of first terms marks 50 to 59%,

time during which 50% remain in school, one year. Average of first terms marks 60 to 69%, time during which 50% remain in school 1 and a half years. average of first terms marks 70 to 79% time during which 50% remain in school 2 and a half years average of first terms marks 80 to 100% time during which 50% remain in school 4 years

There can be but one conclusion from the facts like those we have just cited High school elimination is very selective Although there are many individual exceptions The pupils who drop out are the main pupils of inferior ability the high school offers little which can be done by pupils of much less than average intelligence. Are high school standards too high? It would seem that if the pupils of inferior ability are to be retrained in the high school, will have to do one of two things. Either one, lower the standards in the present courses,

or two, add other studies which are easier, while at the same time educationally worthwhile. It may be that we have judged the high school too exclusively by the difficulty pupil encounter meeting its standards for graduation, largely through the influence of the university. The bars have been raised until graduation is well beyond the intellectual downment of a large proportion of children. Below 90 IQ, graduation is by no means likely, and nearly a third of all children tests this low or lower. Pockner found that 70% of those testing below 95 IQ failed in more than half of their studies. A nation falls short of the true ideals of democracy, which refuses to furnish suitable training to a third of its children.

merely because their endowment does not enable them to complete a course of study which will satisfy the requirements for college entrance. There was a time when those whose ability would not carry them through algebra or Latin could turn with some herbert success to the modern languages or to science. In proportion as these studies became established, they too raised their requirements. When the commercial subjects were brought into the high school curriculum, these in turn became the dumping ground for failures. However, the teachers of commercial subjects were not long in discovering that there is no demand in stenography or bookkeeping for commercial graduates of inferior ability. At present, other lines of vocational training are being introduced into the high school,

and the pupils who cannot secede in the older subjects are turning to these. Whether the solution will be found, there will depend largely on the variety of courses the high school undertakes to offer, and on whether it is willing to forego the semi-collegiate standards in favour of a humbler task. High schools at present are in a measure class schools. The child of 75 to 85 IQ has an inalienable right to the kind of training for which he can derive profit. Since there are so many who cannot master the usual high school studies, new lines of work of a more practical nature will have to be added. Since there are probably 10% who have not even the ability to complete the work preparatory to high school, the differentiation of courses will have to begin in the 6th or 7th grade.

instead of being undemocratic, as Sam have argued, such differentiation of courses and enlargement of opportunities for a vocational training of the Humble Resort is a necessary corollary of the truly democratic ideal. End of Chapter 6 of the Intelligence of School Children, read by Leon Harvey. It's something else here now, something new. From, exclusively on Paramount Plus,

it's the series Stephen King calls Scarious Hell. Everything here. It's impossible, but it's also real. Sci-Fi vision comes up the best show streaming right now. We're running out of time and we still don't know the rules. Don't miss what the movie blog calls something you need to watch. Saving those children is how we all go home. From Binge All Episodes exclusively on Paramount Plus.

Chapter 7 of The Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman. This is the Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer. please visit Libravox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 7 The Mental Age Standard for Grading

The IQ does not itself tell us in what grade a pupil belongs. A child testing at 75 IQ and another testing at 125 may be equally ready for work of fourth grade difficulty, provided the chronological age of the former is 13 and that at the later 8. Each would thus have a mental age of approximately 10 years. The basis of grading is therefore mental age rather than IQ. The latter is merely an index of brightness. It is extremely significant because it enables us to forecast the child's later mental development,

but grade of work which a pupil can do at any given time depends rather upon the absolute mental level. There is a slight correction to add to this statement. To a certain extent, IQ differences do affect the quality of schoolwork, which a given mental age may do. In the illustration given above, it is altogether, likely that the eight-year child of 125 IQ will do somewhat better work in the fourth grade than in the 13-year child of 75 IQ, even though they have the same mental age. The greater intellectual spontaneity of the young bright child somewhat outweighs the advantage which the older but mentally inferior child has in age and school training.

Normal mental age for the different grades. The child is expected to start to school between the ages of six and seven years, although the many start later and some younger, the average Enderun's age in most parts of the United States is not far from six and a half. Breaking on this basis, the standard mental age for the different grades would be as follows. Small tables displayed on the page with grade and standard mental age. Grade 1, 66 to standard mental age 75 or approximately 7 years. Grade 2,

7, 6, 285, standard mental age or approximately 8 years. years. Grade 3, 86 to standard mental age 95, or approximately nine years. Grade 4, 96 to standard mental age 10, 5, or approximately 10 years. Grade 5, 10, 6 to standard mental age 11 5, or approximately 11 years. Grade 6, 116 to a standard mental age 12, 5 or approximately 12 years. Grade 7, 12, 6 to standard mental age 13, 5 or approximately 13 years. Grade 8, 136 to standard mental age 14, 5 or approximately 14 years. High school 1, 146 to standard mental age 15, 5 or approximately 15 years. etc. Children who are in the grades corresponding to these standards are in the large majority of cases found doing work of average quality. If the mental age is much above or below the norms

just indicated, the school worker is usually correspondingly superior or inferior. Table 19 shows the percent of children rated as superior, average or inferior who are in the grade corresponding to mental age, 1,936 cases. It is seen that the mental age norms we have given fit the difficulty of work in the different grades fairly closely. There is a slight tendency, however, for children of the mental age 6-6-2-75 to do better than average work in grade 1, and for those of mental age 13-6 to 14-5 to do below-average work in grade 8. This is what should be expected since the average mental and chronological ages for grade 1 are a little below seven years, and those of grade 8 are a little above 14 years. In the first,

year of high school, the child of standard mental age, finds it still more difficult to do average work. The median mental ages actually found in the eight grades and the first year of high school are as follows. A table is displayed with three rows coming across with grade cases tested and median mental age. Grade one, 341 cases tested, median mental age 610. Grade 2, 189 cases tested. Median Mental Age 711. Grade 3. 181 cases tested. Median mental age 90. Grade 4. 253 cases tested. Median mental age 911. Grade 5. 226 cases tested. Median mental age 11.

Grade 6. 236 cases tested. Median mental age 121. Grade 7, 193 cases tested, median mental age 131, grade 8, 180 cases tested, median mental age 142. High school 1, cases tested, 137, median mental age 15.4. At table 19 is also displayed on the same page, showing quality of schoolwork done by children who are in a grade corresponding to mental age. So far, we have shown that the child of standard mental age, age for a given grade tends to do average work in that grade, it remains to show that if the mental age is above or below the standard, the school work tends to be superior or inferior

to the average. Of the 1,936 children appearing in the above table, 120 were two or more years above the grade normal to their mental age. This is 6.2% of the entire number. Of the 120, not one was rated as doing superior work, and only 19 as doing average work. The remaining 101 were rated as doing work of inferior or very inferior quality. Of the 1,936, there were 234 who were located in a grade to or more use below the standard for their mental age. Of these, 52% were rated above average in school work, 33% average and 15% below average. Summarizing, we can say that while children located in a grade two years above mental age are rarely able to do average work, there is somewhat more in a grade two years below mental age, whose school work is not

satisfactory. The child with mental age more than equal to his work may yet fail because of illness, lack of application, or for any of a number of reasons. On the other hand, exceptional industry can really make good the disadvantage which a child suffers whose mental age is two or three years below the grade standard. Sources of error in judging school success The agreement of school performance with mental age stands. standards, would doubtless have been closer if all the teachers who rated their children had been infallible judges of the quality of school work. If the work of a given grade had always been of the same difficulty, and if all had taken

the terms average, superior and inferior, in exactly the same sense, all of these sources of error are serious, especially the last. As we have pointed out so many times, each teacher tends to take as her rating standard the average work actually being done in her class. her class has a disproportionate number of dull pupils, she tends to rate too high. The reverse if her class as a whole is exceptionally bright. Ratings on schoolwork are also likely to be influenced by the personal traits of the individual children. Traits which tend to cause overrating are vivacity, responsiveness, talkativeness, self-confidence, good looks, neatless, application and

continuousness. The child who is vivacious and self-confident but parrot-like and superficial is almost sure to be overrated, the stolid appearing or quiet and timid child to be underrated. The child who does his work neatly and conscientiously is likely to be rated more leniently than the child who is slowly careless or disobedient. The child whose hearing or speech is defective is also at a disadvantage in such comparative ratings. Errors of this kind, however, are not sufficient to account for the fact that only 40 to 60% of school pupils are located in the grade corresponding to mental age. Perhaps an even more frequent cause of incorrect grading is the tendency of teachers to promote children by age, resulting in the over-promotion of the dull and under-promotion

of the bright. The teacher does not ordinarily realize how father-dull over-aged child has been promoted beyond the grade, where he could do average work. She is still farther from knowing that the typical underage bright child would be in a majority of cases continue to do satisfactory work if promoted one or two grades. However, there are occasional discrepancies between mental age and school performance which cannot be traced either to errors in rating or to mechanical methods of promotion. The quality of a child's schoolwork depends in part upon other factors than intelligence, among which are health, regularity of attendance, degree of application, attitude towards teacher, emotional stability, amount of encouragement at home, etc. The effect of most of these

extraneous factors is to make school performance less satisfactory than the mental age would lead us to expect. Discrepancies between mental age and school performance. For several years, in connection with Binnett tests made by many Stanford University students, we have investigated those cases in which a marked disagreement was found between mental age and school performance. The findings would fill a long and interesting chapter by the results of a single series of tests will acquaint the reader with the common types of cases. We will select for this purpose the investigation of Ms. Preston, who made a study of the disagreements found in tests of 238 pupils in the eight grades at the Santa Clara California Grammar School. The pupils test had constituted about a third of those involved in the school, and were selected

so as to be as nearly as possible representative. Most of them had also been given the Tribu B and C completion tests and the Army Mental Test. In addition, each child was rated by the class teacher or each of the following. social status, schoolwork, intelligence, dependability, and social adaptability. Miss Preston had been for ten years principal of the school in which the tests were made and had known all the children personally from the time they first entered. Her acquaintance with parents and home conditions was also of great advantage. It was found that in the great majority of cases,

the result of the Stanford-Binnett test agreed remarkably well with the child's schoolwork, particularly when the quality of work for a period of years was made the basis of the comparison. The 238 tests yielded only 34 discrepancies worthy of note, and many of these were not large. In 29 of the 34 cases, the quality of schoolwork, as rated by the teacher, was poorer than the mental age would seem to warrant, and in only five cases better. Where discrepancy of the latter kind occurred, it was ordinarily due either to exceptional application on the part of the child, or to the effect of vivacity, responsiveness, or rather favourable personal traits in influencing the teacher's judgment. On the other hand, discrepancy in the direction of inferior work resulted from a variety

of causes, including timidity, lack of self-confidence, physical defects, lack of application, emotional instability, psychopathic hereditary, home, spoiling, love affairs, etc. In the following pages, we present Miss Preston's brief description of the salient feature of typical cases of discrepancy. The ratings given by the teacher were in this experiment based on a scale of seven, as follows. 1. Very superior. 2. Superior. 3. Above average. 4. Average. 5. Below average. 6. Inferior. 7. Very inferior. Showing effect of unusual application. Ernest Age 15-0, mental age 12, 3, IQ 82, 8th grade

Quality of work 5, Portuguese, social status 5, teachers' ratings, intelligence 5, social adaptability 3, dependability 3 discrepancy The mental age is a year and a half below that normal for the 8th grade, but the work is passing, though below average Ernest's teachers agree that the test has rated his intellectual ability correctly. It happens, however, that his most characteristic trait is one which escapes an intelligence scale. Ernest is an erect little fellow with a straightforward look, who works with all his might at anything he attempts to do. No other pupil in the school equals him in application.

He often reaches school ten minutes after seven o'clock in order to study his history lessons until nine. First he reads and re-reads his lesson in an attempt to get the meaning, then he writes it. After that, he says it aloud over and over. When the other children begin to arrive, he hauls one of them in to hear him recited and have him explain what some of the words mean. In class, Ernest is a living question mark. What does it mean by those words? Does it mean this? He is oblivious to the teachers' impatience and to the amusement caused among his fellow pupils.

There is no escape from his question. Even as the line files in a route his teacher gets, what does this mean as he marches by? When Ernest does the thing, he does it thoroughly in school the route. He is captain at the baseball team and does a vigorous job of it. Showing effect of child's personality on the teacher's ratings. Jenny age 12, mental age 108, IQ 89, 6th grade. Quality of work too.

American, social status, three. teacher's ratings, intelligence to, social adaptability to, dependability, too, discrepancy, superior work in a grade which is more than a year above a mental age. Jenny attracts attention by her smiling by fascia's face and sparkling eyes. She is alert, quick in movement, but without self-consciousness. In conversation, she is responsive, eager and reflects your every expression. In class, her eye never leaves the teacher's face, and she follows every explanation with intent eagerness. All of this naturally influences the teachers' estimate of her intelligence and schoolwork.

Donald. Age 12.0. Mental age 16.8. I.Q. 139. 6th grade. Quality of work 2. American. Social status 3. Teachers ratings. Intelligence 2. Social adaptability 2. Dependability 2. Discrepancy. The mental age would indicate ability to do high school work, but Donald is only in the 6th grade. his work in this grade is superior and is probable that it would be able to do satisfactory work in a higher grade. Donald is chiefly of interest in comparison with Jenny described above. The two are of almost exactly the same age and are both doing superior work in the sixth grade. Jenny, however, is barely average normal in intelligence, while Donald tests at 139. This difference is confirmed by the Tribune test and also by the Army test.

In personality, Donald presents a striking contrast to Jenny. Her responsiveness and vivacity are fully matched by his apparent stolidity and shyness. Donald talks only in monosyllables. He's being so thoroughly suppressed at home by a severe father that he is shrinking and timid. When successful in drawing him out, one finds a highly sensitive nature of rare sweetness and poetic feeling, but at least stirs sends him shrinking back to each shell with a herd air, suspicious glance. He also has no self-confidence, never expresses his feelings, and avoids doing anything that could possibly attract attention. Claire. Age 910, Mental Age 12, 7. IQ 128.

4th grade. Quality of work 2. American Social Status 4. Teachers ratings, Intelligence 2, Social Adaptability 2. Dependability 1. Discrepancy. Mental age 2 years above her grade. However, her schoolwork is superior and she could probably do the work in the next higher grade. The fact that she has had one extra promotion agrees with a high intelligence quotient. Claire is slow in her movements and slow when finishing assigned tasks. She is diffident, hesitating in speech and waits for approval. Her teacher seldom realizes, until review time, how thoroughly Claire gets her work. Showing effect of timidity and lack of self-confidence.

Clifford Age 85, Mental Age, 86, IQ 101, third grade, Quality of Work 5, American, social status 4, teachers' ratings, intelligence, 4, social adaptability,

4, dependability, 4. Discrepancy In grade corresponding to mental age, but his work until last year barely passing. Clifford has no self-confidence, his mother speaks in his presence of his stupidity and compares him disparagingly with his bright older brother. Hard to get him to try, but his work has recently shown improvement.

Louise, age 9-1, mental age 10, 6, IQ 115. 4th grade, quality of work 6, American, social status 3. Teachers' ratings, intelligence 4, social adaptability 4, dependability 3. Discrepancy. School work inferior. although mental age would indicate ability for the fourth grade. Louise is timid and easily worn out by excitement, likely to appear bewildered when police in a group

is dominated by an older sister whom she worships, but who has reached an irritable stage in her development. Louise cannot please her in any way, although her endeavours are constant. Showing effect of mental inertia Leonard age 13.6. Mental age 1310 IQ 103

7th grade Quality of Work 6 American Social Status 5 Teachers ratings Intelligence 5 Social Adaptability 5 Dependability 5 Discrepancy

Both chronological age and mental age normal for grade But school work has always been decidedly inferior Leonard's father, now dead, was a shiftless drunkard The mother Ostensibly a nurse leads an immoral life.

Several cousins are feeble-minded. Leonard's smiling good nature and constitutional interlents are proverbial among his teachers. One wonders whether he ever did anything he was not compelled to do. In school he sits smiling pleasantly at others, or staring off into space, dreaming. When prodded by the teacher who opens his book and stares into it vacantly, perhaps the book is upside down. Occasionally he wakes up and gives a clear, fluent account of something he has read or was seen, but he soon lapses again into his customary state of oblivion.

Showing effects of emotional instability or nervous tendencies. Olivia. Age 12.6. Mental age 13.2. I.Q. 105. 7th grade. Quality of work 6. Portuguese. Social status 4. Teachers ratings. Intelligence 5. Social adaptability 4. Dependability 4. Discropency. Up to grade age mentally and chronologically, Olivia has been promoted on trial from almost every grade. Of Portuguese parents, whose heads have been turned by prosperity,

the mother says in her presence that Olivia has inherited her own nervousness and inability to do arithmetic. Nealest to say, Olivia is nervous and cannot do arithmetic. She flounces around at her lessons, adds a bit, jiggles her desk, drops her books, picks him up, caresses her curls, etc. When in trouble pretends to be about to faint, but quickly recovers if threatened by punishment.

Emotional instability fully explains the discrepancy between intelligence and school success. Joseph. Age 1310, mental age 159, IQ 114, 8th grade, Quality of School Work 6. American, Social Status 5, Teachers' ratings, Intelligence 4, Social Adaptability 6, Dependability

6. Discrupancy. Mental age above average for grade. But school work, very unsatisfactory. Joseph has two sisters who are feeble-minded and blind. Two of his three brothers also feeble-minded are dead. The third brother is a movie star of national fame. Joseph's mother is a kindly-faced woman who has been deserted by her worthless husband

and supports herself by taking and washing. Joseph himself is a bookworm reading everything he can lay his hand on from Sunday school books to encyclopedias. His mind is an exhaustless reservoir of unrelated facts. Psychopathic symptoms suffers at times from the idea of persecution, at which times he refused to do any schoolwork or even to talk. Effective home spoiling. Gordon

Age 5.7, Mental Age 6.6. IQ 116. First grade. Quality of work 5. American Social Status 3. Teachers' ratings, Intelligence 5, Dependability 5 Discrepancy, schoolwork inferior, although in great correspondent mental age. Gordon is the son of a minister, and badly spoiled from petting and humoring,

attitude of condescension towards schoolwork, attention poor, easily fatigued, bad sex habits. Bernard, age 7.1, mental age 7, 8, 18, 1st grade, quality of work 5 to 6 Portuguese social status 5 teachers ratings Intelligence 4 Social adaptability 4

Dependability 5 Discrvency Schoolwork below average Although mental age is a half year above normal for grade Bernard is a handsome child The other five in the same family are very homily Has always been petted and allowed to have his own way

showing influence of physical defects Roy age 15 mental age 148 IQ 98 7th grade Quality of work 6 American social status 4 teachers ratings Intelligence 6 social adaptability 5 Dependability 5

Discrepancy Mental age a little above the average for his grade But school work inferior Thin, anemic and sickly looking almost hydrocephalic in appearance with protruding eyes and open mouth. Very deaf and resents it. Fows to him much of what is said during recitation, but will not admit it. At home has been alternatively scolded and petted by foolish mother,

with the result that he has irritable and stubborn spells. Madeline, 8.7.10, question mark. Mental 8.6.2. IQ 79. Question mark. First grade Quality of work seven Portuguese

Social status five Teachers ratings Intelligence 6 Social Adaptability 6 Dependability 5 Discrepancy Although there is a question about Madeline's correct age

Her mental age of 6 plus should enable her to do at least fair work in the first grade She is making almost known progress Has suffered for years from cholera Attend school until her movements became too uncontrolled and violent, stays at home for a few weeks

and returns to school. After a severe attack, all she's learned in school seems to leave her. Love affairs and daydreaming. Elmer. Age 142, mental age 143, IQ 101, 7th grade, quality of work 6,

American, social status 4, teachers ratings, Intelligence 5, social adaptability 3, dependability 4. Discrepancy Failing in work but with mental age slightly above his school grade The discrepancy in Elmer's case was only temporary and was caused by a particularly severe case of puppy love The girl moved away

Love's young dream was broken and Elmer's work came back to normal Aldrich age 75 mental age 86 IQ 115 Second grade quality of work six American social status 4 Teachers' ratings, Intelligence 3, Social Adaptability 3, Dependability 4. Discrepancy Mental age average for grade, but schoolwork inferior. A dreamer, and not interested in schoolwork, poor foundation in first grade,

teachers' estimate of intelligence agrees with the IQ. Unneutral vocabulary and information. Summary It appears that a lack of self-confidence, personal traits which tend to cause overrating or underrating, mental inertia, physical defects, emotional instability, and psychopathic heredity are the most common causes of discrepancy between mental age and quality of school work. Unfavorable emotional attitude towards a teacher, the effects of which we have seen in other cases, did not appear in this series. Of the 34 pupils for whom a discrepancy was found, 24 were boys, although as many

girls as boys were tested. This would indicate either that teachers oftener misunderstood boys and oftener underrate their school work, or that the school performance of boys is more easily influenced by physical or emotional defects than for girls. It is also interesting to note that although the tests were almost equally divided between children of American and foreign parentage, chiefly Portuguese, the latter account for only 11 of the 34 discrepancies. It appears, therefore, that the fact of foreign parentage does not greatly limit the uselessness of the Stanford-Binnett scale as a measure of child's activity.

Several other Stanford students have made studies similar to that of mis precedence, involving in all nearly 2,000-bin-t tests. The data show convincingly that in the large majority of cases, mental age offers a fairly accurate index as to the grade in which the child is fitted to do work of average quality. The index misses the mark to the extent of one grade in something like 6-8% of cases, to the extent of two grades in not more than one or two percent of cases. In 90 cases out of 100, it is accurate enough for all practical purposes.

Even in those instances where it would be misleading, if taken as a sole criterion, the Bennett test offers the best available starting point for reaching an understanding of the child's case. For example, JF has been for months doing very inferior work in the first year of high school. The teachers and principals were at a complete loss to understand the case. Various remedies were tried but without effect. The boy claimed that he was making every effort to do the work. Finally, he was given a bin at test and was found of a mental age well above that necessary for successful work in the ninth grade. The principal then called the boy to his office, explained to him what the test had revealed regarding his ability,

and suggested that it was time for him to quit fooling and get down to earnest work. The result was an immediate and surprising improvement in his class marks. class marks. Sometimes the fault lies not so much in lack of application as in failing self-confidence. S.W., a boy of 12 years, had developed a sense of mental inferiority. His schoolwork had gradually deteriorated until he was on the point of failing. Although it is ordinarily not permissible to give a child his Bennett test score, the principal wisely decided to do so in this case. The boy was so encouraged by the information that he went to work with a new spirit and soon ranked above the average in his class.

Whether the child is working exactly out to his capacity or above or below it, the mental test is equally necessary. Ernest, the first of Miss Preston's cases, is doing fair work, although considerably below the normal mental age for his grade. Unless this is known, Ernest's efforts cannot be correctly appraised. In such cases as Roy or Madeline, the teacher's attention is directed by the test to the possible influence of physical defect upon schoolwork. A discrepancy like that shown by Jenny and Donald calls attention to the danger of overrating the Vavasius or underrating the different child.

The case of Margaret. The case of Margaret, reported by Strong, offers a classical example of the easefulness of mental tests in discovering the causes of poor school work. Margaret had just failed a promotion from the low fourth grade. She was 11 years old and tested at 11 by the minute scale. With average normal ability, according to the test, her school work was nevertheless described by teachers as hopeless. Her work in arithmetic and geography were especially poor.

From January until May, a small amount of special instruction was given her by one of Dr. Strong students. Although the special instruction in arithmetic extended over only five months and amounted to a total of only a few hours, Margaret's advancement was from third grade work to fifth grade work, as shown by the courtist tests. The trouble seems to have been largely one of emotional attitude. When the special instruction began, she was afraid of everything. She could do very little. She knew nothing positively. She held her eyes down, carried herself shrinkingly, was a typical frey cat.

We started with a thoroughly disheartened child whose enthusiasm and hope were about dead, and who has been taught many things in school without knowing facts and principles which should have preceded these things. We taught her the fundamentals of arithmetic. Thus filling in all the gaps in her knowledge of that subject up to the work of a class. In doing so we allowed her to see her learning curves. The unmistakable objective fact that she was learning made her realize that she could learn, aroused her interest, gave her fresh enthusiasm, and presently there resulted a transformed child.

As we have seen, the transformation affected not only arithmetic, but all her studies, her carriage and walk, her social attitude towards others, her entire character. From being hopelessly at the bottom of her class, she now has a settled determination to lead that class. From every indication it appears that the actually brighter children will have to work to keep ahead of Margaret. End of Chapter 7 of the Intelligence of School Children Read by Leon Harvey Chapter 8 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Termin.

This is a Librevox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 8. Mental Tests of School Laggards Since the publication of Ares' book, Lagodes in our schools, numerous statistical studies have been made showing the large proportion of children who were one, two, three, or more years retired,

and analysing the factors which are responsible for the condition. It has become a matter of common information that more than 10% of the cost of tuition is for repeated instruction, that about a fourth of the pupils leave school with not more than a sixth grade education, and that the ranks of the vocationally incompetent are recruited largely from children who in school were overage for that grade. Yet the problem remains. The number of school lagos has decreased but little,

and their needs are almost as little provided for as before the campaign in their behalf began. The extent of the problem will be apparent from an examination of typical statistical findings. The number of overage children. Professor Strayer, by a uniform method, secure data on the amount of retardation in 132 cities, having a population of more than 25,000. In their 186 cities, having a population less than 25,000. His most important results are embodied in Table 20, which show for boys and girls' separate. the average percent found retarded or accelerated by various amounts. Table 20 is displayed on the page, retardation 318 cities by Strayer.

Table 20 shows that approximately one child in three is retarded and only one in 25 accelerated. More than 5% are retarded three years or more and nearly 15% two years or more. The actual amount of retardation is even greater than the third. speakers indicate, because a liberal basis on which retardation was computed. The standard adopted by Professor Strayer was out-used by Ares. By this standard a child is considered as making normal progress, even the first grade and not yet eight years old, even the second grade and not yet nine years old, and so on. Although this is the standard on which retardation is nearly always computed, it allows

a margin of a half year all along the line. Actually, if the child begins school by the age of six and one half years and makes normal progress, he will be in the second grade by the age of seven and one half, in the third by the age of eight and one half, etc. Counting retardation on this basis, the figures of Salt Lake City in May 1915 were as follows. Over age one year, 26.7 percent. Over age two years, 11.2 percent. Over age three years, 3.7%. Overage 4 years or more, 1.2%. Total overage, 43.0%. That the retardation evil is not confined to large cities is shown by Strayo's figures for cities under 25,000, also by Berries, Lyrton's and molten statistics for small towns in Michigan, Minnesota,

and Nebraska. For 55 cities and villages in Minnesota, the number of children retarters retired one year or more, a risk basis of reckoning, was 30.9%. And in 41 greater schools of the same state, the number was 33.9%. The figures for 96 cities and towns of Nebraska taken together are as follows. Total pupils, 25,449. Retarded one year, 16.3%. Retarded two years, 7.6%. retarded 3.3%, retarded 4 years or more, 1.4%.

Total retarded, 28.6%. In 227 cities and towns of Michigan, Berry found a total of 24% retarded, and 3.4% retarded 3 years or more. The amount of retardation in rural schools seems to be even greater than in cities and towns. Gaylor found 53.6% of the children in children in the children in schools. in 139 rural schools of the Illinois County, at least one year retarded, and 28.4% more than one year retarded. In 11 small cities in Illinois, the number retarded two years or more, was 20.7% as compared with 28.4% in the rural schools. Phelps found 28% of 13,626 rural school children in

California retarded on the liberal standard used by Ares. The number retarded three or more years was 2.5%. The supposed causes of retardation. Retardation cannot be properly dealt with until its causes are understood. The causes emphasized by Ares and the majority of other investigators are physical defects, irregular attendance, late entrance, too high a standard and lack of flexibility in methods of promotion. The usual viewers expressed in the following conclusions

which Dr. Gullick drew from the investigation of Erez. 1. That the most important courses of retardation can be removed. 2. That relatively few children are so defective as to prevent success in school or life. These assumptions are contradicted

by the findings of all who have investigated the subject by the use of mental tests. It is interesting to examine the causes which are most often mentioned by teachers and super In the case of 108 laggodes in the Salt Lake City Schools, the causes most often named were the following given here in order of frequency of mentioned by teachers. Poor home condition, physical defects, transferring from another school, retired mental

development, difficulty with the English language, lack of application, irregular attendance, laziness, late entrance and delinquency. Mental tests of these same 108 children showed an average mental Tardation of three years. The large majority indeed were feeble-minded. Feeble-minded children do often come from four homes, since often the parents of feeble-minded children are themselves feeble-minded. For the same reason, feeble-minded pupils shift frequently from one locality to another and attend it regularly, because such children are feeble-minded, the interlate, show little application to their schoolwork and tend to become delinquent. Many similar questionnaire studies have been

made and their findings are always essentially the same. All kinds of supposed causes of retardation are emphasized except the one important cause, inferior mental ability. 1. All children are either normal or fable-minded. Two, those who are normal, i.e., not fable-minded, should make standard school progress. 3. Those who are fable-minded will bear readily recognizable earmarks of their deficiency and will be unable to learn anything. It is not generally understood that many feeble-minded children present a normal appearance. Still less than some 10% of school children of perfectly normal appearance have a greater intelligentness, which is about halfway between that of the moron and that of the average

normal child. The real causes of retardation. Of Dixon's first grade pupils who were eight years old or older, 68% were below 80 IQ. Of Harbour's fifth grade pupils who were 13 years old or older, i.e. 2 or more years retarded. 64% were below 80 IQ. Of 50 overage children tested by Williams in three California cities, 50% had an IQ below 80, and 32% were below 75. Of 174 overage children tested in the schools of X County, California, 61 were below 70 IQ, 106 below 81, and 153 below 90.

In the case of the 1,000 unselected children on whom the Stanford Division was based, 97 were three or more years overage on the ARIZ standard. Of these, 78% were below 80 IQ. Conversely, nearly all of those who were below 80 IQ were one or more years overage for the grade in which they were located. Dozens of such studies, larger or smaller, could be quoted. It is unnecessary, for all show the same thing, namely that the overage child, is usually a dull child. Anyone who desires additional proof need only test a large number of unselected children of a given chronological age, say 12 years, and note the school progress which those of various mental ages have made. Tables 21 and 22 show

this for unselected children of 11 and 12 years. Table 1 is displayed on the page, grade location of 263 11 year olds by Stanford been at mental age. Table 22 is to displayed, grade location of 257 12-year-olds by Stanford Bennett Mental Age. In the above tables, Mental Age 6 means 56 to 65, 7 means 6 to 75 and so on. The tables show that intelligence is the chief factor determining the rate of a child's progress. It also shows that the test result gives a fairly reliable indication of the school grade in which a child of a given chronological age will be able to do the work. The correlation between mental age and grade is .81 for the 11 year olds and 0.855 for the 12 year olds.

The 257 pupils of the 12-year group belong in the 6th grade by chronological age. However, 47 are in the 4th grade or below, i.e. two or more years retarded. All but three of these are mentally below 12 years, and all but 9 mentally below 11. Of the 17-year-olds in the 7th or 8th grade, 2 years accelerated, all but one are mentally 14 or above. Similarly, for the 11-year-olds, those who are accelerated show a high mental age, those who are retarded test low. Feeble-minded school children We have seen that the large majority of over-aged children are below-average intelligence. Such children may be classified as dull, borderline or feeble-minded.

While the feeble-minded group is much the same, the same thing, the same thing, they are. smallest of the three, it gives rise to the most difficult educational and social problems. What these problems are can best be illustrated by the results of a typical survey of feeble-minded children in a small school system. That of X County, California will serve the purpose. X County enroll somewhat more than 5,000 pupils in its public schools. Approximately 20% of these attend rural schools having less than three teachers. The other 80% of the divided not very unequally among a half dozen small cities, it was not possible to test all these children, nor was it necessary to do so in order to ascertain the approximate number of

people-minded. The plan adopted was to test the suspected cases in all the rural schools of the county and in Y city, and at the same time to obtain data from all the other cities of the county in such a kind as would indicate whether the proportion of mental deficiency in those cities differed greatly from that found in the schools where mental tests were given. The first step was to obtain from the teacher's information which would make possible the location of suspected cases. At the request of the county, each teacher furnished the following data for each pupil enrolled in her class. Name, age, grade, years in school, both placed an occupation of parents, and ratings of the child for intelligence and quality of schoolwork as very superior, superior,

average, average, and very inferior. The information thus secured made it possible to eliminate 80 or 85% of the children from consideration because of their obvious normality. In most classrooms, it was necessary to test only 10 to 15% of the children in order to avoid the risk of missing any defectives. In certain rooms, however, more were tested.

The rule followed was to test every child who was raised by the teacher as seriously below average in either schoolwork or intelligence, and to test all who were seriously overage for their grade, whatever the teacher's rating. Of the 1,464 pupils enrolled in the rural schools and the Y City, 174, 12% were tested. The resulting IQs were as follows. IQ 40 to 49, 3.

IQ 50 to 59, 13. IQ 60 to 69, 45. IQ 70 to 79, 45. IQ 80 to 89, 48. IQ 90 to 99, 15. IQ 100 to 10, 4. IQ 110 up, 0. The majority of cases falling below 70 may be considered feeble-minded.

The range 70 to 79 is composed largely of border zone cases. Those between 80 and 89 are practically always normal, but dull. Those between 90 and 109 may be called average normal. In the classification of the 174 suspects, only those were placed below the border zone group, who were rather definitively feeble-minded. Correspondingly, those who were above suspicion of feeble-mindedness were placed above the border zone group.

On this basis, 62 children, or 4.24%, of the enrollment of 1,400,000, were classified as feeble-minded, and 29, 1.98%, as border zone cases. Grade progress of the feeble-minded. The school progress, which the 62 feeble-minded children of X county were making, is shown in Table 23. Table 23 is displayed on the page, age-grade location of 62 feeble-minded children. In this table, as before, age 6 means 56-26-265. age 7 means 6-6-2-75, etc.

From the facts set forth in the above table, one could safely infer even without the aid of mental tests that a majority of these children are very inferior. Moreover, for two reasons the age-grade distribution of the children represents their mental status too favourably. One, the younger feeble-minded have not yet had time to fall below grade. The feeble-minded of age is 6 and 7, for example, are represented the table as being up to grade. 2. The majority of the feeble-minded are in reality above the grade where they can do satisfactory work.

This is seen in Table 24, which shows that these children who appear to be so barely retarded are, on the basis of mental age, greatly accelerated, while the average retardation on the basis of chronological age is 2.5 years. The average acceleration on the basis of mental age is 2.2 years. Table 24 is displayed on the page, grade distribution of 62 feeble-minded children by mental age. Some exceptionally difficult cases. The following schools will give an idea of the problems which face some of the teachers of X County.

Rural School A. Pupils enrolled 41. Of these 18 were so seriously overage and were rated so low by the teacher as to be classed as suspects. Of the 18 tested, 13 were 15. feeble-minded and three of borderline intelligence. One family furnish six of the feeble-minded, another four. The school involves one pupil in the first grade who is 10 years old and has been in that grade for four years. Two other pupils have completed only two grades in the six years they have attended. They are now the age of 13 years in the low third grade and are doing

unsatisfactory work there. Another who is 16 years old and in the seventh grade has only nine-year intelligence. His intelligence is barely equal to the fourth grade work. Rural School B. 84 pupils, three teachers of the 12 children tested as suspects, four were feeble-minded, five were border zone cases, and three were dull normal. One family furnished a moron and a borderlineer, another furnished a moron, a borderlineer, and a dull normal. A moron girl in this school has an insane mother. The girl is normally attractive in appearance and has reached a stage of adolescence. Room P, City Y.

This is a fourth grade class enrolling 39 pupils, 23 of whom are overage for their grade. Five of these are from three to five years retarded. The ages of the 39 pupils range from 9 years to 16 years. Of five suspects tested in this room, two were people-minded and three border zone cases. Another, the lowest of all, according to the teacher's estimate, was abjected. and could not be tested. Although these three schools represent an extreme situation, there are undoubtedly thousands of teachers in the United States whose problem is made fully as difficult by the presence of backward and feeble-minded children. Sometimes a teacher's position

is jeopardized because of her inability to give such pupils the expected mastery of schoolwork. Often she is penalized as her percentage of failure is much higher than the average. Everywhere the emphasis is on keeping children up to grade rather than on finding work which is suited to their abilities. How many children are feeble-minded? In X County, the proportion of feeble-minded children is not far from 4% of the total enrollment. Fortunately, this is an exceptional condition. The proportion usually found is between 1% and 3%. In a partial survey of mental deficiency in the schools of San Luis Obispo,

California. We found 2% of the school children mentally defective. The Stanford tests of 1,000 unselected children in five cities gave 1% below 70 IQ, and 2 and 1 half percent below 75 IQ. Probably 1 and 1 half percent of the 1,000 cases were feeble-minded. Among Dixon's first grade children, the proportion of mental deficiency was very considerably higher than this. Of Hubbard's 79 fifth grade pupils, four tests. below 70 IQ. Other investigators in large number have found similar ratios of mental deficiency. After an exceptionally thorough study of feeble-mindedness in the public scores of Oakland, California, Mrs. Hicks classifies 3% of the children of that city as feeble-minded.

Dr. McPhee Campbell's survey of a certain district in Baltimore resulted in a classification of 3% as having pronounced mental defect. Dr. Goddard, after a number of of investigations in eastern cities, including New York City, estimates that about 2% of the schoolchildren in any average city will be found feeble-minded. Strikingly similar results have been found for several rural districts. Dr. Wilhelmine Key, in a study of a county in northeastern Pennsylvania, finds 3.2% of the population mentally defective. In a survey of mental deficiency in Porter County, Indiana, by the United States Public

Health Service, 2,185 children were given a Binnett test. Approximately 1% were classified as feeble-minded, and another large group as doubtful. A similar investigation was made by the Public State's Health Service in Newcastle County, Delaware. Abbreviated mental tests were given toward 3,793 children enrolled, and on the basis of these tests, the seriously retarded cases were sifted out for a complete Binnett test. As a result, 1.8% were classified as being of institutional grade, not counting about a fifth of 1% who were epileptic. We can conclude that on an average 2 or 3 children out of 100 are so poorly endowed in intellectual ability as to render their social competency a matter of extreme doubt. This figure should not be surprising, considering the number of children who are overage 3 years or more.

The following percents on this point are typical. 318 cities, Strayer, over age 3 years and more, 5.25%. Overage 4 years or more, 1.5%. Salt Lake City Survey Report. Over age 3 or more years, 4.9%. Over age 4 or more years, 1.2%. 96 Nebraska cities and towns, Moulton Overage 3 years or more, 4.7%,

over age 4 years or more 1.4%. 227 Michigan cities and towns, Berry. Over age 3 years or more? 3%. Over age 4 years or more? Unknown. 13,626 California rural school children, Phelps.

Over age 3 years and more. 2.5%. Over age 4 years or more. 1%. X County, California, Termin. Over age 3 years or more, 5.2%, over age 4 years or more, 2%. Probably 80% of those who are retarded 4 years or more, and 50% of those retarded 3 years or more are feeble-minded.

Many others are feeble-minded, who have not attended school long enough to become seriously retarded. In X-County, 58% the feeble-minded were not more than 2 years over age. Criteria of mental deficiency. Certain statements made in the preceding discussion may appear to be based on the assumption that all children may be classified as definitively normal in intelligence or definitively feeble-minded. No such assumption, however, has been intended. The distribution of mental ability is continuous, by which is meant that there is no definite line of demarcation

between the imbecile, the moron, the dull, and the normal. Each group shades into the other by imperceptible degrees. The number of individuals to be classified as feeble-minded will depend largely on the standard of classification used. When 75 IQ is taken as the dividing line, the number of feeble-minded is about two and a half times as great as when 70 IQ is taken. If 65 IQ is used, the ratio of feeble-mindedness is greatly reduced.

The different standards employed have given rise to serious disagreement among psychologists as to the proportion of feeble-mindedness in various social groups. The disagreement comes from the fact that the term feeble-mindedness is currently used in two very different senses. In one sense, it refers to the possession of no more than a certain degree of mental, chiefly intellectual capacity, as measured by some objective scale. This is the psychological definition. As commonly employed, the term feeble-minded has referenced primarily to those who, because of inherent, or early acquired mental weakness cannot compete on equal terms of their fellows,

or cannot manage themselves or their affairs with ordinary prudence. This is the social criterion. These two criteria, the psychological and the social, cannot be used interchangeably for the reason that ability to get on in the world depends upon many things besides absolute mental capacity, such as health, looks, bearing, muscular strength, inherit wealth, sympathetic friends, economic and industrial conditions, the prevailing level of intelligence in those with whom this subject must compete, etc. However, experience shows that, on any reasonable standard, as to what constitutes social competency, the outlook for children who test below 70 IQ

is anything but favourable. Feeble-mindedness and dullness not curable. The classification of school children as feeble-minded or dull can only be valid in case. it is found that the individual who tests low at an early age will continue to test low in succeeding years. As is shown in Chapter 9, read-tests of children after long intervals indicate that a child's brightness or domus remains surprisingly constant. The following read tests are typical. F.C. Middle grade imbecile. Tested as follows. Age 86, mental age 40, IQ 47. Age 108, Mental Age 5.4. IQ. 50. V.J. High grade moron, tested as follows. Age 86. Mental age 60. IQ. 71. Grade 1. Age 94. Mental age 69. IQ. 72, grade 2. Age 116, mental age 84. IQ 73, grade 3.

age 124, mental age 810, IQ 72, grade 3. HV, dull normal, tested as follows. Age 11, mental age 810, IQ 80.5, grade 4. Age 1411, mental age 118, IQ 78, grade low 7. Great expectancy at the feeble minded. Because of the tendency of the IQ to remain constant, It is possible to forecast, with a reasonable degree of accuracy, the highest grade in which a dull or feeble-minded child will ever be able to do satisfactory work.

It has been found that after the chronological age of 15 or 16 years, the mental age increases little, if at all, making allowance for minor changes of a few points in IQ we are able, on this basis, to make such predictions as the following. The childhood test at 60 IQ will, in all probability, never go beyond the mental age of 9 or 10 years. 60% of 16 years equals 9.6 years. Such a child will never be able to do good work above the third or fourth grade, although by the age of 16 he is likely to be found in the 5th or 6th grade promoted there because of his age and size. The child who tests at 70 IQ may ultimately reach a mental age of about 11 years, which corresponds roughly to median 5th grade

ability. Such a child by the age of 16 may be able to do fair. work in the sixth grade after much repetition, but is likely to be carried by the lockstep at the school a couple of grades beyond this. However, we have found no IQ of 70 in the high school. An IQ of 80 means an ultimate mental age of approximately 12 and 1 half years. A child of the 80 class will, at best be able, by the time mental growth has ceased, to do fairer average work in the 7th grade. A mechanical system of promotion and sympathy for his retired condition may be expected to land him in the eighth grade, or if he remains in school long enough, even in the first or second year of the high school. However, such a child will never be able to do the work of the average high school with any degree of satisfaction.

The child who tests at 90 is near enough the average to make normal or almost normal progress through the eight grades, although there is some likelihood of his incurring retardation for a half year to a year. Such a child, if persistent, may also be expected to graduate from high school, although the difficulty of making normal progress there is somewhat greater than in the grades below the high school, due to the fact that these competitors in the high school are selected pupils. Those testing between 70 and 80, about 5% of all children, composed the group which offers the most difficult educational problem. The majority of this group are not sufficiently subnormal to warrant their commitment to an institution, nor are they able to profit. normally from the regular work of the school. They furnish the bulk of those who, by the age of 12 or 15, are two to four grades retired. As noticeably overage pupils, they are the object of everyone's sympathy. Because of the universal desire to keep the retardation figures low, they

are over-promoted to such an extent that they are rarely able to master their lessons. Table 29 and 30, page 159 to 160, show the grade location of children testing between 70 and 79. Practically, the only pupils in these tables doing satisfactory work were those who were in a grade correspondingly close to the mental age. Those whose grade location corresponded to chronological age were almost never doing work of average quality for the grade. Limitations of the special class. The remedy which has been most often urged for the ills of the over-aged child is the special

class. Although one or more such classes are to be found in nearly all the larger cities, their number is never sufficient to take care of more than a small fraction of the children who should attend them. To provide special teachers enough for all the seriously over-aged children on the usual basis of 12 or 15 pupils per teacher is quite out of the question. The most that the best studies have done is only a beginning. Even in the special class, whereas effective educationally as its most enthusiastic champions claim, it would still be an impossible solution of the problem because of the prohibitive cost. Moreover, the question,

In question inevitably arises wherever the ultimate returns to society would not be greater if any funds available beyond those necessary for the support of the regular classes were used to provide special opportunity for children who are gifted. One way to reduce the cost of special class instruction, which at present is about three times as high as in the regular class, is to establish central schools exclusively for backward children. When the pupils are graded according to ability and type of defect, a class of 25 presents a no more difficult problem than a class of 15 which involves children who are feeble-minded, epileptic, incorocable, or are physically handicapped, as well as those who are merely backward. Vocational training for backward children. However, the administrative aspects of the problem are secondary to the beggar goggle. The important task for the school is to provide the kind of instructions suited to the capacity of inferior

minds, whether this is done by grouping the regular class into sections according to ability or by providing special classes, graded or ungraded, does not greatly matter. The danger inherent in the present costly mode of attack is that we may exhaust all our goodwill on a handful of feeble-minded and leave practically untouched the infinitely larger

and more important problem of providing the dull with a kind of training which will make them social and industrial assets. The feeble-minded, in the sense of social incompetence, are by definition a burden rather than an asset, not only economically, but still more because of their tendencies to become delinquent or criminal. To provide them with costly instruction for a few years and then turn them loose upon society

as soon as they are ripe for reproduction and crime can hardly be accepted as an ultimate solution of the problem. The only effective way to deal with the hopelessly feeble-minded is by permanent custodial care. The obligations of the public school rest rather with the larger and more hopeful group of children who are merely inferior. It should be clearly understood that individuals of inferior intelligence are not necessarily undesirable members of society. Indeed, the world has abundant use for them. A large proportion of the tasks in the modern organization of industries can be, as well performed by individuals of the 70 or 75 IQ class as by those of superior intelligence, and with more satisfaction in the performance.

Mentality of 11 years is ample for ordinary kinds of unskilled labor. and many of their semi-skilled trades are within the reach of those who test a year or two higher. To make the most of this grade of ability, however, it must be trained. For children who test below 75 or 80Q, genuine vocational training should largely replace the usual curriculum of the upper grammar grades, nothing beyond a certain amount of relief to the regular teacher is gained, by segregating them in special classes. unless their course of study is at the same time vocationalised. Merely the introduction of a little basketry or other handwork does not serve the purpose. Although there are occasional happy exceptions to the rule,

the average special class gives the backward child little but will be of direct service to him in the world. Often indeed it gives him little or nothing beyond the scope of the regular curriculum. The following case is a typical illustration of the school's problem in dealing with over-aged children. M. It's a Portuguese boy of 16 years. We first tested him when he was 10 years of age. His IQ was 74. He was in the third grade where his work was very unsatisfactory. We tested him again when he was 14.5 years old and in the 6th grade. At this time his mental age was 10.5 and his IQ 72. As would be expected, his work in the 6th grade was very inferior. By mental age, he belonged in the high 4th or low 5th grade. Recently, M left school the age of 16 years, after promotion at the seventh grade. It is certain that had M remained in school indefinitely, he would never have been able to master the work required for graduation from the eighth grade. The school which he attended, a rural school, had done all it could for him by the usual methods. His teachers were unusually capable and consciousness.

He had been given a fair trial at the regular curriculum, and, in spite of his best efforts, for M is an industrious lad, he could not make headway with it. He goes out into the world with no further equipment from his schooling than the ability to read or write and do the fundamental operations in arithmetic. Some children who test as low as M would be rated as feeble-minded. No psychologist would so classify M intellectually inferior, he certainly is, but as far as his intelligence goes, it is sound. About ordinary affairs, his judgment is dependable,

and he is steady, industrious and anxious to make good. There are probably many kinds of semi-skilled work in which he could succeed, for none of these has he received any preparation. After nine years in school, he faces the world with no vocational asset, but is God-given brawn. There are approximately a million children like M in the public schools of the United States. End of Chapter 8 of the Intelligence of School Children. Read by Leon Harvey Chapter 9

Of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Termin This is a Libravox recording All Libravox recordings are in the public domain For more information or to volunteer Please visit Libravox.org Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 9 The IQ is a basis for prediction

Prediction The Essence of Science The essential characteristic of scientific knowledge Is that it can be used as a means predicting what will happen when certain conditions are given. Primitive man lived largely in a world of apparently chance events. The progress of enlightenment is merely by man's ability to find law and order in what seems to be but a chaos of happenings.

The science of physics and chemistry, for example, have made possible thousands of predictions as to what will inevitably occur in the interactional forces and elements given such and such conditions. The passage of a current of electricity through water, according to a certain procedure always gives hydrogen and oxygen. A bridge constructed of given materials according to given specifications will be able to withstand a certain definite amount of strain which can be foretold with reasonable accuracy.

The sciences that have to do with living matter, the organic sciences, have developed more tidily than the inorganic. The introduction of the scientific element into economics, sociology, education and psychology is still more recent and far less complete. education especially remains almost wholly on an empirical basis. Teachers have been too content to believe in miracles instead of searching for the order and inevitable sequence which will make prediction possible. Some teachers even seem to prefer empiricism to science and to derive satisfaction from the

fact that child nature contains so many unknown quantities. To such persons, the proposal to develop a science of mental growth which would enable us to forecast a child's future may even seem repugnant. It runs counter to the deep-seated and blind faith that anything is possible for any child, that the material with which education works is uniform and that processes alone count. Compared to the obvious variety in the world of adults, with its healthy and its sickly, its geniuses and its incompetence, its moral leaders and its criminals, the world of cradle to schoolroom does indeed present a homogeneous aspect.

But the uniformity is one of appearance only. mental tests are showing that the variety is there, and that it bears certain definite relations to the variety found among adults. To the extent that differences among children are measurable, and to the extent that these differences tend to persist, prediction is possible. It is evident, therefore, that one of the most fundamental problems of psychology is that of investigating the laws of mental growth. When these laws are known, the door of the future will in a measure be opened. determination of the child's present status will enable us to forecast what manner of adult he will become. The entire program of educational treatment which should be accorded a given child hinges

on such possibility of prediction. Limitations of prediction in psychology. It must be admitted, however, that the laws governing the development of many mental traits are still little understood, and that tools for their exact measurement are far from satisfactory. We shall concern ourselves here only with. with a prediction of future intellectual status. The standardisation of the Bennett scale on the basis of age norms

makes it a suitable instrument for the investigation of mental growth curves. By applying it repeatedly to the same children, we can find out whether constancy or regularity rules. Prediction hinges on the question whether a child who is found by the test to be a given percent above or below the mental level normal for his age continues to be accelerated or retarded to the same degree. The answer is found in the extent to which the IQ remains constant. Before presenting our data on retests, there is one point that should be made clear,

namely that minor discrepancy using the results of successive tests do not necessarily imply corresponding irregularity of mental growth. Mental measurements are not and never will be made with the exactness which is possible in the physical sciences. Accidental and imponderable factors are always present to invalidate the result in some degree. This would be true even if the measuring scale itself were perfect, for the child himself is a more or less variable factor. His performance in the tests may be influenced by conditions of health, the previous night's sleep, fatigue, timidity, anxiety, grief, attitude towards the examiner or other special conditions. When the different tests of the same individual are made by different examiners, we have the additional disturbing influence of the personal equation in giving and scoring the tests.

Some have argued that such accidental influences largely invalidate the results of mental testing. Such persons take it for granted that an average child may test like a dullard if he is fatigued or sleepy, and that similar factors beyond our control may reduce the performance of a genius to the level of mediocrity. The question is one of fact. The results of read tests show that, well, theoretically,

all these influences may be present in some degree. Their combined influence is, in most cases small. Constancy of IQ as shown by read tests Read tests have been given to 315 children in the vicinity of Stanford University to 46 of these children three or more tests are being given In case of a child tested several times each test has been compared with each of the others For example the first test with the second third and fourth separately The second test with the third and fourth separately

And the third test with the fourth This gives in all 435 IQ comparisons. Three tests were not made as separate investigation, but as such as have accumulated as a result of various mental test studies carried out by many different Stanford University students over a period of years. For this reason, the tests were made under an extraordinary variety of conditions. 33 examiners contributed to the total number of tests. Only 28% of the earlier and later tests were given by the same individual. There was no uniformity as regards time of day, place of testing, freedom from distractions, etc. The intervals between tests range from one day to seven years and classify as follows.

Less than one year, 86. 1 to 3 years, 138. 3 to 5 years, 85, more than 5 years, 127. The ages of the subjects counted at the time of the earlier of two compared tests were as follows. 3 to 511 99 6 to 811 139 9 to 1111 134 12 to 1411 55 above 15 8 Irene Cuneo 148 termine 111 HG Childs 99 Laura Heron 46 J. H. Williams, 40. L.S. Stockton, 37. Dorothy Albrecht, 36. Mary B. Chamberlain, 34.

Lowry Howard, 18. W. M. Proctor, 17. R.S. Roberts, 15. Blanche Cummings, 11. 21 examiners, one to eight each? 78 The effect of the varying ages, also of wide intervals between tests, would presumably be to reduce correlations. The normal child who is re-examined after an interval of five or six years earns his second mental age on other tests at the Binnett scale than those taken in the first examination. If the tests in the one or the other part of the scale are not properly standardized, there

will be a discrepancy between the two IQs due to this extraneous effector. We have therefore treated the various ages and intervals separately, since the tendency for IQ to increase or decrease might be expected to vary according to the brightness of the child. The IQ groups of 89 or below 90 to 109 and 110 or above have also been treated separately. Table 25 shows the frequency of various amounts of IQ change in the different groups of children classified. 1. According to interval between the tests. 2. According to age, at the time the early 1.000. tests were given, and three according to brightness. Increases in IQ of latter, as compared with earlier tests, are tabulated as

plus changes, decreases as minus changes. Table 25 shows that it makes little difference whether the child was bright, average, or dull, how long an interval separated the tests, or what the age of the child was at the earlier test. The majority of the changes are for all groups relatively small. The salient facts for the entire series of retests may be summarized as follows. Table 25 is displayed on the following page, showing IQ changes for children retested after different intervals, for children of different ages, and for children of various degrees of brightness.

1. The central tendency of change is represented by an increase of 1.7 in IQ. 2. The middle 50% of changes lies between limits of 3.3 decrease and 5.7. increase. 3. The probable error of a prediction based on the first test is 4.5 points in terms of IQ. A more impressive way of expressing the agreement between earlier and later tests is by means of a correlation array, as is done in Table 26, for all the tests taken together. The correlation is 0.933. Those who ranked high in the earlier tests ordinarily ranked high in the later, the average remained close to average, the low remained low. Tables 26 is to the two. displayed on the following page, showing agreement between 428 earlier and later tests by the

Stanford-Binnett correlation.933. Personal equation of the examiner Even intelligence scale yielded consistent results only when used by the same examiner, its value would be extremely limited. On the other hand, if results secured by different examiners in testing the same subjects give a higher correlation, a most important requirement of validity has been met. Separate tabulation of those cases in which the earlier and later tests were made by different examiners yielded a correlation of .929, almost exactly the same as therefore the cases compared without regard to examiner. The following are typical illustrations.

Read tests made by Mr. and Mrs. Stockton of 40 children who have been previously tested at various ages by various examiners. When the records were compared with the original tests, it was found that in 25 of the 40 cases, the IQ had not changed more than 4 points, and in 30, not more than 6 points. The correlation with the earlier test was 0.94. 12 children of Fresno, California, who were examined by Dr. J.H. Williams in 1915, were rig examined by Miss Blanche Cummings. Dr. Williams was trained at Stanford University, while Miss Cummings had learned the Stanford revision procedure by studying the directions in the measurement of intelligence.

The results of the 12 repeated tests are shown in Table 27. Table 27 is displayed on the page, showing agreement between the earlier and later tests of 12 children. Second test after an interval of three years, correlation 0.964. The coefficient of correlation between the tests of Dr. Williams and those and Miss Cummings made over three years apart is 0.96. Spearmine Method not only did the tests agree with each other, the school progress of the child agrees with both. The average of superior children make normal or more than normal progress. The inferior children less than normal progress.

Other groups retested by different examiners have given similar results. Influence of interval between tests Table 25 shows that it makes little difference whether the compared tests are separated by an interval of a few months or several years. The central tendency of change and the proportion of changes included in a given range remain much the same. The only exception is that tests separated by more than five years that show a greater tendency towards the increase of IQ than is the case with shorter intervals. This is probably a spurious result due to the fact that in the case of intervals of this length the first test was made by a form of the Bennett scale differing slightly from that used in the later tests.

It is rather surprising that children profit little in a retest from their experience in the first test. One would naturally expect a considerable improvement due to the feeling more at ease and the opportunity to think over their earlier mistakes and correct them. However, this advantage yields a child, on the average, only two or three points in IQ, even when the test is repeated within a few days. Influence of brightness and dullness on the constancy of the IQ. There is a widespread popular opinion that bright children usually fail to hold their own, and that the dull are likely to improve with the increase of age.

Psychologists have more often expressed the view that it is the dull who fail to hold their own, and that the superiority of the bright probably increases. Table 25, which gives the IQ changes separately for the bright average in dull, above 110, 90 to 109 and below 90, shows that the IQ remains almost equally constant, for the three groups. The central tendency of change for the bright is plus 0.7 for the average plus 3.0 and for the dull plus 1.2. The greatest tendency to gain appears with the average group and the next greatest with the dull. The differences however are practically negligible. When those above 125 IQ and those below 80 IQ were treated separately, the central tendency of change

was found to be negative 0.5 for the former and positive 1.2 for the latter. The Very Dull actually gained a trifle more than the very bright. However, we have only 31 repeated tests for the low group to compare with 80 for the high group, and the low group contains very few cases below 60 IQ. It is possible that feeble-minded children testing below 60 are less likely to hold their own than those of milder degrees of defect. As far as the school is concerned, this possibly may be ignored, since there are relatively few in public school classes who test this low. On the other hand, the IQ as determined by the Stanford-Binnett or any other intelligence

scale yet devised, cannot indefinitely maintain its consistency in the case of children who are exceptionally superior. The child of 14 years who tests at 139 has passed all the tests in the scale. Thereafter, his IQ drops gradually to 122, which is the maximum possible for a subject of 16 years who passes all the Stanford Bennett tests. Similarly, the child who tests at 161 has reached his maximum IQ at the chronological age of 12 years. This does not mean that his development ceases at this time, but merely that the Stanford

Bennett does not measure it. Children who test at 130 are measured fairly accurately up to the age of 15 years, or nearly as far chronological ages counted. Since only about one child in a hundred rates as high as 130, the scale is seen to offer a reasonably satisfactory measure for 99% of unselected children, and also for the remaining 1%, except during the later years of mental growth. Limits of accuracy in prediction of mental development. From the frequency of the various amounts of change in IQ, as shown in table 25, we can compute the average error which will be made in predicting the mental age or the IQ which a child will have at any later

age. Speaking roughly, 50% of the IQs found at a later test may be expected to fall within the range between six points, up to four points down. Half of this distance, or five points, is a probable error of an IQ for purposes of prediction. Deviations of 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 times a probable error may be expected to occur with a frequency given in the second column below. The frequency actually found is shown in the third column. Small table is displayed. With three columns, deviations as great as or greater than. Theoretical frequency percent.

Actual frequency percent. Deviations as great or greater than one time. PE, five points. Theoretical frequency 50 percent. Actual frequency 50 percent. Two times, PE, 10 points. Theoretical frequency, 20. 37.76%, actual frequency 16.6%.

3 times PE, 15 points. Theoretical frequency 4.3%, actual frequency 6.2%. 4 times, PE 20 points. Theoretical frequency, 0.7%. Actual frequency, 1.85%. Since the central tendency of change is to order an increase of a little more than one point, And since the changes above and below this are distributed fairly symmetrically, we may say, roughly speaking, that the chances of an IQ will either increase as much as six points or decrease as much as four points are one in two, that it will either increase as much as as 12 points or decrease as much as 8 points, 1 in 5, that it will either increase as much as 18 points

or decrease as much as 12 points, 1 in 20, that it will either increase as much as 24 points or decrease as much as 16 points, 1 at 140. The above statements regarding the probability of different degrees of change occurring include deviations both above and below the central tendency of change. The change for a deviation to occur in one direction is only half as great. For illustration, the chance that a child who tests at 85 will later test as high as 91 is 1 in 4, that he will later test as high as 97, 1 in 10, that he will let a child. Lato test as high as 103, 1 in 40, etc.

Similarly, the chance that it will drop to 81 or below is 1 in 4, that it will drop to 77 or below 1 in 10, that it will drop to 73 or below 1 in 40, etc. It is evident, therefore, that the IQ is sufficiently constant to make it a practical and serviceable basis for mental classification. At the same time, it is not infallible. A single test does not give us certainly, but merely. a higher degree of probability. While the IQ it yields is extremely valuable in the tentative classification of children, it needs to be checked up by supplementary data and by retests. In certain

types of pathological subjects, the IQ may undergo large fluctuations. Epileptics, for example, frequently deteriorate from something like normality to middle grade deficiency in the course of a few years. Mechanical errors as a source of decrepancy. So close is the agreement in most cases between earlier and later tests that when a discrepancy is more than 12 or 15 points is found, it warrants a strong suspicion that an incorrect age has been given in one of the tests, or that arithmetical error has been made in adding credits defined mental age or in dividing mental age by chronological age define the IQ. Mistakes of this kind are a more dangerous source of error than the personal equation of the examiner. Arrithmetical errors can be greatly reduced by making all computations twice, a precaution which we consider absolutely necessary. The avoidance of errors due to incorrect age is by no means easy.

Children in the lower grades occasionally do not know their age. Sometimes the age recorded in the school register is incorrect because of falsification by parent. The seriousness of this source of error is shown by the following illustration. K.N. tested at a mental age of 5'2. The age given was 6-6, and the IQ was therefore computed as 79. This integrated a degree of dullness, almost amounting to borderlineity. However, when the child was retested two years later, the chronological age was given as only 7-6 instead of 8-6.

Investigation disclosed the fact that 7-6 was correct, and that the parents had falsified the age to secure earlier entrance. The mental age earned at the second test was 7-2 and the IQ-9. Correction of the age at first then raised the former IQ of 79 to 94, practically the same as that earned in the second test. Do adenoids affect the IQ? It is very greatly believed that adenoids seriously retired mental development and that their removal is nearly always followed by a marked intellectual awakening. If such were the case, the effect of removal should be to increase considerably the IQ. Among our retested children we have records of 27 who underwent in operation for removal of adenoids or tonsils in the interval between tests.

Comparison of the IQs earlier and later tests showed a central tendency towards a gain of two points and a fraction. There were 10 losses and 17 gains, but no gain larger than 14 points, and only two larger than 10 points. Although these results are too scandy to warrant a conclusion, they suggest that adenoids, and diseased tonsils may give a child an exaggerated appearance dullness. They are a chronic source of toxins which seriously impair physical vitality and their removal probably adds to the child's vivacity and to his interest in schoolwork. This effect would easily be mistaken for real intellectual improvement. There are enough reasons why adenoids and disease tonsils should be removed,

apart from any effect on the IQ. Investigations on a larger scale should be made to determine the effect on intelligence, not only of adenoids, but also of such factors as malnutrition, coria, loss of sleep, fatigue, hookworm, malaria, etc. Figure 20 is displayed on the page, the mental growth curves, as they would be if IQ were constant. Curves of mental growth. If we had a perfect scale for determining the mental age level and if the IQ, remained absolutely constant, the curves of mental growth would be a straight line from birth

to the point of mental maturity. The mental growth curves for typically dull, average, or bright children would then be as represented in figure 20. It will be observed that each of the hypothetical growth curves in figure 20 maintains a certain relative distance from the heavy line representing the average normal IQ 100. Figure 20 is displayed on the page. Actual mental growth curves of children of various degrees of brightness. The child's brightness or darkness is not at all indicated by his mental age, but only by the ratio of mental age to chronological age. The tendency is to remain a certain percent above or below the normal. We do not have an infallible measuring scale, and even if we had, we should hardly expect the IQ,

i.e. the ratio of mental age to chronological age to maintain a perfect constancy. Accordingly, mental growth curves can only be expected to agree roughly with those shown in figure 20. Figure 21 shows actual mental growth curves found by repeated tests of children of various degrees of brightness. Figure 22 is displayed on the page. Mental growth curves of bright and dull children. Figure 22 contrasts two groups of children. Those below the normal line are all either feeble-minded or borderline cases, most of whom were attending special classes and none of whom were ever able to progress above the seventh grade.

The lowest is an imbecile, barely able at the age of 12 years to read in the first reader. The bright group is as much above average intelligence as the dull group is below, but they attract far less notice in school. A figure 23 is displayed on the page, mental growth curves in two contrasting families. Figure 23 illustrates how children in the same family ordinarily tests close together. The mental growth curves above the normal line represent, two brothers and one sister of the W family. The dots below the line represent the single tasks of three brothers and one sister in the P family.

The children of both families attended the same school. Needless to say, the school success of the two groups is very different. The W children are all accelerated and all are rated very superior in quality of work. The P children are all from one to three grades retired and are doing work rated as inferior or very inferior. Figure 24 is displayed on the page. Mental growth contrasts in the same family. Occasionally marked contrasts and mental ability are found in the same family, although this

is the exception to the rule. Three such contrasts are shown in figure 24. The unbroken lines, one and two, represent a brother and sister. The broken lines, three and four, two brothers in another family. The two crosses indicate single tests of two brothers and a third family. In each case, the contrast in school success was as marked as the contrast in the growth curves. Figure 25 shows four exceptionally irregular curves of mental development. Number 1 and number 4 represent conditions of mental disease, dementia precox, and epilepsy.

Normal children do not often show as marked regularity, as that found in number 2 and number 3. Figure 25 is displayed on the page for exceptionally irregular growth curves. The IQ is a basis for predicting school progress. The relative permissy of the IQ enables us to predict with some degree of approximation the mental level of child will attend by a given age. We have also saying that it is the mental level more than anything else which determines a child's proper location in the school grades. If schools were careful to grade children according to mental age,

It would be possible, knowing a child's IQ, to predict in what grade the child would be found at any given time in the future. We have seen, however, that schools do not grade children as nearly by mental age as they should, while children of low IQ do become retarded, they are nevertheless usually found in a grade considerably above that corresponding to mental age. On the other hand, children of very superior IQ, while they are likely to be promoted somewhat beyond average children of their age, are usually found in a grade considerably below that corresponding to mental age. Notwithstanding this constant tendency of teachers to promote children by age rather than by ability, the IQ nevertheless offers a fairly serviceable basis for predicting a child's later score progress. Tables 28 to 35 show the grade which children of various degrees of brightness had attended at various ages.

The heavy squares running diagonally across each figure show the grades in which a child of 100 IQ normally belongs at the various ages. In all these tables, age 7 includes children between 6 and 1 half and 7 and 1 half years old. Age 8, those between 7 and 1 half and 8 and 1 half, etc. Table 28 is displayed on the page, grade progress at 50 to 609 IQ. Table 29 is displayed on the page, grade progress at 70 to 74 IQ. Table 30 is displayed on the page. Grade progress at 75 to 79 IQ.

Table 31 is displayed grade progress at 80 to 84 IQ. Table 32 is displayed, grade progress at 95 to 104 IQ. Table 33 is displayed grade progress at 120 to 129 IQ. Table 34 is displayed on the page, grade progress at 1302. to 139 IQ. Table 35, grade progress at 140 to 170 IQ. Inspection of the above tables will reveal the following facts. 1. The lower the IQ, the grade of the degree of retardation. As we go from 50 to 69 IQ groups to the 95 to 104 group, the grade location gradually improves until it approximates normal.

2. The IQ groups above 100 show a greater degree of acceleration the bright of the group. It will be noted, however, that the acceleration of the bright group is not quite as great as the retardation of the dull. For example, the 120 to 129 children are not as far above the heavy squares as the 70 to 74 and 75 to 79 children are below. The same holds for the 130 to 139 group as compared with those of 60 to 69 IQ. If the mental age of a given child in one of the retarded groups is computed, it will usually be found that the child is less retarded than he ought to be. When the mental age of a child in one of the bright groups is computed, it will be found that child is less accelerated than he ought to be.

4. The typical child of 60 or 65 IQ tends to remain in the first grade until the age of 10 or 11 years, and not to reach the fifth grade until the age of 14 or 15 years. By this time he is a mental level of only about 10. nine years and is not able to do the schoolwork satisfactorily above the third or fourth grade. 5. The typical child of 75 to 79 IQ reaches the fifth grade by the age of 13 years. And if he remains in school, is likely to be found in the 8th grade by the age of 16 or 17. Nearly always, however, his grade location is higher than the mental age would warrant. 6. Children of 80 to 84 IQ usually remain 2 years in the first grade and complete.

the eighth grade. If they complete the door, one or two years behind schedule time. 7. On the other hand, children of 120 to 129 IQ are usually found either one or two grades accelerated. Nearly all of this gain, however, is made in the first year or two of school life. After the first year, they are held to the one grade one year pace of average children. Even so, the central tendency is for them to complete the eighth grade at the age of 13. 8. The situation is slightly but not proportionally better for the IQ group of 130 to 139. Children of 140 to 170 IQ, however, are likely to become 3 or 4 years accelerated, and to reach the 8th grade by the age of 11 or 12 years. Wherever children of the higher IQ groups are located, their work always presents a striking contrast with that of the children of the 60s, 70 or 80 IQ class who has several years their seniors.

End of Chapter 9 of the Intelligence of School Children Read by Leon Harvey Chapter 10 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman. This is a Librevox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit livervox.org. Read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 10. Some facts about 59 superior children. Educational neglect of Superior Children

The attention of teachers is constantly being called to the large number of defectives among school children and to the educational and social problems to which they give rise. For the intellectually superior, however, the ones upon whose preservation and right education the future of civilization most depends, no special provision is made. In the average school system, their very existence even is ignored, yet, as we have seen, they are just as numerous as the dull and mentally defective. The latter attract attention by their inability to do the work and by the maladjustment to school discipline. Children of superior ability are often submerged with the masses simply because they are not recognized. Another thing that has blocked the educational path of the gifted child

is a widespread belief that intellectual precocity is pathological, that exceptionally bright children are usually unhealthy and likely to become physical or mental wrecks if their intellectual interests are at all stimulated. Recently, however, the truth of the traditional belief has come more and more under suspicion. Such studies, as have been made of gifted children, have not disclosed the pathological symptoms popularly supposed to accompany exceptional intellectual ability. On the contrary, whenever the experiment has been tried of providing such children larger and richer

opportunities, the results have been surprisingly gratifying. When favoured with extra promotions, they make good in the higher grade without injury to health. When given the advantage of a broader and richer course of study, their minds expand and take the wide swath as easily as they have taken the narrow one. Instances of this kind coming to our attention from time to time led us some years ago to undertake the more or less sympathetic study of exceptionally superior children. With the help of Margaret Hopwood Hubbard and other Stanford University students, we have secured a bin-atests of some 80 California children having an IQ above 135.

All but a few of these tested 140 or above. 59 of the group was subjected to a rather careful study, which will be summarized briefly in this chapter. Selection of subjects The study was limited chiefly to children who tested 140 or above in order to secure subjects whose intelligence would be as far above average as that of typical feeble-minded children is below average. The 59 subjects composed two groups, which will be designated as the Alameda group and the Miscellaneous Group. The Alamedo Group included 24 subjects selected by systematic search throughout the public schools of Alameda, California. The method of selection was as follows.

1. The age-grade location was found for all the children in the grades below the high school. 2. The pupils were rated by their teachers for intelligence on a scale of 5. Very superior, superior, average, inferior and very inferior. 3. All the children who were underage 2 or more years by the A.E.S. standard. and who were rated by their teachers as above average in intelligence were provisionally selected for study. 4. The principals and teachers were asked to recommend others of exceptionally superior intelligence who could not qualify on the above rules. In this way, 70 children of the 5,000 enrolled in the schools of Alameda were provisionally selected and given a test with the Stanford Bennett scale.

Of these, 22 were found to have an intelligence quotient of 137 or above. In addition, one subject of 135 IQ and one of 136 IQ were included for special reasons, making a total of 24 in the Alameda group. Another table is displayed on the previous page. 57 Alameda pupils who were tested but fell below the standard of brightness set for the study included 24 boys and 33 girls with IQs as follows. 130 to 135 boys 9 girls 8 125 to 129 boys 4 girls 8 120 to 124 boys 2 girls 4

115 to 119 boys 1 girls 6 110 to 114 boys 3 girls 4 105 to 109 boys 1 girls 3 100 to 104 4, Boys 2. 95 to 99, boys 2. Total, 24 boys, 33 girls. The two who tested below 100 were each one year overage for their grade.

The teacher's judgment was an error because age had not been taken into account. The miscellaneous group consisted of 25 children, who had been located by the writer and by various Stanford students, in the half-dozen years preceding the prison study. Supplementary data. The intelligence tests were used primarily to identify the superior children and to measure their degree of superiority. Much more time was given to interviews with parents and teachers in the work of gathering items of information listed in the eight-page information blank for parents and a somewhat shorter one for teachers. All of the homes were visited by Mrs. Hubbard, except a few of the more distant ones. The interviews last usually two or three hours. Similar interviews were held with the child's teacher.

For the Alameda group, duplicate office records were secured from the school principals, showing each child's school marks from the time of entering school. A number of educational measurements were also available for comparative purposes, in the case of this group, including tests in addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, spelling, and arithmetical reasoning. The information blank for teacher is called for 1. Data on school progress. 2. Reatings of the quality of the child's school work in each subject. Usual scale of 5. 3. Indications of exceptional ability and a statement as to whether the

ability appear to be special or general. 4. Ratings on 20. Mental, moral, and physical traits scale of 5 used for each trait. 5. Facts regarding play, reading. physical defects, nervousness, eccentricities, moral peculiarities, etc. The information blank for parents called for data on one, nationality, education and occupation of parents, names and ages of all the children, with rating of each for intelligence. Two, ratings of the superior child on the same 20 traits which were rated by the teacher. Three, facts regarding walking, talking, dentition, nourishment and infancy, early growth,

illness, etc. 4. Special data on edinoids, tonsils, eye and ear defects, digestive trouble, nervousness, timidity, a mountain quality of sleep. 5. Regularity of school attendance, attitude towards school, home study and reading, use of time after school, evenings and vacations, private instruction, etc. 6. Indications of superior ability, a mountain kind of formal instruction in the home. Vocation ambitions. Seven, occupation, education and ability of parents and grandparents, and data regarding uncles, aunts, cousins, and distinguished or defective relatives. The traits which were rated both by parents and teachers were studiousness, power to give sustained attention,

persistence, social adaptability, leadership, even as of temper, emotional self-control, physical self-control will power, cheerfulness, courage, sense of human, humor, obedience, conscientiousness, dependability, intellectual modesty, lack of vanity, unselfishness, general health and general intelligence. Intelligence Quotience The IQs of the 59 subjects were distributed as follows. IQ 180 to 184, Boys 1, Girl 0, IQ 175 to 179, Boy 0, Girl 0, IQ 170 to 174, boys 2, girls, 0. IQ, 165 to 169, boys 2, girls 0, IQ 160 to 164, boys 1, girls 1,

IQ 155 to 159, boys 2, girls 1, IQ 150 to 154, boys 8, girls, 0, IQ 14455 to 154, boys 8, girls, 0, IQ 14455 to 149, boys 5, girls 6, IQ, 144, 40 to 144, boys 11 girls 5. Iq 135 to 139, boys 9 girls 5. Total 41 boys, 18 girls. The average IQ was 149.7 and the median 145. Only 18 were as high as 150. The lowest of our subjects is probably equaled or exceeded in brightness by not more than one child in 100, the highest by not more than 1 in 10,000 or 20. The highest IQ found in Alameter's enrolment of 5,000 was 158, then IQ of 140 probably occurs with an average frequency of about 1 in 200 or one-half of 1%. It was found 19 times in Alameda's enrollment of 5,000, giving a ratio of little less than one-half of 1%.

The average IQ for children of different ages was as follows. A table is displayed on the page of columns listed as age, number of subjects and average IQ. Age 3, one subject. Average IQ 162. Age 4, 2 subjects. Average IQ 143. Age 5, 2 subjects, average IQ 144.5.

Age 6, 2 subjects, average IQ 144. Age 7, 4 subjects, average IQ 158. Age 8, 4 subjects, average IQ 158. Age 8, 4 subjects, average IQ 147. 9. 10 subjects, average IQ 147.4. Age 10, 10 subjects, average IQ 154.5. Age 11, 11 subjects, average IQ 143.4. Age 12, 6 subjects.

Average IQ 141.8. age 13, four subjects. Average IQ 140. Age 14, three subjects. Average IQ 139.3. There were few subjects above the age of 12 years because the search was confined almost entirely to the grades below the high school.

The diminishing number below eight is explained by the difficulty teachers find in recognizing the superior child until he has attended school two or three years. Of the 59, only 18 were girls. Of the 18 testing 150 or above, only two were girls. The six highest were boys. During the progress of the work effort was made to ignore the possibility of sex differences.

Of the 70 are limited children selected for testing, more than half were girls. Of the six girls testing above 145 IQ, all but one, a child of three years, have special ability in literary or artistic lines, the fields of which women have. met the most pronounced success. Age grade location. Counting a child at grade, who is in the first grade between the ages of 6-6 and 75, in the second grade between the ages of 7,6 and 8-5, etc., we have the following distribution. Table is displayed with three columns.

On basis of real age, the number, and the present. On basis of real age, retarded, 0, 0% at grade, 4, 8.5%. Advanced 1 year, 14, 29.8%, advanced 2 years 14, 29.8%. Advanced 3 years, 9, 19.2%, advanced 4 years, 6, 12.8%. Judge by appearances, the above showing is remarkably good.

For 61.8% of the children are advanced 2 years or more. On the basis of mental age, however, the showing is strikingly different. Taking as our standard for the first grade the mental age of 66075 for the second grade, mental age 7.6 to 85, etc., we have the following. The table is displayed with three columns on basis of mental age, number and percent. On basis of mental age, retarded five years, number 3 percent, 6.4. Retarded four years, 10, 21.3 percent. Retarded three years, 12, 25.5 percent.

Retarded two years. 11, 23.4%. Retarded one year, 8, 17%. At grade, 3, 6.4%. Advanced, 0%, 0%. Reckoning on the basis of actual age, we find an average acceleration of slightly more than 2 years, on the basis of mental age, an average retardation of about 2.6 years. The story is plainly told in tables 36 and 37. Table 36 is displayed on the page showing how superior children are above grade on the basis of chronological age. Table 37 is displayed on the following page, showing how superior children are below grade on the basis of mental age. Teachers' ratings on quality of school work. The children were graded by their teachers on a scale of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Very superior, superior, average, inferior, and very inferior in a children.

of the school subjects. Each child's ratings in the several subjects were then averaged. The lowest average rating for any child was 2.91, or slightly better than average for all children. The highest was 1.161 ratings in the individual subjects were distributed as follows. The table is displayed, with the ratings, the number, and the percent. One, very superior, 227, 49.3%. 2, superior, 133, 28.8%, 3 average, 80, 17.4%, 4, inferior, 15, 3.2%, 5, very inferior, 6, 1.3%.

The 6 ratings as low as 5, very inferior, were distributed 1h in music, spelling, manual training, and language, and 2 in writing. The 15 ratings of four, inferior, were distributed as follows. Music, three, spelling one, manual training, two, drawing four, nature study one, writing four. There are no grades below three, average, in arithmetic, reading, history, geography, or deportment. Although these children averaged about two years above grade, the ratings show that they were doing work of a decidedly superior quality. No wonder, since they were still located in grades below their mental level. There is every reason to believe that they would continue to do superior work if they were promoted to the grades where they belong by mental age. Three have been so promoted, and their average school marks were 1.44, 2.08, and 2.58, and 2.55.

Some of these children and also many other superiors whom we have tested have received promotion as a result of our recommendations, and we have yet to find a child who failed to make good. Educational measurements In connection with another investigation, all of the public school children of Alameda above the fourth grade were given the court as arithmetic, Ares spelling and stone reasoning tests. 18 and the 24 of Alameda were tested at the same time. The test revealed the following interesting facts. 1. The average score of the superior children were higher than the average of any of the

grades of the city with the exception of the high 8th, in addition and spelling they even excel the high eighth. 2. Of the six pupils in the low fifth grade, four were above the eighth grade median in addition and subtraction, two above the eighth grade median in multiplication, two in spelling and one in division. Three, one girl, age 10, two, low fifth grade, IQ 148, practically doubled the score of the high eighth grade in addition, subtraction, and multiplication, and did considerably better than the eighth grade in division and spelling. 4. 2 of the 6 pupils in the low 5th grade made scores in arithmetic reasoning about 50% higher than the city's median for the high 7th grade. 5. In ethrith mathematical reasoning, the subject

which more than any other taxes the real mental ability of the pupils, the average score of the 18 pupils was nearly 2 grades above the city average for the grades in which they were located. Entering age and rate of advancement Of the 49 subjects who had entered school and for whom data were available, seven entered at five years, 24 at six years, 17 at seven years, and one at eight. Of the seven children who started to school before six years, two skipped half of the first grade, two others the third, one the third and seventh, one the fourth, and one skipped two grades not designated.

Of the 24 who entered at six, four skipped the first grade, seven others skipped half the first grade. Of the 17 entering at 7, only 7 had a 10 in the first grade, three having entered at once the 2nd grade, 5 the 3rd grade, 1 the 4th grade, and 1 the 6th grade. It is often argued by teachers that children who are allowed to skip grades will let it be handicapped by gaps in their knowledge. Our data show how little truth there is in this view. Nearly all of these children had skipped one or more grades, yet their schoolwork was in most cases so superior as to suggest the desirability of additional promotions. Gaps in training are quickly filled.

Of course, it would be better still if school children were so classified as to permit superiors to make maximum progress by continuous rapid speed without the necessity of skipping. According to the statements of the parents, of the 50 who were in school, 30 had been allowed by their parents to go their own pace. 13 had been mildly encouraged by their parents to make rapid progress and to excel on their schoolwork. Seven have been purposely held back by their parents, a few because of ill health, others in the belief that precocious mental development is something to be prevented as far as possible. In only two cases had there been any serious attempt in the way of intensive mind

culture at an early age. Only children would ordinarily be expected to get more than their share of early instruction, but only seven of our 59 cases were only children, and only two of these had an IQ above 143. Age of Learning to Read Learning to Read considerably in advance of the normal age of six is a significant indication of superior ability. It is ordinarily not until the mental age of six years

that children are able to learn to read as first grade children are normally expected to do. The child of four years who learns to read as greatly as the average child of six will almost certainly test as high as 150. Several of the children who did not learn to read before six wanted to learn earlier, but were discouraged from doing so. The one who learned to read latest between 7 and 8 was said to have shown a desire to learn to read four years. Records were obtained for 49 as follows.

Between 2 and 3 years, 1 or 2%. Between 3 and 4 years, 6 or 12%, between 4 and 5 years. 7 or 14%. Between 5 and 6 years, 17 or 35%. Between 6 and 7 years, 17 or 35%. Between 7 and 8 years, 1 or 2%. Attitude towards school work. Both parents and teachers were questioned regarding the attitude towards school work. Of the 50 for whom data was secured, 43 was said to like school very much, 3 fairly well, and 3 not particularly well. One of these was a boy who was taught at home and did not enter school until the age of eight years just after the death of his mother. He entered at once the sixth grade, the grade where he belonged by mental age, but the physical restraint in the class suited to 12-year-olds, who had been in school six years, was naturally irksome to a young child who had always been accustomed to unlimited freedom. The teachers did not understand his case, and for a time he was very unhappy. He has since been taken from the public school and placed in a private school where the discipline is less exacting.

As a result, his attitude has undergone a radical change. There were equally good explanations in the other two cases. All but five were very regular in school attendants, and these had missed time only because of illness. These five were rather delicate, yet in spite of illness and frequent absence, they stood at the head of their classes. Play and Recreation It is generally believed that children of exceptional infant. intellectual ability are likely to have little interest in play. We sought information on this point from the teachers rather than from the parents in order to secure an impartial judgment based

on a knowledge of many children. Of 51 for whom data were secured, 38 were described by both teachers and parents as entirely normal in their play. Seven of the others were said to play less than average children, but to play normally when they do play. Three had always been alone and so preferred to play alone. One was too timid and reserved to mingle well with other children, and two others were said not to care to play with children of their own size. The abnormalities of play life do not appear to be more numerous or more serious than would be found in any group of children picked at random from the school population. The data on out-of-school activities showed that our superiors were accustomed to spend their

time after school-like average children, playing, practicing music lessons, doing chores, running arounds, etc. Saturdays were usually spent in the same way, with perhaps a dancing lesson, a hike, or a gymnasium period in addition. Many had gardens which they cared for, several had paper roots. Others, regular work in a store or elsewhere. Twenty-eight were taking private instruction in music, twelve dancing lessons and four language lessons. Only twenty were not receiving private instruction of some kind. The time devoted to private lessons, including practice, ranged from 2 to 14 hours per week, the average being 5.3 hours. The time devoted to home reading ranged from 2 to 21 hours per week, with an average of 7.6 hours.

The books given as samples of the children's reading were classified as good or mediocre. Needless to say, most fell in the former group. Among the books and authors most frequently named were Stevenson, Standard Books of History, Dickens, Mark Twain, Cooper, Geographical Books, Nature Books, Conan Doyle, Biographies, Eugene Field, Shakespeare, Books of Travel, Irving, Scott, Ben Hur, Jack London, Little Lord Fontelroy, Black Beauty, Arabian Nights, Alice in Wonderland, Pilgrim's Progress, Robertson Crusoe, The Odyssey, The Allade, Greek Myths, Book of Knowledge, Aesop's Fables, Bible Stories, Books on Science and mathematics and such magazines as Youth's Companion, American Boy, Harper's Street, Nicholas, and Literary Digest. Several had evidence as strong-lucking for encyclopedias and dictionaries. Trade ratings Parent ratings on the 20 traits were secured for 50 children and ratings by both parent and teacher

for 40. It was taken for granted that the parent ratings would be too high. On the contrary, the average for the parent rating is lower than the average for the teacher rating in the case of 19 of the 20 traits. This is probably explained by the fact that the parent is compelled to take as a standard of comparison the child's brothers, sisters, cousins or friends, to the extent that abilities are hereditary, this would tend to give a higher standard than that employed by teachers whose classes are composed of children of all grades of ability. Table 38 shows the individual traits arranged in two rank orders. First according to teacher ratings, then according to teacher ratings, then

according to parent ratings. Table 38 is displayed on the page, showing agreement between the trait ratings by teachers and parents. Correlation between the two rankings is .763. The above ratings showed that the parents and teachers agreed closely on the traits in which these children's superiority is most marked. General intelligence, sustained attention, willpower, persistence, dependability and studiousness, ranked target of both parents and teachers.

adaptability and leadership lowest. The parents and teachers differed greatest in their ratings on the following. Unselfishness, parents rate higher. Courage, teachers rate higher. Emotional self-control, teachers rate higher. Obedience, teachers rate higher. In studiousness, cheerfulness and general intelligence, no child was graded below two by either teacher or parent. Empower to give sustained attention, persistence, willpower, conscientiousness, and dependability, only one child was marked lower than three. In power to give sustained attention, persistence and willpower, the mark four was given to three children, in courage and sense of humor, only three of the 50 children were marked four, inferior. In initiative, only two children were marked four, and two, five. In

unselfishness, four children were marked four. Five of the children were below average in evenness of temper, five in intellectual modesty, five in general health, seven in physical self-control, eight in emotional self-control, ten in social adaptability, and eleven in leadership. This is not far from the number we would expect to find below average in an ordinary group of children. Moral traits. About half of the twenty traits on which our subjects were rated might be classified as moral traits. Obedience, conscientiousness, dependability, unselfishness, even as of temper and willpower belong very definitively to this group. The average rating for the children as a group on these traits was as follows.

Obedience, parent, 2.16, teacher, 1.51. Consciousness, parent, 1.94, teacher 1.61. Dependability, parent, 1.92, teacher 1.56. Unservitness, parent, 1.42, teacher, 1.6. Even as of temper, parent, 2.22, teacher, 1.90. Willpower, parent, 1.81, teacher, 1.50. In all the moral traits except unselfishness, the teacher's ratings were higher than those of parents. The children were rated higher by their teachers in deportment than in a majority of their studies. The average rating on deportment was 1.54, a record equaled by only three of

the school studies considerably exceeded by any. These ratings would indicate that our subjects are about as superior morally as they are intellectually. Additional information pointing in the same direction was obtained in response to the following request in the teacher's blank. Describe any moral thoughts or peculiarities such as disobedience, obstinacy, dishonesty, selfishness, inability to get on with others, unusual or abnormal sex interests, lack of balance, etc. were secured for 53 children. Of these 46 were said to have no moral faults or peculiarities worthy of mention. Of the remaining seven, one takes pleasure in others' mistakes. One has a

rather bad disposition. One cries very easily. One is obstinate and lacks willpower to make himself do the things he doesn't like. Certain of the schoolwork. One girl is very much interested in boys and another girl is shy and reticent. Practically all of these faults as such as would hardly be thought deserving of mention in the case of average children. They stand out in these children by contrast with their general superiority in other traits. There is only one child in the entire group who appeared to be seriously lacking along moral lines. The typical superior is exceptionally lovable and charming, the kind of child one would like to adopt. Health and physical traits. The average rating by parents on general health was 2.14 by teachers 2.1. There were

only two ratings of five, very inferior and two of four inferior. On the other hand, there were 28 ratings of one very superior. Only four were said to have defective vision and only one defective hearing. 21 had undergone operation for removal of adenoids, and two others were known to have more or less adenoid trouble. The record for tonsils was similar, the fact that approximately half of our superior children have had either Adenoids or diseased tonsils suggest that these defects may not be as injures to mental development, as common opinion would have us believe. One had Correa a few years ago, but as recovered. Two others had noticeable muscular twitchings.

There were two stutterers in the group, both of whom at the time of the investigation were taking corrective lessons. There were no cases of abnormal fears. A part of the nervousness and restlessness occasionally mentioned was probably due to their not having enough schoolwork to keep them busy. One boy asked how he liked school, said he liked it in the morning, but not in the afternoon, because by noon he always knew his lessons, and then there was nothing to do. So much has been said about the nervous unbalance of precocious children that it is surprising to find over two thirds described as free from symptoms of this kind. The symptoms of most of the others indicating nothing serious.

The proportion of stuttering and coria was not far from that which is usually found for unselected children. All but three of the children were said to sleep perfectly. The average time of sleep for the children of each age was found to be slightly greater than the term and hooking averages for 2,692 unselected school children. There was no case marked sleep deficiency. Of the nine who were said to have occasional headaches, I'd have them very seldom, not more than two or three times a year. One had long been subject to serious recurrent headaches. Five, five, five. were described as not strong. One of these had always been sickly, and the age of eight years

had only attended school one year. In that year, however, he did the work of the first three grades. Another of these has also had insecure health from birth. He did not enter school to the age of 14. Between the ages of 6 and 12, he had only one hour per day of private instruction, and in that time completed the work of the first eight grades. The other three of the five were apparently just not strong enough to endure a serious physical strain or excitement. Only three were seriously handicapped by ill health, a record which would probably not be excelled by an equal number of school children picked at random. Table 39 gives the ranges for age of walking and talking in comparison with those of

Meads two groups of normal and feeble-minded children. Table 39 is displayed on the page. Age of walking and talking for superior children as compared with feeble-minded and normal. The average age of learning to walk is a little more than half a month lower for our superiors than for Mead's normals, and nearly 11 months below the average for his people-minded. The difference in average age of learning to talk is greater, our superiors being three months ahead of Mead's normals and 23 months ahead of his feeble-minded. Social status and hereditary

We have classified our children according to the occupational status of the fathers basing the classification upon Torsixt five occupational. groups. Our subjects classify as follows. Class 1, 31 or 53%. Class 2, 22 or 37%. Class 3, 6 or 10%. Class 4, 0, class 5, the results indicate that parents have a grade of intelligence lower enough to keep them in the unskilled or semi-skilled class are not likely to produce children of the grade of ability represented in this study. Of the 17 subjects testing above the 150 IQ, 65% belonged to class 1, 35% to class 2 and none to class 3. Several children of the two lower social groups were brought to our attention and were tested,

but in no case was the IQ above 130. There is a tendency on the part of teachers to overestimate the intelligence of such children. The labourer's child of 130 IQ attracts about as much notice as a college professor's child testing at 150. Information was sought regarding the child's brothers and sisters, parents, grandparents, cousins, uncles, aunts, and any other relatives of superior ability. 29 of the parents mentioned relatives whom they consider superior. 51 superior uncles, 37 superior aunts, and numerous cousins and remote relatives were mentioned. The large majority of the children had at least one grandparent known to be a superior.

Among the more remote ancestors mentioned were Whistler, Edwin M. Stanton, Samuel Adams, Roger Williams, Colonel Crawford, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Stonewall Jackson, John Hancock, Hancock Jackson, a governor from Surrey, and Archbishop Tate. Others whose names were not given were designated as a sculptor, an artist, a mechanical genius, an eminent man in the South during the Civil War, a president of a Western college, an inventor, and an exceptional musician. That the parents of our superior children were themselves superiors is further indicated by the extent of their education.

Of the 112 parents for whom data were available, 52, 46.4% were college graduates in 91, 81.2% were graduates of a secondary school. In the population at large, the proportion of college graduates is probably not more than one-fortieth as high, and the proportion of high school graduates probably not more than one-tenth as high, as that found for parents of our superiors. Of the 112 parents, 16, 14.3%, had done postgraduate work in a college or university. Of the 172 grandparents, for whom data were secured, 72,4% were graduates of a secondary school, while 23, 13.4% were graduates of a college or professional school. When we consider the limited opportunities for higher education,

education at the time when these grandparents were youths. This record is highly less remarkable than that of their parents. It is evident that most of these children had sprung from a decidedly superior stock. Does the superiority tend to disappear? Exceptional brightness in children is often regarded as merely a matter of precarious development, the assumption being that the final level attained is ordinarily no higher than in the case of children who test at average normal. This assumption finds no support in any of the exact observations that have been made. Several studies have shown statistically that children who make exceptionally good records in the lower grades also as a rule make superior records in the high school, and the correlation between high school grades and college grades has also been found to be positive and high. We have had a number of superior children under observation for six to eight years, and in no case has there been any indication of a tendency toward deterioration to the level of average?

If there were any constant tendency toward deterioration, this should reveal itself as a decrease in the IQ with increase of age. However, re-tests of superiors show that the IQ is more likely to increase. Of our 59 superiors, 19 have been tested two or more times. The greatest loss in the reu test was 10 points, while the greatest gain was 21 points. The central tendency, was toward a gain of 2.08 points. See, for example, Figures 21 and 22, page 153 and 154. The results of the read tests also corroborated by another line of evidence. One year after this study was made, the parents of the 59 superiors, were asked to re-rate

the children or each of the 20 traits, and to give detailed information regarding any changes that had occurred in health, social adaptability, quality of school marks, and, and the and the ease with which schoolwork was done. Replies were received for 51 children. For no child did the average rating on the 20 traits show any considerable change from that of the year before. The gains and losses were all slighted, and almost exactly balanced each other.

The results on health school marks, ease of carrying schoolwork, and social adaptability were as follows. Health. Three better. Forty-four the same. Four, not so cool. school marks, 5 better, 40 the same, 6, not so good.

Ease of school work, 2 better, 47 the same, 2, not so good. Social adaptability, 9 better, 42 the same, 0, not so good. On the whole, the amount of change appears well nigh insignificant. Such changes as occurred in social adaptability, which constitutes the greatest problem for for superiors were all in the direction of improvement. There is one such tends to make the superiority of bright children less apparent, but not less real, with increase of age. In the lower and middle grades, all the children attend school,

and the superior child in these grades is compared with the average for children in general. In the upper grades, the children of inferior ability are rapidly eliminated, and here the superior is compared with survivors who compose a highly select group. For this reason, the child who is correctly related as very superior in the fifth grade may rank as merely superior in high school and perhaps only average in college. He is not deteriorated. The average for his class has gone up. Conclusions

The data which have been presented in this chapter justified the following tentative conclusions. 1. That intellectually superior children are apparently not below the average in general health. 2. That in the vast majority of cases their ability is general rather than special or one-sided. 3. That the superiority is especially marked immoral and personal traits. 4. That queerness, play deficiency and marked lack of social adaptability are the exception rather than the rule. 5. That while superior children are likely to be accelerated on the basis of chronological age, they are usually two or three grades retarded on the basis of mental age. 6. That their schoolwork is such as to warrant promotion in most cases to a grade closely corresponding to the mental age.

7. That the superiority tends to show early in life is little influenced by formal instruction and is permanent. 8. That superior children usually come from superior families. End of Chapter 10 of the Intelligence of School Children Chapter 11 Part 1 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information on a volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 11

Case Studies of 41 Superior Children Thus far our discussion of superior children has been impersonal and statistical. We have sought to find out what is true of such children in general as regards to their physical, mental and moral traits and the influences which would explain them. This chapter will be devoted to brief descriptions of typical cases in order that teachers may see in a concrete way what the superior child is like and sense the pedagogical implications of his presence in the school. The case studies to be presented could easily have been expanded to the length of a chapter

of reached child and such detailed descriptions would be of the greatest interest. Our present purpose, however, permits only summary treatment of the most salient facts regarding a limited number of typical cases. Most of the children to be described belong to the group discussed in the foregoing chapter. Apart from the results have been a test, the data to be set forth where in most cases furnished by teachers and parents. Their statements have been in part summarized and in part quoted, though usually with abbreviations and with omissions of mercenary interest. The trait rating mentioned is always the average rating given by teacher or parent on the

20 physical and mental traits named on page 182. It will be remembered that in these ratings one is very superior, two superior, three average, four inferior, and five very inferior. It will be noted that in no case does the average rating of a child on the 20 traits either by parent or teacher fall as low as three. Number 1. Boy E.M. Illustrating exceptionally rapid school progress and unusual willpower.

First test. Age 611. Mental age 10,0. Iq. 145, not in school. Second test, age 7, 10 and a half. Mental age 132. IQ 167, 4th grade. Third test, age 10.

Mental age 167. IQ 166, high eighth grade. In the second examination, age 710, E passed the induction test, the arithmetic reasoning and the clock test in year 14, the code test in six digits backwards in average adult, and repeated eight digits direct order and seven digits reverse order in superior adult. When E was tested at the age of 611 and earned an IQ above 140, the prediction was made that would be able to enter high school at the age of 11 years, or possibly at the age of 10.

He did so at the age of 10, 5, having completed the work of 8 grades in 3 years. Practically every mark, except in handwork, has been perfect. He entered the first grade at 7 and 1 half years. On the first day of school, he was placed in the 1st grade, but within an hour he was promoted at the 2nd grade by noon to the 3rd, and to the 4th before the end of the school day. His teacher had studied exceptional children and was able to recognize superior, your ability. Under the average teacher, it would probably have taken E two years instead of one

day to reach the fourth grade. E's father is a professional man, the mother, a university graduate, and formerly a teacher. The maternal grandmother was a university graduate and a school principal of more than ordinary ability in mathematics. E's ability in mathematics is also marked. Parents notes, health record good, ability is fairly general, but somewhat special. More marked along mathematical and scientific lines in others. Wonderfully adept at arranging and classifying facts, when between three and four years of age could add long numbers. Learn to read at the age of five by following his mother around

and asking the names of letters, and soon afterwards surprised his parents by reading fluently out of a primer. Has had no formal home instruction, but parents have been careful to answer all these questions. Does little studying at home at reads only about seven hours per week? spends his spare time in play delivering papers etc exceptionally dependable and takes life seriously helps his father a great deal in the office and can be safely entrusted with important responsibilities in the details of office work has sometimes to be kept out of such work because of worrying about getting it through promptly and accurately average parent rating on traits two point zero five formerly he seems to have his hands full for the first time in his life growing more adaptable and agreeable elected to various offices in school. Parents are writing on trades at this time 2.08, about the same

before. Teacher's notes. Ability, not altogether even. Spelling and arithmetic perfect. At the age of eight did the work the eighth grade in mental arithmetic tests. Has a wonderful memory for facts, but does not often ask for reasons or explanations. Ability above average in all lines, but especially so in statistics, facts, or anything incapable of formal array. Can tell the study and recitation schedule of every class and remembers the lesson assigned for all the other pupils, can tell who missed certain words yesterday in any class. Rather enjoys mistakes of others, exceptionally calm and quiet. Teachers average rating on traits 2.10.

One of the most interesting things about E is the fact that his school record has been better than that of many other superior children testing fully as high. allow anyone to excel him in mental work. In manual training however, his work is inferior even to that of the average child of his age. Number 2. Boy H.B. Illustrating extreme retardation in school, although nearly as bright as number 1. Age 87, mental age 1210, IQ 150, low third grade. Vocabulary score 44. Pass the box test and repeated six digits backward in average adult. With a mental age of nearly 13 years,

H is in the grade which corresponds to his actual age of age and a half. His mother wants him to advance because, she says, he gets so tired of school when he finds that it's so easy to keep ahead of this class. However, he has only been in school one year and has been allowed to pass through two grades in five months. Parents notes, What's seriously ill for some time in his first year, health no good, except for occasional digestive trouble.

slightly nervous. At the age of five and a half, read like an average pupil in the second grade. At seven, read everything from children's books to newspapers and magazines, reading every word and understanding the text. At five years, read numbers to the thousands. At five and a half, counted to a thousand. No special instruction beyond answering his questions in a simple, truthful, and thorough manner. Has unusual ability in oral expression. Average parent rating on traits 2.0. Later, age 9 and a half, in the high fourth grade, health good, greatly interested in the progress of the war,

inventions, conversation, etc. Doing well in piano lessons. He ranks with one other pupil as the best in his class, Gnome homework. At ease in any group, and evidently a natural leader, average teacher rating on traits at this time 1.2, or considerably better than before. teacher's notes

He is very musical His mental ability However is general Says he expects to Know a lot of things Would read continuously If permitted Number 3

Boy AW Illustrating a value of mental tests In school grading Age 58 Mental Age 786 IQ 132 Not in school Age 68

Mental Age 88 IQ 130 2nd grade At the age of 5-8 passed all but the vocabulary test in year 8 arranged the weights in year 9 and passed the three-word test in year 10 As a result of the test the father

are superintendent of schools which urged to send the boy to school at once and to see whether he was not be able to complete the first two grades in one year A few months later the father wrote as follows A is learned to read very rapidly In four weeks he has learned to read the entire primer of 137 pages four weeks ago he could not read a line. A year later at the age of 6-8, A was leading his class in the second grade, and at the age of seven years was doing spend of work in the low third grade. The father writes at this time, A, seems more interested now than ever. School marks excellent and the work perfectly easy. It is altogether probable that by full the test and for the fact that the father was superintendent of schools and therefore able to secure ex-promotions, A, would have gone through school without ever having an opportunity to do work commensurate with his ability.

Number four, boy SS, brother of RS, number five. Illustrated exceptional mental balance, later development predicted. Age 47, Mental Age 6-8, IQ-145. age 510, mental age 8.9, IQ 150. Age 7,0, mental age 10, 8, IQ 153. At the time of third test, S had not yet started to school. Vocabulary score at the age of 7, 28 words. At this time, pass four tests in year 12, including abstract words, ball and field, fables and similarities.

In the induction test, year 14, announced the rule governing numbers of whole. before the end of the experiment, I was able to double 16. The following notation appears on the record for the first test, when S was 4.5 years old. By 8 years, S will test 11.5. His test at the age of 7 gave him a mental age of 10.8, so it appears the prediction would be more than fulfilled. Parents notes,

no serious illness except the ordinary children's diseases, has always shown a remarkable power of reasoning, has had little home instruction, but is reading in the second reader, H7. He is omnivorous as to the books he once read to him. French lessons twice a week and some instruction on the piano, allowed to go at his own pace. However, we have always answered his questions truthfully and fully.

We have always allowed him to take the initiative, have never suggested his memorizing anything, have never forced anything on his attention. Early ambition was to be a railroad engineer. Recently he cherishes a hope of becoming a reformer. average parent rating on traits 2.0 S is the most lovable boy, quiet and retiring yet not bashful. His bearing is one of very modest dignity, he is perfectly unspoiled,

father a college professor of journalistic experience, mother a college graduate of unusual ability and marked musical talent, several relatives of superior ability. S developed much earlier in childhood than his sister, who tests at 147, and gave somewhat more. evidence of superior ability number five girl r s sister of SS number four artistic ability and marked emotionality underrated by parents age 410 mental age 7 1 IQ 147 not in school wonderfully responsive full of life and the picture of health talked

most charmingly and without a lack of self-consciousness all the way from a home to the laboratory where she was to be tested. Although less than five years old, she passed a test of arranging weights in year nine. The parents were greatly surprised at her IQ equaled that of her brother. They had probably not made sufficient allowance for the difference in age. Parents notes, Ara's aptitude is described by her parents as being in the direction of artistic expression. She sings wonderfully true to time and key and dances with natural grace. She is acquired a sureness of stroke in drawing, which an equal amount of Montessori train, She is natural dramatic ability, but lacks the development of abstract thinking which characterized her brother.

She has never been asked to learn anything, although her questions have always been answered fully and truthfully. However, she has never asked as many or varied questions as her brother, from whom she has learned most of what she knows. Average parent rating on traits 2.8.5. Obedience and emotional self-control were both rated five. R is said to be emotional, impatient and inclined to fly into fits of screaming if things displease her. Play life normal. Number six. Boy, J.S. Lovable disposition.

Indications of literary ability. Age 8-2, mental age 114, IQ-138, high fourth grade. Age 110, mental age 152, IQ-136, high seventh grade. Age 12-3, mental age 17-7, IQ-14-7. IQ 144 High School Jay's IQ is by no means as high as many others we have found, but he has such a winning personality, charming disposition, and uniform ability that we consider him one of our most promising superiors.

The father was a man of superior ability, and the mother had been secretary of a large business firm. Both parents died several years ago, and Jay has been reared by his aunt. On his 12th birthday, Jay handed his aunt a beautiful letter, which he had written on his own initiative to express his appreciation of the way she had cared for him. This is typical of his loving and lovable disposition. Jay's unusual talent for writing is shown by the following poems written before his eighth birthday. They are reproduced without change of spelling or punctuation.

Christmas Arrah for Christmas and all its joys. They come that day for girls and boys. Flowers. Flowers in the garden. That is all you see. who likes them best. That's the honeybee. My mother's busy. My mother is very busy today, and all I have to do is play. If I only know what she had to do, I'd like to help her,

wouldn't you? What a trouble washing day, and see if my mother can never play. I wonder if she'll get tired out from walking, walking all about. Here is Sunday, resting day. That's the best thing I can say. We go to church and pray and pray. That's the hardest thing I say. Before the age of eight, Jay missed himself by writing fables to which he always attached a correct moral. The following is a sample. A fable, the selfish boy and the poor girl.

Once there was a rich boy in a city, and he went into a candy store and bought some candy. When he came out, he still had a lot of money. While he was walking down the street, he met a little girl selling shoelaces. He just kept on eating candy, not buy anything from her or offer her a piece of candy. About a month later, the rich boy's house was robbed and this little girl was getting a lot of money. The boy now had

to go around selling and he met the girl many times, but she never helped him because when she had been poor he did not help her. Moral. Those you do not help will not help you. Number 7. Boy TV All roundability with special interest in medicine, musical family. Age 10-5, Mental Age 15, 2, IQ 146, 6th grade. Vocabulary score 64, which is practically median for mental age 16. Pass the ingenuity test in superior adult. Father French, Mother American. A great-grand-uncle was Mayor Beer, the French composer.

Another uncle is a locally well-known by Linusthan composer. Parents Notes Tee has always been perfectly. healthy, except for slight nervousness. Somewhat my optic. Learn to talk at seven months. School work easily. Does little homework except in the practice of music,

of which he is very fond. Shows a remarkable interest in medical science. All his childish games and all his reading have tended in this direction almost from the time he could talk. Have tried to hold him back because of his tender rage and temperament. Although healthy, he has always been high-strung. chief indications of superiority his passionate desire to learn and his obsession for medicine. Teacher's notes.

School work excellent, except drawing. T. expresses his thoughts on any subject in a marvelous way for a boy of his age. He is capable both in his oral and written work, very studious and interested in his work. His power of attention sometimes seems lacking, but when I have called it to his attention on certain occasions, he has said, I was only daydreaming. Very adaptable socially. Absolutely unspoiled. Very conscientiousness and unassuming. Enjoyes reading medical works, especially in the surgical line.

Reads from a medical encyclopedia. Also studies electricity and likes to experiment. Very strong sense of truth and marked straightforwardness. T is probably one of the most promising of our superiors. His interest in medicine was evident in the 60-word test in which he gave the names of numerous bones, muscles and other organs of the body. We have here, not a case of one-sided ability, but a mind of very superior general ability focused upon a special subject.

Number 8. Boy, P.T. Ordinary parents and dull brother. Age 11-11, mental age 177, IQ 148, low 8th grade. This boy is especially interesting because of the contrast with his brother, who at the age of 610 test at Mental Age 5 8 IQ 83. The parents say the two children are absolutely unlike, and the verdict of the test agrees with this opinion. The father is a carpenter. Neither parent has had more than a common school education, but the mother is somewhat above average in intelligence. A distant relative of the mother was a high official in the Methodist Episcopal Church,

and a relative of the father was an Archbishop of Scotland. Parents notes. P. shows unusual ability in all of his schoolwork and also in music. He succeeds in everything he undertakes. When he was 22 months old, he knew the names of the important buildings in San Francisco and could point them out in a photograph of the city. Was never taught at home beyond the alphabet. Health record good, desires to become a mechanical engineer.

The younger brother expects to be a farmer. Average parent rating on traits 1.6. One year later, age 13, excellent record continued in every respect. This time the mother rates a child one on every trait. She is probably realizing more and more. the contrast with the younger brother. Teachers notes. All round ability.

A is a great reader and a most satisfactory pupil. Teachers rating was one on all but two of the traits. Number nine and number 10. C.D. and L.D. brother and sister. Exceptional children of ordinary parents. C. Aged 14.6.

Mental age 190. IQ 131.30. 3 year high school. L. Age 10. mental age 138, IQ-137 high fifth grade. C. Made the remarkable vocabulary score of 82 words, which equals that of the average university senior.

He has reached the stage of development where the staff would have been at four, short of being an adequate measure. A brother of C and L is in the seventh grade at the age of 11, and a sister is in the second grade to the age of seven. Neither has been tested, but both are said to be as bright as C and L. In one respect, this is the most interesting fact. family of children of whom we have record. The father is a barber. The mother was a tailoress before marriage, and not a single known relative has had more than a common school education or

intelligence above the ordinary. Each of the forward children belongs to a grade of superiority not encountered oftener, on an average, than once among 100 children. Parents notes. Seas, health is perfect except for myopia and slight headaches. entered second grade at the age of six and shortly afterwards skipped to third. Spends all his spare time in reading, learn the alphabet at two years and could read books and newspapers at three. Special ability in mathematics, no special instruction, but has been encouraged. Elle is more sociable, talkative and active than C. Her health is very good and in schoolwork gives her no trouble. She is less studious than C, but gave in childhood similar indications of superiority.

teacher's notes. The teacher says regarding C, high standing in class. I would cite as evidence of unusual talent, his answers to questions purposed during the lessons which are almost invariably in a single short sentence covering completely the ground. Social adaptability inferior is pensive, very shy, and retiring in a crowd of boys, remarkable power of concentration. Elle is described by her teacher as exceptionally quick and accurate in her work and alert to everything. First ten, age 7-8, mental age 124, IQ 161, high third grade. Vocabulary score in this test was 40, median for 12 years. The induction test in year 14 and the boxed test in average adult were both passed.

Second test, age 94, mental age 157, IQ 167, Lowe's 6th grade. In the second test for the vocabulary score was 56, the Fables Box and Code tests of average adult and the paper-cutting tests and abstract passages of superior adult were passed. B's father is an able minister, and the mother is a woman of exceptional intellect and personal qualities. The following statement by the parents illustrate how the superior child in a superior home is likely to be underrated because of the highest standard by which he is judged.

His development has seemed to us quite normal and even. We are not thought of him as much above the average in intelligence. Mother? Really, Mrs. F., and I think that some are still. stake has probably been made in the observation upon which your rating is based. While B is an alert, good and thoroughly satisfactory boy, we have never thought of him as considerably above the average mentality. We have tried to be good parents to him, provoking inquiry, answering questions, and giving him opportunity for a variety of experiences that would

furnish raw material for his ideas. Father. Nevertheless, B has a great of intelligence which is probably not equaled by more than one child in 5,000. Parents notes, B has never been seriously ill, but there is a slight tendency to stutter when he is excited. Learn to read at 5. At 7 read Hayawatha, and committed 150 lines of the poem to memory.

Does no home study and reads only about half hour per day. Spends hours after school in outdoor play, marbles, football and baseball, also practices on the piano. has an unusual fund of information in history and current events. Catches impressions easily. Any interests. Allow to go his own pace in school and has had no formal instruction in the home. Wants to go through college and become a minister.

Takes his place well among other children without being a leader. Two years later, age 11, the mother writes that, notwithstanding a change of schools, the teacher considers be ready for the eighth grade, school work easier than ever, shows a growing interest in world problems. average parent rating on traits at this time 1.75. Teacher's notes. Unusual ability in reasoning and an exceptional fund of general information. Also considerable ability and music.

In two and a half years has almost completed six grades, remarkably attractive and alert, not particularly handsome, rather delicate in appearance, but vigorous in his play and a favourite with the children who congregate in his yard. Rated one by the teacher on every one of the 20 traits, the only one of our superior children with whom this occurs. At the time of the first test B was above 12 years in mentality, but was in the high third grade. On the showing made in the test, we urged the father to try to secure an extra promotion.

This was done, and the results fully justify the recommendation. In all, B, has skipped four half grades and still continues to secure perfect marks. Number 12. Boy, L. M. Brother of number 13. underestimated by parents morally superior. Age 6, 8.5, mental age 9.5, IQ 140, 1st grade. Age 96, mental age 151, IQ 159, 5th grade. At 96, Elle passed the code and box tests of average adult, also repeated eight digits, and did the ingenuity problem in superior adult.

There are five children in this family all above average, One earned A marks all three's high school and graduated at 17, winning a college scholarship. Father and Minister of Exceptional Ability. Parents notes. Average parent rating on traits 3.21. Health good. First showed unusual ability in arithmetic at the age of three years. Has been allowed to go his own pace except as older sister taught him in playing school.

Earl has a way of making for what he wants regardless of obstacles. One year later, age 10 and a half, not robust. out of school because of unsatisfactory general health. Brain and ambition out of proportion to strength, but is improving. His interest take in the whole world. Prohibition, Red Cross, YMCA, Boy Scouts, Athletics, gives morality talks to anyone he thinks and needs of them, walks mass distributing literature for all the drives.

Has a circulating library of about 50 volumes in constant use among the neighbour children, for which he keeps the accounts carefully and systematically. Remarkable in his choice of books has never even, by chance, brought home from the public library an undesirable book. Score marks continue good. Schoolwork rather laborious, as he has little patience with details and makes careless mistakes. Average rating on traits now 2.2. Considerably higher than before.

Teacher's notes. All roundability without self-consciousness and speaks well before the class. Number 13. Girl, C. M. Sister of number 12. Early indications of superior ability Age 7.6, Mental Age 11, 10. IQ 158, 5th grade. Pass a box test and average adult.

Parents notes. Average parent rating 1.95. Health perfect. Has abnormal physical strength. Before we knew it, soon after her sixth birthday, she read and enjoyed the courtship of Miles Standish, saying she thought it was such beautiful language. About the same time, she wrote little two-page stories,

Intelligence was also evident in clearness of answers in conversation, fine reasoning powers, and right conclusions. Superiority noted at four years. Allow to go her own pace. No home instruction except what she received from a very bright older sister who played school and gave her good instruction and drawing, reading and numbers. Reads good poetry, the Bible, then classics, all of which she thoroughly understands and enjoys. One year later, age eight and a half, robust health, highest school, marks. Leadership marked. Average rating now 1.5. Number 14. Boy, J.C. A case of exceptional all-round mental precocity, a leader. Age 114. Mental age 17.9, IQ 156. 7th grade.

Although only a little more than 11 years old, Jase for Capillary score was 75, he passed all by the paper cutting and ingenuity test in the superior adult group. As a result of the test, he was promoted to the eighth grade. Mother's notes. Jake could talk before he was a year old and could stand at seven months and run at ten months. He read Ivanhoe at the age of seven, has seemed always to read and study,

has always been a big boy to me, of quiet disposition, with a touch of vanity. As the dictionary habit and is an omnivorous reader, spends much time with the encyclopedias, excellent health, has become interested in athletics and other boyish matters. Masters his school work with apparent ease, adapts himself to any personal crowd, leads in educational games and is often chosen as leader.

Even temper, sympathetic, considerate, generous and kind-hearted. Expects to go to college and take up scientific agriculture. Average parent rating 1.65. Number 15. Boy G.G. Illustrating all-round superiority and marked precocity. Age 12-0, mental age 16-8. IQ 139, 8th grade Teacher's notes

A problem is never given that G will not try He always wants to know why And will stick to his view until it is proved incorrect As an ambition to succeed And be the first in his class Sense of humour far beyond his years Has a splendid command of language His ability is general

Has some trouble getting on with the large boys Because he still has childish ideas about some things But takes things good naturally And goes right on He is one of the best all-round superior children I have ever had in 18 years of experience as a teacher. Average teacher rating on traits 2.1. Parents notes. Health good.

Sleeps 10 hours. Reads Shakespeare, the Book of Knowledge, and Nature Books. Some musical ability. Especially fond of arithmetic in history. Memory exceptionally good. At three years, he loved to be read to, and could acquit quote many nursery rhymes. At four he quoted several long stories word for word. At five he could print the alphabet and insisted on being told how to spell words. No formal instruction before going to school. Since then he has gone his own pace.

His questions have been answered clearly and current events have been discussed in his presence. He is much interested in machinery. Understands fairly well motor car construction. One year later, age 13. Did not attend school last year because of a large cervical gland which necessitated an operation. Health is good now. Greater interest in outside activities and athletics. plays piano and cornet. Does your school work with ease? School adaptability improved. Is less nervous than formally. Average parent rating 2.1. Number 16. Girl C.G.

illustrating marked leadership and social adaptability. Age 139, Mental Age 191, IQ-139, fourth year of high school. Cee lives in a city in the northern part of California When we visited there and acquired for the brightest pupil in the city schools The superintendent and teachers mentioned C without hesitation Arrangements were made with the mother of attesting her the following day On the next day however, C had come down with an attack of measles and had a high fever Notwithstanding this she wanted to go on with the test which was given with the result noted above

All the tests in the Stanford Bina were passed with one exception the box test in average adult. C. taught herself to read when she was 31 months old. She started a school at the age of six, and in seven and a half years had completed the work of 12 grades. Throughout she had led her classes. She is also a leader on all kinds of school activities, such as dramatics and class activities. She is a favourite both with fellow pupils and teachers. Physically, she is more than ordinarily mature for her age.

Her health has always been perfect. ex-promotions have been given on the initiative of her teachers, the parents having always urged them to hold her back, expects to be a lawyer. C's sister graduated from university at 21, and was president of the student body. Later did postgraduate work. Another sister of 11.5 years is in the low 8th grade, a brother graduated from university at 20, and at 24 is holding a responsible business position. It is doubtless this highest standard of ability in the home which accounts for the average parent rating on traits of 2.45, or only a little above average. Number 17. Girl Casey. Exceptional personal charm. Indications of musical ability. A social favorite.

Age 3-2, mental age 4-8, IQ-144, not in school. Age 5,2, mental age 7,4, IQ-142, not in school. age 6-4, mental age 8 to 10, IQ 140, first grade At the age of 5, K counted backwards from 20 to 1, gave definition superior to use and ranged the five weights. This test was given as a demonstration test before a dozen university students. Kay liked the test so well that when it was over she did not want to leave, one of the most charming little girls we have ever known, absolutely unspoiled and lacking in any appearance of self-consciousness. She sang beautifully at the age of three. Learn to name the colours, the days of the week, and the months of the year on our own initiative and simply by asking

questions. Her father is a college professor. Both father and mother have several relatives of superior ability. Parents notes. Nothing unusual in early childhood except that her development has been somewhat rapid. She spoke a few words at 10 months, played life and social relations perfectly normal. Our favour and takes the lead and play, exceptional musical ability and interest in colours. Alive to everything around her, seems to want to know everything she hears talked about. Allowed to go her own pace, but information she asked for is neither withheld. No formal instruction. Average parent rating 2.0. A year later, Kay's health remains perfect. Her interests are broadening, and she is developing martial traits in leadership. Average parent rating at this time

1.95. Number 18. Boy, SD. Splendid heredity. All roundability and exceptional courage. Age 75, Mental age 10, 10, I.Q. 146, third grade. Second test, age 10, mental age 151. IQ 151, 7th grade. The great-grandfather of S was a chum of Abraham Lincoln and a candidate for the United States Senator when he died at the age of 35. The brother of this relative, was a noted attorney. Father of S is also an attorney, the mother of high school teacher. A cousin on the mother's side is in the third year of high school, at the age of 13 years. Several uncles of this mother

were political leaders in the early history of Kentucky. Teachers notes, I cannot say that S has unusual talent of any special kind. He simply has a big mind and a big body. Ability is all-round superior. Average teacher rating on traits 1.5, one of the highest ratings we have found. Parents notes. Health has always been perfect. Spoke a few words at six months. Enter the third grade at seven years, and in two and a half years covered four and half grades. Learn to read at the age of five. Does no regular study at home, but reads about half an hour each evening. Holidays spent in play, chores, fishing and swimming. No formal instruction in childhood, but has been encouraged to stand at the head of his class. Average parent rating on traits 1.85.

One year later, age 113, in 8th grade, doing excellent work. Health, good and development satisfactory in every way. Average parent rating at this time 2.1. In rating courage, the mother made the following remark. All I can say about this is that S, when only 10 years old, entered a burning building and brought out a baby, then re-entered and dragged out a wooden chest, and was ready to enter again when I had hold him in force while the roof fell in. Number 19, boy, RV Early evidence of superiority

Natural interest in teaching Age 117 Mental age 166 IQ 142 High 7th grade Father a carpenter with only a common school education The mother a teacher before marriage

There is seven children, all of whom are superior Parents notes Health good except for an attack of acute rheumatism when he was six years old taught himself to read with the aid of a telephone book and calendar. Loves to teach. Has prepared several children in the neighbourhood for school. Superiority first evident at the age of four. No instruction in childhood.

We wanted him to be outdoors and build up a good constitution. R is quite up to the times in politics and war. Joins in the discussions on these topics. Sign the Prohibition Pledge at Sunday School and will not eat anything that has brandy in it. Ambition to write books. average parent rating on traits 1.9. One year later, age 12 and a half, health good, school work very good, leads among the boys in the

neighborhood. Rather impatient and quick to anger, but soon recovers his poise. Parent rating at this time, 2.0. Teacher, average ratings on traits 1.59. Number 20. Boy, F.H. One of our brightest children. All roundability and very exceptional vocabulary. age 10-5, mental age 17, 11, IQ 172, high fifth grade. Vocabulary score was 78, 14,000 words.

This is almost equal to that of the average college student. Every test was passed in year 14, four out of the six in average adult, and five out of the six in superior adult. Every fable was perfectly interpreted. Fathered her physician, mother had only a common school education, several superior relatives are brother testing at 137.

Parents notes. Ended the first grade at 5. Ability General. Superiority first evidenced at the age of 6 by his unusual interest in schoolwork and by his original thinking. He has never been specially stimulated, allowed to go his own pace, because that was fast enough. Average rating by parents 1.75. The teacher describes F as having wonderful all-round ability and gives him an average rating of 1.3.

Number 21 and 22. J.J. and B.J. Italian children, brother and sister. Boy, J. Age 90, mental age 12, 7, IQ 140. Girl B. age 6, 8, mental age 10, 1. IQ 151.

Here are two Italian children. The only ones of this nationality we have discovered testing anything like this high. Both are exceptionally attractive, polished, yet natural in manners, beautiful and unspoiled. Jay is described as more studiously inclined than B, and as being also more sensitive. Mother was inclined to believe the boy with the brighter of the two, but the test places the girls slightly above. Both parents are well-educated. Three of the four grandparents are described with such terms as extremely bright, keen reader,

interested in history and international affairs, etc. The paternal grandfather, was an able linguist and scientist, a member of the Royal Geographic Society, and a talented singer. Many relatives of culture and learning on both sides. Jay did not learn to talk until he was two years old. He is somewhat emotional, but general health is good. Sleeps 11 and a half hours. Learn to read at the age of five years. At this age, about one hour daily was given to instruction in reading and writing. We never forced him, but always let him know there is a premium on fine scholarship. At the age of six was tutored about two and a half hours daily, has never attended school, especially talented in music.

Plays well and has a keen sense of harmony. He learned to read the age of five and a half, I was able to read the fourth reader at the age of six too. Superiority shown in her keen observation and her understanding of human character. This was noticeable at the age of four or even younger, like her brother has been allowed to go her own pace. A typical illustration of the ease with which superior children learn without instruction. Age 83, Mental Age 12 of 1, IQ 146, 5th grade. Pass a fable test and repeated six digits backwards in average adult. Mother's notes.

M learned to read without any instruction at the age of three years. Read signs and advertisements and names on food packages which were frequently seen about the house. At six years, read better and more naturally than since listening to other children at school. Has dramatic ability. Shows a remarkable grasp of all instructions and is good in execution. Makes progress two or three times as rapidly as ordinary children. M has just groaned up as I have had continual illness in the home and have been unable to give her the attention she should have had.

I held her back from skipping the fifth grade because I felt that physical perfection was a first consideration. Health always good, wishes to become a teacher or to take up dramatics. Mother believes she could also succeed in business. Later age 9.5 in 6th grade. Health and schoolwork, A1. A born leader, but a little too dogmatic and positive to be socially popular. Number 24. Girl, MS. General ability combined with talent and art.

Exceptional heredity. Age 9-1, mental age 12, 10, IQ 141, low fifth, grade. Pass the fable test in average adult and the eight digits in superior adult. One grandfather a banker, the other are railway official, both educated, intelligent men. Both grandmothers described as well educated and very keen. On the mother's side, James McNeil Whistler, the noted artist, was a cousin of the child's grandfather. Several other relatives on this side had exceptional mental ability and fiscal endowment. On the father's side an uncle gifted as a sculptor and painter, several very bright cousins. Parents' notes. Parents rated M one on every trait except courage

and intellectual modesty, which they rated two. Physical condition has always been perfect, observant, excellent memory, craving for knowledge. Has great enthusiasm for beautiful scenery, sunsets and other beauties of nature, is fond of animals, superiority noted at the age of four, encouraged to go ahead in school but not forced, has been praised for good report cards. No formal instruction whatever at home. Ambitious in everything she attempts. Wants to be a teacher. One year later, age 10, too, the mother writes, health good. She awakens more and more to beauty, takes great pride in her work, and shows great love for reading. All of her work a pleasure except arithmetic. I wish arithmetic were a little more practical. Makes friends easily and is very

companionable with older children. Wants to draw and love scenery and pictures, her best chum is a schoolgirl of 15 years. Average parent rating, at this time, 1.6. Teacher's notes. Unusual ability to carry a melody in two-part singing. Reads music well. Exceptionally good in penmanship. Superiority General.

The teacher rated all the traits one except general health. Number 25. Boy A.W. Brother of number 26. Underestimated by teacher and dislike school. Very sensitive. Age 13-1. Mental age 186.

IQ 141, low seventh grade. A's vocabulary score was 84, which is equal to that of the average Stanford University senior, missed only two tests in the scale, the ingenuity test, and repeating seven digits backwards. Both A and his sister are very superior, but A seems to be more original and better informed. Until a few months ago before the test, A had always attended a country school. His grades in school are good by not exceptionally superior. He has no hesitation in saying that it is not particularly like school. The teacher rated him three, average, on all but two of the twenty traits.

She sees nothing exceptional in this boy's mentality, although he is better informed and has a larger command of language than the average teacher. One wonders, wherever the teacher's misunderstanding is anything to do with the boy's dislike of school. Parents notes, health good except for Coria, which has now practically disappeared. As a small child, he was very timid, and he is still. sensitive. Remarkable memory, which first showed itself at the age of four when he learned his story books by heart. At that age, he also learned most of Poe's The Bells, has always used

big words correctly, learned to read to the age of six and a half. In three or four months, he could read all of Riley's child rhymes. From the time when he was a young child, A has seemed to have understanding and knowledge in almost everything beyond his years. Draws exceptionally well, and has mechanical ability. At four years, could repeat forbatton pages and pages of books of which were read to him, allowed to go his own pace because of his tenancy to nervousness. The only instruction has been in the form of answering innumerable questions. Several relatives are very superior ability.

Average parent rating on traits 2.05. Later age 14.2, health good, school marks improved. School work easier, less nervous. Number 26, girl EW, sister of number 25. Age 11.5, mental age 1611. IQ 148, high seventh grade. All the tests in average adult pass except the code, 8 digits direct order and 7 digits refers passed in superior adult.

Parents notes. Age of talking, 20 months. Health excellent. Has always been intellectually alert beyond her years. Ambitious to excel is very powerful. practical. As always had an excellent memory and early learned nursery rhymes and jingles. Superiority first noticed at the age of four is musical, allowed to go her own pace, as she seems inclined to go quite as fast as is good for her. No formal instruction at home

desires to become a teacher. Number 27, Boy RK, exceptional heredity. Age 8, 9, Mental Age 12, 4, IQ 141, 4th grade. Age 114, Mental Age 8, 4th grade. Age 114, Mental 16-8, IQ 147, high seventh grade. Father a mining engineer, mother a teacher. Paternal grandfather, a teacher of superior ability. One uncle, a doctor of divinity, and a bright scholar. One cousin is a mechanical engineer of exceptional ability. Another cousin, a postgraduate of Harvard, is said to be one of the best mathematicians

that Harpard has had in years. Relatives' father back on this side were Roger Williams and Colonel Crawford. maternal grandfather a teacher and lawyer of ability maternal grandmother a teacher and a great student up to the age of 80 years two uncles and one aunt on this side had exceptional mental ability one cousin is an artist of ability and another a talented singer Washington Irving was a cousin of the great-grandfather another noted relative further back was an Earl of Kilnocky

Parents notes are is somewhat nervous otherwise health is perfect nothing unusual in early life entered the second grade at six years and later skipped half of the fourth and half of the sixth never urged on best work is in English and music in his compositions shows unusual appreciation of language is ambitious to write

average parent rating on traits 1.5 one year later age 126 R is finishing the eighth grade with excellent marks work very easy for him health good average parent rating at this time 1.7 Number 28, boy J.P. underestimated by parents, an exceptionally logical mind.

Age 81, mental age 1010, IQ-134, third grade. Age 9-2, mental age 13-0, IQ 141, 5th grade. Age 114, mental age 15, 6, IQ-137, 7th grade. Parents notes. The father, a college professor, was slow to believe that Jay was much above the average child and ability. He has no brothers or sisters, and the parents had no general standard by which to judge him. Average parent rating 2.44, nothing unusual in early life, health or training, was taught to read to the age of 6, but has had no formal instruction. Two years later, age 11, health good. Tonsils recently removed. School work done without effort. Somewhat nervous and sensitive. Our apparent rating at this time 2.2, or somewhat higher than before. Teacher's notes,

Jay can stagger you with astronomical facts, delights in historical stories. It's not contented with statements made in the text, but once detailed information, questions everything, loves an argument and debates with zeal and ability, was wildly happy when appointed to lead a debate. As a code and love's secrets, his mind is alert to every impression. His hands are not responsive, he dislikes to write or draw, but grits his teeth and does average work to avoid having to do it over. Reasoning is his strong point. He can read any book and repeat the substance of it months afterwards. Social adaptability normal, but rather prefers to play alone, does not care for conventionalities, has an unusual sense of justice.

Average teacher rating 2.0. End of Chapter 11 Part 1 of the Intelligence of School Children. Read by Leon Harvey Chapter 11 Part 2 Of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman This is a Libravox recording All Libravox recordings are in the public domain For more information or to volunteer

Please visit Librevox.org Read by Leon Harvey Case Studies of 41 Superior Children Part 2 Number 29 Boy B.H Very much underrated by his teacher age 97, mental age 1310, IQ 144, low fifth grade

The interesting thing about this child is that the teacher considers his ability average except in language As a matter of fact, he is farther advanced in vocabulary than in his general mental development He is underage for his grade and has been rated by the teacher in comparison with children two and three years older Fortunate Heredity Two uncles on the mother's side are unusual intelligent, one was a prominent lawyer when he died to the age of 35, the other entered high school at 11, and is now editor of a large city newspaper. A great-great-uncle of the boy was a doctor of divinity and one of the foremost of pulpit

orators in the south. B, has two brothers almost as bright as himself. Parents notes. Health perfect, but sleep not very sound. Have encouraged him, because he is ambitious, was given no home instruction except for about a year when he started to school. Average rating on traits, 2.65. One year later, age 10 and a half,

school work good except that his penmanship is poor and his written work somewhat untidy. This sometimes lowers his grades. Improvement in social adaptability, average parent rating at this time 2.45. Number 30, boy L.G. Underrated by parents, an only child, marked precocity.

age 8.3, mental age 12, 2, IQ 142, high fourth grade. Passed the clock test and the induction test in 14 and the average adult repeated six digits backwards. Vocabulary score, however, only 25, which is not more than a year above his actual age. The most interesting thing in the data furnished by the parents is the fact that they rate the child 3 or average on 18 out of 20 traits. one wonders whether this is because L is an only child, and there is no standard of comparison in the home. The average teacher rating is 2.20. Parents notes, Health good, learn to read at the age of four, above average in power of concentration,

became interested in books of the age of two years, was persistent in effort to understand meaning of words and characters. Memorized and recited readily at the age of two years, have not encouraged him to forge ahead but have not held him back. Little instruction at home beyond the teaching of sounds of letters. I've also tried to answer all his questions and to point the way to further investigation. We think the child has a tendency to read too much. Number 31. Boy C. M. Underrated by teacher. Exceptional heredity.

Age 86, mental age 12,0, IQ 141, high fourth grade. This case is mentioned chiefly because of the following statement of his teacher. I would say, taking my class as a basis of judgment, that C is an average child. The teacher admits that he is doing excellent work in the high fourth grade, also that the class is an unusually satisfactory one. She neglects to note that the average age in her class is about ten years, while that C is only eight and a half. A sister of 15 is almost as bright as C. The father is a minister, a graduate of a theological seminary. Maternal grandfather and army officer and graduate of Oxford.

Maternal grandmother, very musical. Of eight uncles, two were able lawyers, and three were successful engineers. The mother's grandfather was one of the most prominent Canadian statesmen of his day. Paternal grandfather are a college graduate, Baternal Grandmother Musical. The only uncle on this side is an expert chemist, whose sons show unneutral ability in literary lines. The father's grandfather was one of the leading spirits in the old Hudson Bay Company.

Number 32, Girl MC. Brightest Girl in the Stanford Records. Superior family of children. Ordinary heredity. Age 710, Mental Age 138, IQ 174, 5th grade. This child, tested by Miss Blanche Cummings, Director of Special Classes in Fresno, California, is a brightest girl of whom we have a record at Stanford University. Her development will be carefully followed.

The father is a jeweler. The mother was a millionaire before marriage. neither parent had more than a common school education. There are three other remarkable children in the family, a sister age 11 in the 7th grade, a brother age 10 in the 5th grade, and a brother age 6 in the 2nd grade. The last name tested at 136. No other relatives of superior ability are known to the parents. Parents notes, nothing unusual on health or physical development in early childhood,

was given no instruction but learned to read by our own efforts at three years, was permitted to use a typewriter and with it learned her letters, figures, reading, and spelling. Entered school only a year and a half ago and has attended four different schools, notwithstanding these frequent changes, she has made five grades in that time with ease.

M. is more inclined to be firm and stubborn than other children, desires to become a school teacher, average parent rating 2.7. Number 33. Boy PE. Early indications of superior intelligence apparent moral inferiority. Age 95, mental age 13.9, I.Q. 146.

7th grade. Age 113, mental age 16.10, IQ 150. First year high school. Both parents' physicians. Maternal grandfather, a journalist and politician who knew seven languages. A cousin on the mother's side is said to be as bright as P. Mother's relatives, chiefly doctors, lawyers and ministers. Parents notes. P knew his letters at 14 months and could read at two years. Learn to count at the age of two years, a little later knew numbers as far as the thousands and could find numbers in the telephone book. When four years and three months old had read a good part of the Bible and read as well as a boy of 13,

always insisted and till told what he wanted to know. End of the third grade when he started his school at six and made nine grades in four and a half years. memorizes very rapidly, once became possessed of a desire to know the location of every town, river, and mountain, and read the Atlas through. Great collector of stamps, coins, foreign transfers, etc. I have encouraged him. I consider a child may just as well be learning something as to fall away his time. I never made him study. While he was a small child, I brought blocks with letters and numbers, maps to be put together, geographical games, alphabetical and numerical boards. While he was a small child, I bought blocks with letters and numbers, maps to be put together,

geographical games, alphabetical and numerical boards and other playthings, with which to learn, later bought him a typewriter which he soon learned to use. Play life fairly normal but made difficult by the fact that his classmates are much older and larger. With them he cannot be a leader. Well, with younger children he is somewhat domineering and bossy. Abeys while at school, but is rather selfish and imperialism. at times. The mother accounts for this by the fact that his only child has been allowed his own way. Mother's average rating on traits 2.7. Desire to become a

professor of mathematics in English. Later, age 12, was out of school last term and worked as a collector for a newspaper begging $25 a month. His vocational ambition now is to be a banker. School marks still excellent but hardly as good as before. Still somewhat spoiled, selfish and occasionally unkind in his criticism. of others, compels boys of his size to do as he says. Strong-willed punishes himself rather than give in. Needs a man's influence. Notes from school principle.

Undoubtedly, great native intelligence. Seems very learned. His ability is certainly general. Often appears not to be attentive, but later surprises one by being able to repeat everything that has been said. However, it is spoiled in vain and has looked upon with a certain amount of distrust. is there to have abnormal sex interests once attacked a small boy of the knife

if falsively affectionate towards his teacher but disrespectful towards his parents stubborn and willful his school conduct however absolutely beyond reproach teacher's notes ability rather one-sided remarkable memory for facts but lack of judgment has few playmates

reputed to be a bully among younger children although he did not show this at school is tyrannical towards his mother and grandmother. Average rating 2.89. Another teacher states his analysis interpretation in memory for detail in Julius Caesar and Ivanhoe have been far above the average of his class. This teacher described P's ability as general rather than special and gave an average rating on traits of 1.55.

There is no question about this boy's unusual ability. Some would perhaps account for it on the ground of his early instructive. but we doubt the validity of such an explanation. The boy's social and moral development does not promise well, although his present objectionable tendencies may be outgrown later. This is our only superior who has evidence questionable moral traits. Number 34 Boy HH

Early instruction accompanied by marked indications of superior intelligence. Age 60, Mental Age 94, IQ 156 age 8-9, mental age 12, 10, IQ 147, 7th grade In the second test, age 8-9, vocabulary score was 55, nearly 10,000 words. This is better than the median for 14 years. Little is known of the ancestors of age, except that both of his grandfathers were farmers with only a common school education. One distant relative was a lawyer of national reputation.

The father is a teacher, and the mother a woman of mine. marked intellectuality. Their accomplishments of age were exploited in a number of newspapers in 1912 to 13. Parents' notes, was specially instructed in early childhood by the mother, who, early began reading to him such literature as Hiawatha, Julius Caesar, Bible stories, etc. Learn to read at four. At six was able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers as far as the millions to keep the family accounts, make up bills, etc.

Mastered the number of combinations by playing dominoes and learned a great deal of geography by playing post-office and writing addresses on envelopes which he gave to his mother. Has accumulated a rich store of knowledge about nature. All his work is played to him, plays the piano quite remarkably for a child of his age. Later, age eight. Not specially fond of school. Does little home study, reads only three or four hours a week.

spends most of his time at play, mothers rating on traits 2.1. Teacher's notes, A very lovable child, and below average only in leadership and initiative. Wonderful knowledge of history. He is always ready we have stories to illustrate a point, especially good in oral composition, large fun of general information. Ability slightly one-sided.

Does not seem to fit in with the play life of his classmates. Reads a great deal, including Dixon's novels, Shakespeare stories and Shakespeare. child verses. Rather restless. Exceptionally poor in writing and other handwork, but amazes one with his knowledge of historical events. Average rating on traits 1.95. Later, age 910, described by the succeeding teacher as in good health, growing very rapidly and more interested in play and companions. Marks still high. Improven now in social adaptability. Average rating on traits at this time 2.1. When he came to us a little over a year ago, he was extremely,

Restlessly and Timid, spoke in very low tones, flushed easily, and never volunteered remarks. Recently, he has relaxed, plays ball, worships the big boys, and has sprouted physically. With this has come a sudden interest in a signed task which seemed very promising for the future. Number 35. Girl E.W. Ill health. All roundability. Exceptional heredity. Age 14-2. Mental age 19. IQ 134. I. grade. E is in the grade corresponding to chronological age. However, she was out for two years at one time and is missed at other times on account of illness. Although she has attended school only intermittently for five years, in this time she has completed seven grades. Considering her health, it is perhaps

best that she has not been promoted more rapidly. The teacher says, no matter what E has to do, it is always well done. She has a wonderful power of concentration, a keen sense of humour, and never gives up until the battle is won. Examination papers are a wonder to her teachers. They're always on the point, and definite. E has decidedly all-round ability. The teacher rated her one on every trait except general health. Parents notes.

A good deal of ill health from three to ten years, somewhat nervous and irritable when fatigued, reads as many hours as we allow, has spent many happy hours delving into children's encyclopedias, never had any formal instruction at home, one sister and one bother of little, if any more than average ability. A year has always been first to grasp the meaning of a game, puzzle or any subject under discussion. Average parent ratings on traits, 1.65. One year later, age 154, health not quite so good. Marks satisfactory but not quite as high as formerly, inclined to worry over a schoolwork.

Average rating now, 1.95. The maternal grandfather was a school teacher of fine ability, maternal grandmother, a student to the age of 82. Two. Uncles are successful professional and businessmen. One aunt a talented musician. The mother's brother was the leader in his university class. But became insane. The paternal grandfather and grandmother were school teachers.

One uncle on this side is a lawyer and judge. He's great-grandfathers served the longest term in the New York State Legislature of any man up to his time. Of two other relatives on this side, one was a noted congregational minister in New York City, the other a famous surgeon. Number 36, boy, J.E. exceptional heredity. Difficity in social adjustments. Age 11.0. Mental age 16.1. IQ 146. School work curricular, but chiefly in the 5th and 6th grades. Jay made the remarkable vocabulary record of 74 correct definitions. He also passed a test of repeating 8 digits in superior adult. Has been kept back in his studies by ill health

in subordinate kidney trouble, from which he has largely recovered at the age of 15, has been educated by a governess in private schools. Teachers consider him very unusual in ability, but hardly up to average in social adaptability. Jay's greatest difficulty has been in submitting to formal instruction and in adapting himself to other children. Until 11 years old, he had but few opportunities to associate with others and was considered more or less erratic. His social adaptability, however, has steadily improved. as has also his tendency towards irritability and imperiousness both of jay's parents are of english descent the father is a scientist educator and publicist two of jays brothers are of average mentality one sister now dead was very superior and another sister is a woman of very exceptional ability a number of superior relatives on both sides one uncle on the mother's side was an admiral in the united states navy relatives father back distinguished many distinguished many distinguished

relatives on the father's side, one of whom was Ralph Waldo Emerson. Parents notes, As an infant, Jay was much disturbed by loud or sharp noises, showed superior ability early. While still a small child drew diagrams of inventions which proved to be actual parts machines he had never seen, great interest also in astronomy, listed stars of the fourth magnitude. At present, age 11, works in the laboratory with shells, doing a grade of work which few university seniors can surpass. We'll soon publish a book on California shells, expects to become a scientist. Four years later, age 15, health improved, some lessening of enthusiasm in scientific works on shells, accompanied by marked increase of interest in manly sports.

The expected book has not been finished. Excellent score marks work done with decided ease. Social adaptability now average. An awakening sense of responsibility. average parent rating 2.4. At this time, Jay's teachers also testified to his marked improvement along social lines. Number 37. Boy, MA. Inferior schoolwork and marked lack of social adaptability. Tested first at 10-11, Mental Age 15-0, IQ-137, 8th grade.

When tested nearly a year later, the IQ was 138 and he was in the first year of high school. Heredity, exceptionally good, father and able lawyer, mother formerly a teacher in a city normal college, many prominent men and women among his relatives, one of whom was Samuel Adams. An exceptionally bright boy, but a problem for his teachers. Although his mental age is well above the average in the first year of high school, his grades run from C to D, is temperamental and more or less queer, easily takes a dislike to teachers or classmates. Regards his schoolwork with more or less contempt, and part of it he refused to try it all. Because his school work is poor, some of his teachers consider his intelligence-only average.

Teachers notes An unusual ability to associate facts, particularly scientific facts, and to repeat from memory one after reading. Rated for in social adaptability, leadership, emotional self-control, and unselfishness. His babyish in his play. Nervous, has muscular twitchings, and is easily embarrassed in class. It's selected by his fellows as the one to tease, formant and nickname cries easily. However, I believe that M will become more adjusted to his surroundings and make a superior man. Average teacher rating on traits 2.42. Parents' notes,

Health good, no special instruction in childhood except a little he received from a workman on the ranch, has been held back, but is now allowed to go his own pace. reads history, scientific works and all kinds of magazines, desires to become an inventor, average parent rating 1.80. This is one of the few cases in which the parents' ratings average higher than those of the teacher. Later age 13, marks in high school now slightly above average, and there is marked improvement in social adaptability and emotional life. Average parent rating at this time, 1.6.

Number 38 Boy A. L.S. Poetic talent combined with all-round ability. Age 9-4, Mental Age 13-2, IQ 141. This child was first brought to our attention as a result of a group test. We have not yet had opportunities to learn much about him, except that he is considered one of the brightest pupils in the school of the small city where he lives. The following poem was composed when he was nine years old.

It shows remarkable maturity of thought for a child of his age. Do not worry over trifles, though to you they may seem great. All your fretting will not help you, or your troubles dissipate. If your sky is dark and gloomy and the sun is hid from view, bravely smile and keep on smiling, and your friends will smile with you. Happiness is so contagious, and a smile is never lost. Then why worry over trifles, though your heart seems tempest tossed? Therefore go on life's rough journey with an optimistic smile, see the world is good to live in, and that living is worthwhile.

Number 39, Boy J.S. Intensive mental culture in early childhood, find mental balance, has a sister who is an infant prodigy. Age 96, Mental Age 16, 4, IQ 1712, 6th grade. Age 10, 4, Mental Age 178, IQ 171, 7th grade. In the first examination, age 9 and a half, Jay passed four tests in superior adult, including paper cutting, eight digits direct order, seven digits reversed order, and the ingenuity test. Special interest attaches to Jay because he is a brother of Martha, who, at the age of 26 months, was able to read any primer. Father a lawyer and a man of more than ordinary ability graduated from university at 21. Mother, a teacher before marriage, maternal grandfather of farmer.

of common school education and average ability. Uncles and aunts averaged, or somewhat above. Paternal grandfather are bookkeeper of business college education and average ability. Paternal grandmother of average ability, common school education. Father's notes. Jay's superior ability first evident in third year. Father accounts for the superiority as due to the fact that we deliberately set ourselves to the task of educating him when he was a young child.

When Jay was a mere baby, I determined to start his education, commencing at the age of two years, I adopted artifices to make his play a source of education and kept it persistently, until he was five years old and had acquired the fundamentals of the first three years of school, after which I dropped the matter. In the case of the second boy, I had no time to take that course and did not do so. Second boy only average. Father describes Jay as serious and dreamy, finding his great pleasure in reading, little interest in tools or machinery, quite different from the boisterous happy-go-lucky

younger brother. He left to his own devices would spend all his leisure reading. Health always perfect except for scarlet fever at five years, average rating on traits 2.35. One year later, age 11 and half, health good, adenoids and tonsils recently removed. Average of father's rating on traits now 1.75, marked improvement in social adaptability. Teachers notes. boy of wonderful ability for his years. In arithmetic, he never draws an unwarranted conclusion or premises anything unnecessary to the conclusion. When he started to school, he covered the first

grade in a half day, the second grade in two months, the third grade in six months, and the fourth grade in two months, or by one of the twenty-traced grade of one by the teacher, with special emphasis on the boy's lack of vanity. Play interests and play life described as normal. No physical handicaps, nervousness, or eccentricities of any kind. In every respect, normal, we have the exception of superior intelligence. Number 40. Henry, illustrating the relative independence of IQ and schooling. Scientific ability overshadowed by musical genius, extreme poverty. As a near-neighbour boy, Henry has been under observation since the autumn of 1910. At that time he was little more than 12 and a half years of age. He was tested at 14 and a half.

earning the mental age of 19, IQ 131. Although the IQ is satisfactory, it is matched by scores of others among our records, but there is only one Henry. Henry had never been to school except for a few months when he was six years old. He lived in a little shanty with his semi-invalid mother and was the sole source of income

for the support of her and himself. He tramped often to the mountains in search of rare wild flowers which he brought home and sold him beautiful poquets to people who knew him. Sometimes he weeded lawns or did garden work for his neighbours. For some years also he served as janitor for a little rural school near his home. His earnings rarely amounted to more than $15 a month, but somehow he and his mother managed to live on this amount. Henry's mother, since dead, was a woman of refinement and intellectuality, the author of two novels and a number of poems.

She also wrote essays on sociological questions, at least one of which was published in an English periodical of international circulation. She was an idealist, imbued with advanced notions regarding religion, sociology, and women's place in the world. Henry's mother was almost 50 years old when he was born. His father was an unsuccessful member of a distinguished family. Henry's paternal grandfather was an Archbishop of Ireland, and Dukes and Earls are numbered among his cousins. Shortly after Henry started to school at the age of six years, he was one day seized on his way home from school with a strange muscular paralysis. He fell to the ground and had to drag himself home. Corio set in, from which he suffered severe recurrent attacks for years.

Except for occasional twitchings, he had fairly recovered at the age of 14, and somewhat later his recovery was practically complete. On account of this nervous tendency, however, his mother did not see fit to send him to school, nor did she give him much formal instruction at home. She talked with him endlessly, read to him occasionally,

and sometimes he read to her. They discussed religion, politics and matters of literature and art. We have a list of over 300 books which Henry has read before he was 14 years of age. Also, polky notes of extensive conversations which we had with him on such questions as socialism, atheism, scientific problems, etc. At 14, he discussed these matters with greater breadth of knowledge and much deeper understanding than the average university senior. No less striking was his ignorance in certain school subjects.

his spelling was wretched, and he had studied no formal arithmetic above the four fundamentals and simple fractions. As a boy of a dozen years, Henry's appearance was odd and interesting in the extreme. His speech was quaint, and rather drawled and stilted. His face was childish, but he looked at you with eyes that seemed utterly void of self-consciousness. His clothes were often ragged and always ill-fitting. His hair hid his ears and straggled down to his shoulders. His face and shoulders twitched occasionally with confidence. spasms. Everybody considered Henry as queer, not to say freakish. If employed to wed a lawn, he was lucky to forget what he was doing while trying to compose

and whistle a tune. His janitor work was hardly more successful. Henry had shown promising ability with the violin at the age of five years, but his choreo had put an end to his musical practice. Neither violin nor piano was touched again until he was about 15 years of age. His musical talent, however, survived all the vicissitudes of poverty and illness. Henry knew that his nervousness, and still more the effect of hard labour upon his hands, had ruined forever the hope of his becoming a great musical performer,

but he would become a composer. Day and night, he dreamed of this and wrote out in musical notation numberless compositions. At the age of 15, having practically recovered from his chorea, Henry resolved to gratify a long, cherished ambition. He decided to purchase a piano. He found an old second-hand one and bought it for $60, which some he managed to save out if he, scanty earnings by doing without various necessities of life. Though he had not tried to play on the piano before, within a year he was giving recitals among his university friends.

Within three to or four years his playing was quite remarkable. Shortly after this, his playing was brought to the attention of promising musicians in San Francisco, who, with other friends, gave him encouragement and help. He was placed under the instruction of one of the best music teachers in the West, and soon took rank as one of the most promising pupils that instructor had ever had. At the age of 19, he spent several months in New York. His compositions at this time were promising by various prominent musicians. At the age of 20, without ever having been in school a year in his life, Henry was made instructor of harmony in the summer school of a great state university. He was reappointed for the second year, but was soon afterwards taken for military

service. Those who were considered Henry as merely a queer child with impossible ideas and exasperating manners and frankness were finally compelled to admit his musical ability. Even then, however, he was generally considered a freak in all but his musical ability. His general intelligence had never been correctly appraised by the majority of his friends. We have seen the verdict of the Bennett test. As a result of many hours of conversation with the boy, over a period of many months, we were convinced that his ability in science was almost as great as in music. Before the age of 12, he had read university textbooks in botany.

His knowledge of California wildflowers at this age was remarkable. He had studied seriously the principles of plant breeding, and for a time, when it seemed impossible to realize his musical ambitions, he considered botanical science for his life work. He might have done so but for the fact that his education has been too irregular to permit him to enter a university. One of the most noticeable things about Henry has always been his independence of judgment. His opinions and all kinds of matters are quite pronounced, and he expresses them without regard for other people's feelings.

By many acquaintances, he is considered rude and ill-mannered, this does him injustice. He is merely naively honest, due both to his temperament and to the influence of his early training. It remains to be seen whether Henry will become one of the famous musical composers of his day. Several musical critics, of note, hope for this outcome.

If he attains fame as a musician, his biographer is almost certain to describe his musical genius as natural and inevitable, and to ignore the scientists that he might have been. Number 41. Boy, DB. Indications of real genius. Unequaled intellectual spontaneity. Age 7, 4 and 2 thirds. Mental age 137. I.Q. 184, not in school. This is the highest intelligence quotient we have ever found, and all the supplementary data indicate that there is no other child in our list who equals D in all-round intellectual ability.

The test was made before a class of about a hundred students at Columbia University. The day was one of the most uncomfortable in the history of New York City. The official temperature for the day being above 100 degrees, the room was close, ill-ventilated, and wretchedly hot. The test began with year 9. All of the tests of this group were passed. In year 10, all of the tests were passed except that of drawing designs, which fell just short of being satisfactory. In year 12, 7 of the 8 tests were passed with ease. The three disarranged sentences were given without a single error in 12, 10 and 5 seconds.

The five fables were interpreted as follows. 1. Hercules and wagon driver. If you work yourself, you will get help. 2. The milk made in her plans. Do not build castles in the air. 3. The fox and the crow. Do not listen to flattery. 4. The farmer in the stalk. If you keep company with bad people, it will have to suffer the consequences.

5. The Millard and the Donkey. Stick to one way. In year 14, the induction test was passed without error. The rule being given as follows. You multiply by two each time. The other tests passed in this year were President and King and Arithmetic Reasoning. There was only one success out of three trials in the clock tests. In average adult, the fables and box tests were passed. Although the examination covered a wide range of tests, it required only 45 minutes. There is a responses were perfectly natural, almost playful, and there was no waiting for applause, no appearance, whatever, of vanity. Although Dee was not enrolled in school at the time of the test, he regularly attended the playground activities at the Horace Mann practice school. Previously,

he had attended a kindergarten. All of his teachers had recognized his phenomenal ability. Father, Russian-Jewish, mother, Polish-Jewish. The father is an advertising man and writer, and has published three books of fiction. The mother is a high-house. school graduate, did some work in a university, and has written short stories and poems for various periodicals. Maternal grandfather are a businessman of high intellectuality. Two cases of unusual musical ability on the mother's side, also several distinguished rabbis. Baternal grandfather a businessman of unusual mechanical ability, fought of making and solving puzzles. The paternal grandmother taught herself to read English late in life. Rabbis on this side also.

D is an only child The mother is a woman of exceptionally keen and judicial mind And has kept bulky notes on D's mental development Since he was a baby She has furnished us with the following interesting items of information D's stood alone between five and six months Walked at nine months and talked at about a year First teeth between four and five months

Nursed for only five months No illness except measles And a light case of chicken pox No physical defects sleeps about 11 and a half hours. Played with anagrams when a baby and learned to read as gradually and naturally as he learned to talk. At three, without us knowing, he could do it. He picked up a new book suitable for children of nine years and read it through intelligently.

Has had some private lessons in music and gymnastics. Has also taken a few lessons in interpretive dancing. Dresses and undresses alone, baves himself, cleans his teeth alone and tends to his bodily needs. Plays ball, bats and skates. handles mechano models requiring deft fingers, typewrites rapidly, using only two fingers on each hand, taught himself printing and typewriting. Reads varied rapidly. If he likes a book, we'll return a gain and again to it, memorizing the parts he specially cares for. Probably averages eight or ten hours a week reading,

leaves his book willingly to play, but goes back to it when play is over. Recently, a World Atlas, Baseball Guides, and Baseball News in the daily papers have all furnished him with what he calls important work. Has read a great deal of Shakespeare with a particular liking for historical plays. Pericles is his favourite. His knowledge of Shakespeare characters is amazing, reads the book of knowledge, and as many animal stories as he can lay his hands on. Desires to travel and order to see and learn the habits of wild animals.

Has read every history book in the house, including Gibbon and Grot. It criticised Gibbon as having left too much out in writing about Rome. Among his papers are sundry notes marked important things the Scottish kings did. List of Roman emperors and what they ruled over, etc. This showed that he reads to find out things which he considers important. When taken to the public library, he invariably chooses books of history. He's very fond of fairy tales, but has not been permitted to read many. D.Will carry through his projects extending over long periods,

and took him several days to complete a map of the apartment drawn to scale, many weeks off and on, to complete a geographical map of his imaginary country. Bawningtown. And for a year he spent much time recording foreign state automobile cited in New York with directions for recognizing the various licenses. As notebooks and papers covered with baseball data, keeps data embodying special features of maps, charts, etc. In reading Shakespeare, pays careful attention to the notes on the text,

which, in the addition he is reading, Knight, are voluminous. A recent interest which has taken the pace of foreign autos is that of the trolley system in New York City. His pockets bowls with notes and transfers together with marbles, with which he plays at every opportunity. Plays games with cards, a baseball game and a question game. The latter is an information contest. In the game of characters, his side always wins,

for he has an inexhaustible supply of Shakespeare characters to draw upon. Similarly, when it comes to cities or rivers, such sources as Russia furnish him with a supply which no one else can compete with. Other games, which he likes are various kinds of solitaire chess, and quite a difficult game, shown to him by a teacher of mathematics, a game in which he outplays everyone but his unerring calculation in what he called its double corner.

The foregoing notes refer to Dee's reading and ability prior to August 1917. In March 1918, the mother writes as follows. His Shakespeare interests hold, but he has read recently much less history, has developed an interest in the scientific articles of the Book of Knowledge. Recently showed me a toy telescope, which he had made out of his old microscope and mounted on the steel parts of his mechano. Spends hours over his toy train tracks. Once calculated how long it would take his little train to run a mile at the rate it went around his track.

Measuring in the center of the track, he explained to be sure to get the exact answer. Last year, his express vocational ambition was to be a baseball player. Later, he said that Wiley had not given up his plan to be a baseball player, he had decided also to be an author. This was while he was deep in his ventures of bookwriting, having begun three or four different books in the fall of 1917, and finished a play for his mother's birthday. He had begun a book called Borningtown, with chapters and headings already planned. Also another book called Facts About Borningtown and Washabet, with a table of contents

and headings for 50 chapters. Of the text so far, there are five typewritten pages and one illustration. A third book is about Bully-Willy, or the Magical Egg. Another new interest is the dictionary he is making of Borning Town. Many of the words which he makes up for this dictionary are intended as improvements on the English language. For example, smallen to make small. His interest in words and their derivations led us to begin this year a little formal Latin, at which he spends about an hour a week.

His ability to analyze and classify have made it quite easy for him to learn thus far the first and second conclusions of nouns and adjectives and a few conjugations. He learned to count to add and to subtract by means of playing cards which were among his first playthings.

Formal arithmetic was begun when he was seven years old by spending about an hour a week upon it. This year he was giving about an hour each week to algebra and about as much to geometry, with his father as teacher. He has no difficult with either subject, often sets himself problems in geometry to solve.

In the study of music has applied his ability to analyze and arrange so that he has made big strides in musical theory and wants to compose melodies to fit the words of the poems he selects. Consciousness refuses to lie, clings tenetiously to a standard which he recognised as desirable, used to mark himself for what he considered good writing and was quick to acknowledge poor work, obeys instructions regarding Iran's, etc. Above average in unselfishness. makes plans to give pleasure to others, and often, with a manifest effort, of his own volition, leaves the best or biggest for someone else, loves to share his pleasures, will remark a selfishness in others.

The above account contains so many things that is hard to associate with the chronological age of seven years, that the reader may be inclined to allow something for maternal prejudice. To do so in this case would be a mistake. The Bennett tests, made under extraordinary unfavorable conditions, indicate a level of mental ability not far below, to which is normal for children of 14 years. We have also the testimony of kindergarten and playground instructors in the Horace Mann School, which agree thoroughly with the notes furnished by the mother. The average rating given by the mother on the 20 trace was 1.93,

that of the kindergarten teacher who knew Dee best, 1.9. His former kindergarten teacher says D is a most remarkable boy. His greatest difficulty has been social adaptability, but his experiencing kindergarten and playground has brought him well up towards the normal in this respect. Reads delayed and Shakespeare and publishes a weekly playground newspaper. One who desired for the Proph of D's exceptional intelligence would find it in a convincing abundance in any issue of this newspaper, which is a rare essay in journalism for a boy of seven years.

It is a one-sheet three-column affair typed, all of the composition is done by D who prints it on his typewriter. There is a joke section, an advertising section, a news section, and various extras and incidentals from time to time. The jokes are often such as would not be understood by children below the mental level of 12 years. It will be saying that D is far superior in general ability than any of the other children we have described. His ability seems to compare favorably with that of Francis Galton, who in childhood showed similar indications of genius. whether the promise of the present will be fulfilled only the future can tell however considering his fine balance of personal model and intellectual traits there is every reason to believe that he will become a distinguished man indications of superior endowment doubtless the reader has sensed a degree of monotony in the above descriptions of superior children such children show the usual individual differences in temperament and personality but intellectually they have much more in common certain qualities are mentioned again and again

by both parent and teacher. Phrases most often used in giving indications of superior endowment are the following. Alert beyond his years. Has such keen powers of observation. Shows a passionate desire to learn. Asks endless questions. He's interested in everything. Is ambitious to excel.

Gets the highest school marks. Writes such wonderful examination papers. Has such a fine command of language. Has fine reasoning powers. shows independence of judgment. He's an original thinker. Answers always to the point. Has a keen sense of humor.

Has unusual power of concentration. It's more dependable than other children of his age. Conscientious to a fault. Such a lovable child, etc. Many are also described as exceptionally truthful, sympathetic, generous, thoughtful of others, and endowed with a sense of moral responsibility which shows herself in a willingness to work

and to deny themselves for social. ends. Other symptoms of superior endowment receiving frequent mention include the early learning of nursery jingles, ease of memorizing, learning without instruction, to count and to name the days of the week and the months of the year, rapidity of reading, learning to read without instruction by means of newspapers, advertisements, or telephone books, desire to write, love of reading, preference for worthwhile books, liking for dictionaries and encyclopedias, absorption with hobby, such as collections, wireless telegraphy, and educational games.

These indications are mentioned so often as to appear well-nigh universal with this class of children. Only a few have traits that are undesirable. Several are more or less nervous. A few are exceptionally timid. Three or four are somewhat vain. A few dislike the routine and restraint of the school. One is rather lazy. One lacks affection.

One shows symptoms of incorruptibility at home, and several are below-average. and leadership and social adaptability. Making proper social adjustments is perhaps the most difficult problem for these superior children. Their intellectual superiority tends to set them apart from children of their own age. While they are at the same time prevented from equal association with older children, both by the lack of physical strength and by the relative immaturity of their play instincts. Number 42, for example, who at the age of seven tests above 13 and a half Obviously cannot compete with average 13-year-old boys in the usual games of fiscal skill,

nor is he near enough adolescents to share their mental outlook. His play interests are in many respects like those of ordinary children of seven years, yet he is largely cut off from the natural association with such children by the fact that he speaks a different language. His vocabulary is so grown up that his playfellers often cannot understand what he is talking about. Considering such difficulties, the wonder is that only two or three of our superior children are noticeably queer socially, and that only one borders on the outcast.

Objections to grading superior children by mental age. The question may be raised whether the difficulty of social adjustment does not constitute a serious objection to the plan of grading superior children according to the mental age, since it would associate them in classwork with children who are several years older.

This danger, however, is largely offset by the opportunities which the playground offers for making congenial acquaintances. The injury done by having such a child recite with children whom he cannot compete within play must be very slight compared to the intellectual and moral injury, which is warred by keeping him away at his tasks, which are too easy to command his best efforts. One solution would be to have the child of exceptional ability remained out of school every second or third year. This would tend to keep him in class with children of about his own age,

while at the same time requiring a reasonable amount of effort to keep up in schoolwork. The plan assumes, however, that the school authorities will allow such a child to skip the grade which his fellows take while he is out of school. If this were not allowed, and often it would not be, the situation would only be made worse. The plan of periodic rests has the further objection that by depriving the child of the social opportunities which the school offers, it would make his isolation more complete. Besides, there are few homes which could be expected to fill the child's free year with experiences of real educational value. Opportunity Classes for Superior Children The responsibility for the right education of superior children belongs with the school.

If the opportunities now offered are not suitable, it is the duty of the school to provide something better. While some relief is furnished by an elastic system of promotion which will allow the superior child to skip a half-grade occasionally, this should be regarded as a makeshift rather than a final solution of the problem. The contribution of the school must be more positive and more educational. If the needs of the superior children are to be met, special classes and special courses will have to be provided. The advantages of such classes are many. 1. They allow children to make rapid progress without skipping vital parts of the subject matter. 2. They allow a broadening and enriching of the course of study because of the larger accomplishments possible to superior minds.

3. They are discouragement to vanity because the level of competition it raises and the measure of a child's success depends upon his relative standing in the case. class. Four, they ensure the mental and moral training which can come only from sustained effort. Five, they furnish an atmosphere which is intellectually much more stimulating than that found in the average class. Six, since they bring together the children of similar age and attainments they go far to solve the problem of social adjustment. Wherever opportunity classes of a bright children have been tried, they have proved an immediate and surprising success. The children are touched by new life and inspired with new enthusiasm. That two or three grades are usually covered in one year as perhaps a matter of secondary importance compared with the intellectual awakening

and the intensification of effort which such classes provoke. The results have been so uniformly successful that the special class for gifted children may be considered to have passed the experimental stage. The following illustration is typical. In February 1917, an opportunity class was formed in Louisville, Kentucky. It consisted of 21 children selected by means of Bennett tests. The intelligence quotients ranged from 120 to 167, 15 bain above 135. The class covered the work of an entire grade and a half year. Besides the accomplishment of this work, the children learned to use with a considerable degree of freedom, 400 words in a conversational German. They also composed the words and music of a spring song and an operetta. The class did this work happily,

and with ease. Home study was discouraged except where it was a matter of great desire, and then it was limited to 20 minutes. In character and disposition, these children are conceded by all who know them to be superior. They're not conceited or puffed up by their selection for the class. Miss Race, from whom the above is quoted, states that whatever touches of conceit were present at the beginning of the class were largely eradicated before the end of the term. A similar class has been conducted in New York city by Miss May Irwin and another in Urbana, Illinois, under the direction of Professor Whipple. In both cases, the results agreed in a striking way with those of the Louisville experiment. Class sectioning according to mental ability

When the school system is very small or when other conditions prevent the formation of a special class for the children of exceptional ability, their needs may be to a certain extent provided for by the division of the regular classes into three sections, a slow-moving, a normal, and a fast-moving group. For example, in a second-grade class of 40 pupils, the group might contain 10, 20, and 10 pupils, respectively. These could be instructed by the same teacher, but as separate classes making different progress in doing work of somewhat different quality,

the work of the three sections could be so organized that their separate instruction would be, by no means, an added burden to the teacher. This chapter has been largely devoted to descriptions of children or very exceptional superiority, probably not more than one child in 100 tests above 135, and not more than one in 200 above 140. The children who test between 120 and 135 are several times as numerous, and almost equally

in need of special advantages. It is from this group that the majority of teachers, doctors, lawyers, ministers and other professional men and women come. Special classes vary to 10% of the pupils are perhaps not feasible and may not be necessary, but much can be done by the sectioning of classes in the manner just indicated, and by making the system of promotion more elastic. End of Chapter 11 of the Intelligence of School Children, read by Leon Harvey. Chapter 12 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman.

This is a Librevox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Read by Leon Harvey Chapter 12. Intelligence tests in vocational and educational guidance. Educational and vocational guidance inseparable. Vocational guidance usually receives attention only on the eve of the child's departure from school, thus restricted it falls greatly short of the possible value. If the pupil is to be properly trained for his life work, as well as directed to it,

his education must at every step take account of his vocational possibilities. That is, vocational guidance must be preceded by educational guidance. previous chapters have shown how frequently the school errs in attempting to force children through courses of study which are beyond their intellectual capacities and how futile and discouraging such efforts are. A large proportion of children must leave school with little direct preparation for life simply because they are intellectually incapable of mastering the contents of a curriculum which the school has set up as theoretically desirable for all. It is time that the school should ask not only what it would like to do but what it can

do. Facts have been presented which showed that the limits of a child's educatability can be fairly accurately predicted by means of mental tests given in the first school year. By repeated tests, these limits can be determined accurately enough for all practical purposes by the end of the child's fifth or six school year. This early at least vocational training and vocational guidance should begin. The end is not merely that of keeping the child in school. This in itself is not necessarily desirable. In the conservative school system offering only the traditional courses,

is perhaps just as well that pupils of ATIQ are lower, i.e., 10% of all, should drop out by the age of 15 years. By that time, they have gotten about all they can get from the older type of restricted elementary curriculum. Continuation would mean nothing more than to remain hopelessly stranded in the 6th or 7th grade without further effective training except training in failure. Limitations of vocational guidance It must not be supposed at vocational guidance

in the sense of determining exactly which of a thousand or more vocations a given individual should enter is yet possible. The most important contribution which psychological tests are at present prepared to make is in the measurement of general intelligence. The special abilities which so largely influence success in the majority of vocations have not yet been satisfactorily analysed, much less measured. The intangible factors of interest, willpower, social adaptability, leadership, and personality are still less subject to exact determination, although their combined influence upon vocational success,

is doubtless very real. One's general ability may fit him equally for success in a dozen different vocations, and in this case the ultimate choice should depend upon practical considerations, natural interests, and various traits of personality. Nevertheless, intelligence tests will be of great value in vocational guidance. even if they tell us nothing more than that reasonable success in a given vocation is or is not compatible with the general mental ability which an individual possesses. The saddest as well as perhaps the most common failures in life are due to the selection of a vocation which requires a higher grade of ability than the individual possesses. Hardly less unfortunate is the person whose too modest self-estimate lands him in an occupation that is intellectually beneath him.

A mistake in either direction entails bitter disappointment since often it is not disdemeanor. covered until the time for new choices has gone by. Mistakes of this kind can be largely prevented by intelligence tests as soon as the proper factual basis has been laid. First, however, it will be necessary to find the actual ranges of intelligence represented in the different types of vocations, and especially the lower limit of intelligence which permits reasonable success. It will also be necessary to determine for each typical vocation the level of mental ability

which represents the point of diminishing returns in order to prevent superior ability from being wasted upon vocations which make only moderate intellectual demands. Tests in sufficient number will doubtless show that there exist for most vocations a middle range of mental ability, in which the chances of success are near the maximum. That intelligence below this range becomes less and less favourable to success until a deadline is reached, and that ability of a higher order represents only so much sheer waste. When such standards of occupational intelligence are available, they will furnish the most important single basis for vocational and educational guidance.

Knowing the intelligence of the child, we could then select the vocations well within the range of this intelligence, and leave it at the child's natural interests and to practical considerations to make the final choice. Such a method would not eliminate the possibility of vocational failure, but it would eliminate one of its most common causes. Until the intellectual requirements of the different vocations have been more definitely established, some suggestion for guidance may be gleaned from the following studies of typical vocational groups. Firemen and policemen. In 1916, the city of San Jose, California, made an unusual experiment, perhaps the first of its kind in this or any country. The experiment involved a civil

service examination for positions in the fire and police departments based entirely upon standardized mental and educational tests. The tests used included the Stanford Bennett intelligence scale, the Tribune-Completion test, the Thorndyke oral reading test, the courtes standard test in arithmetic, a handwriting test, and the oddest test of spelling and arithmetic reasoning. 30 candidates presented themselves in competition for the 10 or 12 prospective openings. All were American-born, with ages distributed fairly evenly between 21 and 38 years. Their incomes during the previous year range from $420 to $1,350, with the median of

$960. Their previous occupations ranged from totally unskilled to skilled and high-grade clerical. The distribution of mental ages and IQs was as follows. Mental age 10 to 1011. 1. Mental age 11 to 1111, 2. Mental age 12 to 1211, 7. Mental age 13 to 1311, 7. Mental age 14 to 14, 11, 8. Mental age 15 to 1511 2 Mental age 16 to 16 11 1 Mental age 17 to 17 11 1

Mental age 18 to 18 11 1 IQ 60 to 64 1 IQ 65 to 69 1 IQ 70 to 74 2 IQ 75 to 79 6 IQ 80 to 84 7 IQ 85 to 89, 4.

IQ 90 to 94, 4. IQ 95 to 99, 2. IQ 100 to 104, 1. IQ 105 to 109, 1. IQ 110 to 115, 1. The median mental age was 13.5. The median IQ 84. The lowest fourth fell below 70% IQ.

The highest fourth reached 91 IQ. or above. The minimum IQ compatible with efficiency for policemen and firemen is not known, but in the absence of a definitively established standard, all who tested below 80 IQ were rejected without further consideration. Choice from the remainder was made on the basis of personal history and on the combined results of the various tests. Among those testing below 80Q were four individuals who were already serving in the fire department as extras. They'd gotten their positions under an earlier political regime. The IQs of these four men were 63, 74, 77 and 79.

The 63 IQ individual was 34 years of age and had never earned a wage more than two-thirds as high as that paid the average unskilled laborer in his community. His deficiency is well known to his acquaintances and he had secured his position as extra only through the influence of his father, a man of some local prominence. The individual who tested at 67 IQ

was pronounced by the captain of his militia company to be unquestionably feeble-minded. He had never done better than unskilled labour, and at the time of the examination was without employment. Another of 71 IQ had formerly worked as a hotel porter and also as a railroad signalman. Although the duties of a railroad signalman are extremely simple, they require attentive performance, and one may well doubt whether they can be safely entrusted to an IQ of 71. The following notes may also be of interest as showing what may be expected to various IQs. IQ 77, common labourer in a sawmill, had served one term in the regular army and re-enlisted after failure in the examination. IQ 78, delivery man for a grocery store and extra in the fire department.

IQ 78, a teamster, unskilled labourer. IQ 79, no occupation except as extra in the fire department. IQ 81 has served several years as policemen in an eastern state at $65 to $80 per month. IQ 83, a successful street car conductor, said to be very popular with his patrons because of his general good nature and his interest in people. IQ 112 had completed the second year of high school and earned as high as $125 per month as a salesman. His purpose in securing a position in the fire department was to secure leisure for a correspondence course. in expert accounting. Such data would suggest that the IQ 75 or below belongs ordinarily in the unskilled labor class,

that 75 to 85 is permanently the range for semi-skilled laborer, and that 80 or 85 is ample for success in some kinds of skilled labor. When the candidates were classified into unskilled, semi-skilled, and skilled, according to the occupations they had followed, the following IQ ranges and averages were found. range of IQ unskilled 63 to 89 average IQ 75.5. Range of IQ semi-skilled, 74 to 96. Average IQ 85.2. Range of IQ, skilled or better, 84 to 112. Average IQ, 98.3.

Express company employees. Flanders gave Stanford. been a test to 47 employees of a large express company. Only those were tested who had been with the company at least a year. The work they were doing is indicated by the following random selections. Accounting clerk. COD. Clerk. Settlement clerk. Waybill clerk. Receiving clerk. Clerk in-on-hand department. Wagon dispatcher. Chief router, etc. These were typical of the rank and file of 700 employees, not including supervisors or samuble. my officials at one end or flirters at the other. In practically all cases, the work involved a high degree of specialisation, offering exceedingly limited opportunities for the exercise of

ingenuity or even personal judgment. Success is achieved by the faithful and careful performance of a simple task for the doing of which perfectly definite rules have been given. Although the work done by the 47 employees apparently differed little as regards to the amount of intelligence required, the following wide range of mental ages was found. Mental age 10 to 1011 1 Mental age 11 to 11 11 11 2

Mental age 12 to 1211 0 Mental age 13 to 13 11 9 Mental age 14 to 14 11 7 Mental age 15 to 15 11 13 Mental age 16 to 16 11

4 Mental age 17 to 17 11 5 Mental age 18 to 1811 6 The range was from 10 years, IQ 62, to 18.7, IQ 116, with a median of 15.2, IQ 95. One fourth were below 1310, IQ 86, and one fourth above 16, 7, IQ 104. It is surprising to find men with intelligence, which would enable them to take a college course competing with others who could never graduate from the eighth grade.

As stated by Flanders, such individuals are possibly lacking in certain emotional, moral, or other desirable qualities. It may be that economic pressure crowded them out of the school before they were able to prepare for more exacting service. It may be that the schools did not provide them with suitable vocational training. It may be that they selected their vocations blindly and ignorantly. Whatever the reason, there is evidently a big social and economic loss. Flanders concludes by calling attention to the abundant occupational opportunities open to men of 70 to 80Q, mental age 11 to 13 years. The evolution of modern industrial organisation together with the mechanisation of processes by machinery

is making possible a larger and larger utilization of inferior mentality. One man with ability to think and plan guides the labour of 10 or 20 labourers, who do what they are told to do and have little need for resourcefulness or initiative. It is even suggested that our chief difficulty may sue being to provide enough suitable jobs for those of higher intellectual capacity. We can at least rest assured that society has and will continue to have placed enough for workers of decidedly inferior intelligence provided they are given a training which is sufficiently practical and concrete. Streetcar employees and sales girls CWY tested 82 streetcar motormen and conductors. 61 sales girls in a large department store,

seven railroad engineers and four department store buyers. The mental age found for these groups were as follows. Mental age 97 to 106. Streetcar men 1. Sales girls 2. Total 3. Mental age 10, 7 to 116. Streetcar men 3, sales girls 4. Total 7. Mental age 7 11 to 126. Streetcar men 15, sales girls 14, total 29.

Mental age 12, 7 to 13, 6, streetcar men 19, sales girls 11, total 30. Mental age 137 to 14, 6, streetcar man 18, sales girls 8, total 26. Mental age 147 to 15, 6, streetcar man 14, sales girls 12, engineers 2, Total 28. Mental age 157 to 166. Streetcar men 8, sales girls 8, engineers 2, buyers 1, total 19. Mental age 16 7 to 176, streetcar men 3, sales girls 1, engineers 1, buyers 2, total 7. Mental age 177 to 186.

Streetcar men 1, sales skills 1, engineers 1, buyers 1, total 7. The Medians were as follows. Streetcarmen, 13, 8. IQ. 85.6. Sales girls, 136, IQ 84.5. Engineers 16, IQ 100. Buyers, 17. IQ. 106. The work of a streetcar motor man or conductor rates as semi-skilled. The investigation showed that an IQ of 80 to 90 is entirely satisfactory. for this kind of work provided other traits are favorable. However, a study of the ratings given the men for efficiency indicated that a 75 IQ is an unsafe risk either for motor man or conductor. The one testing lowest 10-5 IQ 65 had a low efficiency rating, and at the time of the test was laid off because of a serious accident caused by his carelessness.

On the other hand, the data suggested that intelligence above 90 or 100 IQ, adds nothing to the efficiency of a motorman or conductor, and that it conduces to discontent. Most of those of highest IQ stated that they were only engaged in the work because of bad luck or unfavorable labour conditions, and they had looked forward to getting something better. Men testing around 80 or 85 usually seemed contented and proud of their jobs. The work done by the sales girls would rate all the way from unskilled to semi-skilled, or in general, slightly lower than the work of streetcar conductors and motormen. The IQ distribution for sales girls, however, was about the same as that for streetcar men.

This is another illustration of what is probably generally true at our present industrial organization, that the economic situation for men of a given IQ is considerably easier than for women of the same intellectual ability. The data for murdermen, conductors, firemen, and policeman indicate that an IQ of 85 among men receives about the same economic rewards as an IQ of 100 to 120 among women, taking the average elementary teacher or high-grade stenographer as typical of this class. Businessmen Nolan and Zedler tested 30 businessmen of moderate success and limited educational advantages. The subjects were typical of the kind of men who own or manage the ordinary stores, barbershops, dreying businesses, etc., in a small town. None had graduated from high school,

only two had attended school above the eighth grade. None had accumulated any concerns ascitable fortune and none had failed outright in business. The following mental ages were found. Mental age 13 to 1311, 1. Mental age 14 to 1411, 6. Mental age 15 to 1511, 7. Mental age 16 to 1611, 7. Mental age 17 to 1711, 6. Mental age 18 to 1811, 2. The median mental age was 16 to IQ 102. The lower age was 16 to IQ 102. The lower The highest fourth were below 15-0, IQ 96.3, and the highest fourth above 17.2, IQ 107. The only individual testing below 14 runs a successful delicate test in establishment. There is no doubt about his inferior intelligence, IQ 81, but he is exceptionally industrious,

and is aided by a wife who is reputed to be the brains of the business. This was the only IQ below 88. The group, as a whole, presents an interesting contrast with the unskilled semi-skill groups tested by Wall and Flanders. Tests of college students Stanford Bennett tests were given under the direction of Coover to 62 students in a psychology class at Stanford University. The group was fairly representative of the student body above the freshman year. The distribution of IQs were as follows.

IQ 85-29, none. IQ 90 to 94, 1. IQ 95 to 991. IQ 100 to 104, 5. IQ 105 to 109.13. IQ 110 to 114. 17. IQ 115 to 119. 20. IQ 120 to 122.5. The median IQ was 113.

1 4th tested below 108 and 1 4th above 117. The lowest IQ was 94. Dr. June Downey tested 42 freshmen and 49 upper-classmen at the University of Wyoming. The median scores for the three groups were freshmen 16-8, IQ 104, upper-classmen, 17-2, IQ 108. The IQ distribution for all of Dr. Downey students taken together were as follows. IQ-85-89, 3. IQ 90 to 94, 4. IQ 95 to 99, 7, IQ 100 to 104, 27, IQ 105 to 109, 17, IQ 110 to 114, 21, IQ 115 to 119, 8, IQ 120 to 120, 4, median 106. Dr. Downey found for the members of her psychology class a correlation of 0.527 between IQ and her own estimates of intelligence.

previously made. In regard to the relative accuracy of the tests and her ratings, Dr. Downey adds more intimate acquaintance with the class convinced me. Moreover, that the IQs were much more accurate than my unaided judgment. In a number of instances, I was able to determine just the fact that that had led me astray. In a majority of cases, the results of the tests agreed fairly well with class marks. Of the seven freshmen who tested below IQ 94, only one return for work the following year. This is the third year in the freshman class, a hopeless drifting from one department to another. As would be expected, some students did much better or much poorer work than the IQ would suggest. The following are typical cases of such disagreement.

Young man passed every test in the scale, but is noted for his many failures in courses. His reputation in college is that of a young man of ability who chooses to turn his talents in other than academic directions. A girl whose very poor work let us expect a record very much lower than she gave. Shyness and indifference are, I believe, the cause of her poor work. A little extra attention in class convinced me of the accuracy of the test results. She is described as having ability to give precise and brief answers to questions, and to hit the nail on her head once her interest is aroused.

The tests of college students justify the conclusion that the student bodies of colleges and universities are recruited mainly from those whose intelligence is concerned. considerably above the median for people in general. This is true to an even greater extent than the IQ's founder would indicate, since, as we have explained elsewhere, page 147, the Stanford Binet does not adequately measure adults of exceptionally superior ability. In all probability, the large majority of college students would, as children in the grammar grades have tested between 100 and 130, with a median of perhaps 115 to 120.

A certain number would probably have tested between 90 and 100, but the chances are remote that a child testing much below 90 will ever be able to satisfy the requirements for college graduation. Children who test below 100 should ordinarily not be encouraged to look forward to entrance in law, medicine, the ministry, engineering, teaching or any other profession which demands a higher degree of ability in abstract or conceptual thinking. Substantial success in such professions is probably achieved only by individuals above the 115 or 120 IQ class.

Tests of social and industrial failures. Nolan tested 154 migrating unemployed men who sought temporary shelter at the Hobo Hotel of Palo Alto, California. Many of these were tramps by profession. Some were merely traveling by foot to other parts of the state in search of employment. The mental age is found were as follows. Mental age 7 to 711 1 Mental age 8 to 811 3 Mental age 9 to 9 11 4

Mental age 10 to 10 11 11 5 Mental age 11 to 11 11 16 Mental age 12 to 12 11 16 Mental age 13 to 13 11 27 Mental age 14 to 14 11 21 28 Mental age 15 to 15 11 24 Mental age 16 to 1611, 15. Mental age 17 to 1711.

10. Mental age 18 to 1811. 5. The median mental age was 14-2. IQ 89. The lowest 25% were below 127, IQ 79. The highest 25% above 158, IQ 98. Johnson gave the Stanford-Binnit test to 107 destitute men picked up random from the

unemployed cared for by various social service organizations in Portland, Oregon. The following mental ages were found. Mental age 7, 2. Mental age 8, 0. Mental age 9, 4. Mental age 10, 7. Mental age 11, 6. Mental age 12, 9.

Mental age 13, 17. Mental age 14, 19. Mental age 15, 12, mental age 16, 10. Mental age 17, 9. Mental age 18, 9. Mental age 19, 3. It will be seen that proportion of low-grade cases is larger in the unemployed groups than for conductors, motor men, sales girls, or express company employees. About 5.5% of Johnson's group tests below 10 years and 12% below 11 years. The corresponding figure for Nolan's group are 5.2% and 8.4%.

However, so many of the unemployed have average or superior intelligence, that the median mental age for the two unemployed groups combined is 14-3 and the median IQ 89. This median exceeds that found for streetcar men, sales girls, and the San Jose civil service applicants, but is considerably lower than the median for businessmen and railroad engineers. From the point of view of vocational education and vocational guidance, the above facts are very significant. Plainly, unemployment in the case that the larger majority of these men is not accounted for by that lack of intelligence. More than 60% had intelligence fully equal to that the average of the 82 regularly employed streetcar employees. At least 10% of them were the intellectual equals of the average Stanford University student,

and probably 25% were intellectually capable of graduating from a high school. Even prisoners and juvenile delinquents, among whom the proportion of feeble-mindedness is admittedly high, are more often than not well within the bounds of intellectual normality. From the scores of studies of prison and reform school inmates, the data of Williams may be presented as typical. The mental age is found among 184 delinquent youth, so 16 years of age at the Whittier State School were as follows. Mental age 7 to 711, 1. Mental age 8 to 811, 3. Mental age 9 to 911, 13, mental age 10 to 10 11, 28. Mental age 11 to 1111, 31.

Mental age 12 to 1211, 33. Mental age 13 to 1311. 32. Mental age 14 to 14, 11, 16. Mental age 15 to 15, 11, 9. Mental age 16 to 16, 11, 12. Mental age 17 to 17, 11, 6. Mental age 18 to 1811, none.

The median mental ages for these delinquents is 12-6, and the median IQ 78. Probably two-thirds of the entire number are intelligent enough to make good unskilled workers. Similar facts were found in the case of 150 consecutive entrants at the San Quentin State Prison, California, who were tested by Nolan. Nearly half of the prisoners were equal in italians

to the average streetcar employee, semi-skilled labor, while several were as intelligent as the average college student. Those who have made psychological studies of juvenile delinquents, prisoners, prisoners and the unemployed, have placed the emphasis upon a large amount of feeble minders found, or will admit that a large proportion of both groups are defective or borderline cases, perhaps 20 or 25 percent of prison and reform school inmates and possibly 10 percent of those out of employment in an average city under average economic conditions.

It would be a serious mistake, however, in our concern over the necessity of social control for defectives should lead us to overlook the large majority in both groups who, as far as intelligence is concerned may be considered potential social assets of great value. It would be interesting to know to what extent the failure of such individuals could be prevented by such measures as vocational education, vocational guidance, and courses of studies sufficiently differentiated to fit the abilities and to satisfy the interests of all the children who are above the deadline of mental deficiency. It will be noted that 45% of Johnson's unemployed are not far from 70% of the delinquents

within the range 70 to 89 IQ. This is a range which furnishes the majority of school dullards. When we investigate the school histories of men who test between 70 and 80, we are almost certain to find a record of low marks, failure, and serious retardation. Those of 80 to 90 class have usually failed less seriously, but have rarely shown the ability to get much beyond the 8th grade. The majority of this 70 to 85 class have left school between 5th and 5th and 7th. eighth grade with little preparation for life or life's work. It is no wonder that many fail

and drift easily into the ranks of the antisocial or join the army of Bolshevik discontents. For convenience, the IQ distributions of the various vocational groups described in this chapter are brought together in Table 40. The scores of six railroad engineers and four department score buyers are thrown in with those of Nolan's 30 businessmen. The data for Nolan's Hobos and Johnson's Distitute Men are also combined, as the IQ distributions were about the same for the two groups. For each group, the median IQ is given, also the IQ which marks off the lowest fourth of those in the group. Table 40 is displayed on the page. Distribution of various vocational groups. Educational guidance. In vocational guidance, the best that intelligence test can do

is to indicate roughly the vocational level in which success is possible. The final choice of vocation must be determined largely by interest and opportunity. For all we know, law, medicine, engineering, teaching, and the ministry make about equal demands upon general intelligence. Perhaps carpentry, masonry, plumbing, blacksmithing, etc. require about the same amount of intelligence as dozens of other skilled trades. However, intelligence tests can tell us whether a child's native ability corresponds approximately to the median found in the professions, the semi-professional pursuits, the ordinary skill trades,

the semi-skilled trades, among unskilled labourers, etc. And this information is of great value in planning a child's education. It is accordingly in educational guidance that intelligence tests have their chief value. Tables 28 to 35, page 159 to 162, have shown the school progress there may be expected of various grades of intelligence, and the facts set forth in other chapters have indicated the relation of intelligence to elimination and to the ability to master high school or college courses. The universal testing of school children would save many a disappointment. A certain woman of intelligence in education has a daughter, who, at the age of 17 years, tested at 78, and was still in the seventh grade.

Yet the mother had not given up the hope that the daughter might become stenographer. A college professor with a 12-year-old son who tested at 83 was planned to send him through college. The boy will be fortunate to complete the eighth grade. Such children are sometimes badgered and urged on until life is a burden. The son of a certain lawyer has always tested at 80 to 85. He wishes to become a gardener and his profitable success in tilling numerous vacant lots sufficiently attests to his ability in this line. The father, however, insists that his son must have a college education. To this end he scolds, coaxes, and employs private tutors.

His best efforts, however, have only brought the boy to the second year of high school at the age of 20 years. The boy comprehends nothing that he is taught and keenly dislikes school. On the other hand, it is by no means uncommon for the exceptionally bright children to be apprenticed early to occupations which require but mediocre intelligence. Anything above 85 IQ in the case of a barber probably represents so much dead waste, yet we know a barber who is as intelligent as the average college student. Although in our country the industrial lines of cleavage are not rigid enough to prevent

ready shift from one occupation to another, provided one determines to make the shift, it must not be forgotten that, after all, men are largely creatures of habit, and after a certain age not find it easy to adjust to the requirements of a new vocation. If we knew the total waste of mental ability, we should probably be appalled. The waste is probably enormous in the case of women because of a limited number of vocational opportunities open to them. The Conservation of Talent A nation's intellectual assets are the most precious it will ever have, and the principle of conservation will find here its most useful application.

In the conservation of talent, the teacher occupies a strategic position. It is her duty to foster in her pupil the life. highest ambitions which are consonant with his intellectual endowment. To expect that she will be able to estimate a pupil's endowment accurately enough by mere observation is to expect too much. We have known so many bright children who are seriously underrated by their teachers that the necessity of the test method as a supplement to observation seems hardly open to question. If tests were more commonly given, we should probably find many children like the following. A.B. was 12 years old and in the sixth grade.

He was failing, or at any rate his work was unsatisfactory to the teacher. As a matter of fact, she did not promote him at the end of the term. The father consulted Mr. Virgil E. Dixon, the psychologist of the city schools, who gave the boy a mental test. The IQ was approximately 140. Apparently A.B. had a grade of ability not equalled by more than one child in 200. Inquiry disclosed the fact that the boy had formed a dislike for his teacher. This teacher required her pupils to copy from the dictionary the definition of all the new words encountered in each lesson.

When A.B. said he knew all the words, she accused him of untruthfulness. In reality, his vocabulary was equal to that of the average teacher. The case deserved radical treatment and got it. Mr. Dixon, notwithstanding the boy's non-promotion in the sixth grade, arranged for him to skip both the seventh and eighth grade and to enter high school immediately. He did so and passed all his work with good marks. For some months, his teachers were not told of the heresy

that had been committed, and they never suspected that the pupil had not come to them in the usual way. Cases of this kind suggest an explanation for the traditional, but incorrect belief that a majority of great men and women were dull or mediocre in childhood. End of Chapter 12 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman. Chapter 13 of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Read by Leon Harvey

Chapter 13 Practical Suggestions for the Use of Mental Tests Teachers Must Learn to Use the Tests Unless the rank and file of teachers learn to use tests, the universal grading of children according to mental ability will remain largely a utopian dream. We cannot agree with those who hold their bitter tests should not be attempted by teachers.

Teachers are universally encouraged to use such education, educational measurements as the cordis tests, handwriting scales and tests of ability at reading, history and composition. Yet it is fully as difficult to learn the correct procedure for a battery of six or eight standard educational tests as to require a reasonable facility in the use of the Bennett scale. It should be emphasized, however, that wherever possible, the use of both educational and intelligence tests should be supervised either by a psychologist or by someone else who has had extended experience in their use, and in the interpretative, of results. It is here that the psychologist finds his proper task, rather than in giving the tests himself. The public school psychologist, for example, cannot himself give more than 800 to 1,000-1,000 tests in a school year, but he can supervise the testing and granting of 10,000 by taking advantage of the help which teachers can give. This method not only increases

the number of pupils who will be graded more nearly in accordance with their abilities, it also effectively stimulates the teacher's interest in her children. Preparation needed for binet testing. However, no one should attempt to use a binnet scale without careful preparation. The training needed can be given effectively in the normal school. A half-year course of three lessons per week or a somewhat shorter course with five lessons per week will serve the purpose if it is properly supplemented by other courses in educational psychology. Such a course should, one, introduce the student to the nature and extent

of individual differences among children. 2. Show the bearing of these upon school grading. 3. Explain the fundamental principles underlying intelligence testing and 4. Give a fair degree of mastery of the Bennett procedure. The use of at least one scale for group testing should also be taught. The course should include actual testing by the student as well as demonstration tests. Courses of this kind should be considered an indispensable part of the normal school curriculum. Meanwhile, what about the teacher in service who has not had the advantage of such instruction?

Must she continue to rely on guesswork for the classification of her pupils? A fairly extended experience has convinced us that it is not necessary. With a little help, the average teacher can prepare herself to use standardized mental tests accurately enough for practical purposes. If there is a psychologist in the school system, the problem can be solved by forming Saturday or afternoon classes for giving the needed instruction. If no psychologist is available, someone else can often be found in the school system who is capable of directing the work, perhaps the director of special classes, or a principal who has had some training in the use of tests. A six weeks course in a summer session of a normal school or university will also provide the necessary training. How to learn the Bennett procedure without instruction.

If no help is available, the earnest teacher need not hesitate to undertake the task alone. It is best to begin by first mastering the contents of two or three books dealing with individual differences and the principles of mental testing. Then the Binnett procedure should be carefully studied. Merely to read through a description of the test is not sufficient. The directions should be studied with the closest attention to the finer details of procedure and to the method of scoring, computing mental age, etc. The significance of mental age as a basis of school grading and of the IQ for forecasting and child's later development should receive special attention. Actual testing may then be begun, preferably with the help of the record booklet prepared

for use with the Stanford Bermitt scale. This contains appropriate spaces for the verbatim recording of results and gives abbreviated directions for scoring. It also saves memory strain and prevents error by supplying the exact wording for many of the tests. After testing one or two children, the instructions should be read through again, and each step in the procedure noted. This always brings certain points into relief which have escaped notice.

By thus checking up her procedure after each test, the teacher will acquire a sureness and a degree of accuracy which nothing else can give. After 15 or 20 tests, the mental age secured should be substantially the same as a trained psychologist would get, assuming that the teacher has studied the directions with conscientiousness care and has learned not to take liberties with them. It is necessary to understand from the very beginning that an apparently trivial alteration of a test may so change its nature as to invalidate the results. The formula for each test should be adhered to strictly.

Questions should ordinarily not be repeated except when the instructions indicate that it is permissible to do so. It is necessary to avoid leading questions and other forms of unintentional aid. If the child's answer is not clear the question, what do you mean, is usually sufficient and is practically the only form of supplementary question allowable. A free and easy manner with the child should be assidiously cultivated. D timidity must be overcome, so that the child will do his best. without undue coaxing.

If the child's confidence is to be gained, it is necessary to take his efforts seriously, however absurd they may appear. Attention should never be called to errors, apart from some vague commendations as, you've done beautifully, etc. The child should be told nothing of the results of the test. The examination should be thorough.

It should extend down the scale far enough to include at least one year in which there is no failure, and not far enough to include at least a year in which there is no success. By using only the six regular tests in each year, the examination can ordinarily be completed in 30 to 40 minutes with younger subjects, or in 50 minutes with older ones. With subjects of the high school level, a little more time is occasionally necessary. At first, the time is prolonged by the recording of replies, which should always be done as nearly as possible verbatim. A little experience in the liberal use of abbreviations soon enables one to do this

without retarding the examination appreciably. Learning to score The responses if recorded should be scored immediately after the examination has been completed. If responses are not recorded, the scoring must be done as the examination proceeds. Wherever there is a slightest doubt as to the satisfactoriness of a response,

the guide should be consulted and followed. Since the scale has been standardized on a definite basis of scoring, it is evident that unless this rule is adhered to the resulting mental age and IQ lose their significance. The teacher must learn to suppress her personal judgment as to how a test ought to be given or scored, and to ask only the question how it is given. With conscientious effort, the errors of scoring can soon be reduced to a reasonable minimum. If a psychologist is available, the teacher's scoring should be checked up from the written responses

until the right habits have been thoroughly established. This is the method followed by Dixon, who writes as follows as regards, regarding the errors made by 21 Oakland teachers in scoring several hundred tests. Before the testing was begun, six lessons of one and a half hours each were given. Each teacher then tested her own pupils and graded and marked her own tests. I then graded the test myself with the following results. No correction of mental age necessary? 68.2%.

Correction of two months, 20.4%. Correction of four months. 10.8%. correction of six months, 0.6%. This excellent record is explained in part by the fact that the subjects were all first-grade pupils, so that the teachers were not compelled to learn the procedure in scoring for the test below four years or above 10. It will be noted that hardly any errors necessitated a correction of more than four months in mental age. For the average first-grade child, an error of this amount would affect the IQ to the extent of only five points.

We have elsewhere reported the errors of five university students in scoring 843-minute tests. The mental ages as computed by the students were correct. Within two months, in 84.8% of cases, within four months in 95.5% of cases, within six months in 98.6% of cases. The average error in IQ was about one point. Approximately one-third of the necessary corrections were due to arithmetic mistakes and counting the number. of plus marks adding months of credit or dividing mental age by chronological age. Practically all of the errors of more than six months in mental age or of more than five to eight points in IQ were of this preventable kind.

The counting and adding of credits and the division for IQ should always be done twice for each subject. Tabulation of the errors in scoring the separate tests in the scale showed that two tests were responsible for 30% of the errors. These were the ball and field test and the description interpretation of pictures. Others which gave rise to frequent areas were the following. Definitions by use and superior to use, interpretation of fables, the comprehension questions, the diamond, designs, and definitions of abstract terms. The directions set forth in the measurement of intelligence for scoring these

tests should be consulted again and again until they have been thoroughly mastered. The interpretation and use of results. To acquire a reasonable degree of expertness in giving bin at tests is a much simpler matter than to learn how to interpret an user results. We have written this book primarily to show concretely the significance of mental age and intelligence quotient in the grading of school children. While its careful study should aid the amateur to avoid gross errors in the user results, there is much which experience alone can bring in much which only those of psychological training can acquire. In cities which employ a school site to colleges, the problem is simple enough. The teachers can make the tests and live to the psychologist to interpret the results and to utilize them in the classification of children.

If there is no recognized expert in the school system, the teacher must work with caution. She must learn to consider her interpretation on the test in a tentative light and must avoid the risk of passing judgment in doubtful or apparently pathological cases. She must understand clearly that the mere ability to determine, give a Bennett test acceptably gives her no claim to the title of clinical psychologist. If she will use the test simply as a means of getting a more accurate idea of a child's mental ability, then she could get in any way, she will be amply rewarded. For obvious reasons, the teacher should use discretion in talking about the results of the tests,

that the child should not be told his general mental age right to has already been emphasized, the teacher will also find that it is generally unwise to discuss the test results with parents in very specific terms. Such expressions as exceptionally bright, mentally retarded or slow to learn are usually harmless, but expressions like dullard, feeble-minded, borderline, etc., should be avoided. Even if the parents know the child to be feeble-minded, they resent the teachers saying so, justly feeling that the diagnosis of mental defect is not within her province. This is the rule, but of course there are exceptions. The tactful teacher, who has the confidence of the mother, can sometimes talk with her, quite frankly, about the defects of her children.

The teacher's attitude should always be one of sympathetic openness. Leverty or cynical remarks about the dullness of a pupil should always be avoided. It is best not to discuss IQs and mental ages of individual pupils too freely among acquaintances or even among colleagues. One never knows when or where a chance remark will be repeated. Above all, the teacher must learn not to interpret the results of a test to literally and not to depend upon them too exclusively. The child is not all intelligence. his fitness to take up the work of a given grade is determined partly by such factors as health industry, attitude towards schoolwork, and regularity of attendance.

Immediate and wholesale regrading of the school on the basis of mental age as soon as the tests have been completed is not recommended. It is best to begin with individual children who are merely seriously misplaced, especially the very bright, who are nearly always one or two grades below where they belong. As one after another of these is found to continue to do good work after extra promotions, the teacher will gradually acquire confidence in her judgment and in the verdict of the tests. It is necessary, however, to avoid the danger of making a fetish of the IQ, which we have shown to be by no means infallible. An IQ of 85, for example, means no more or less than a child tested later will probably be found between 80 and 90. It does not mean that he may

not later test as high as 100 or as low as 70, although the chances are roughly 22 to 1 against doing so. Because the possibility of such errors, however, it is necessary to check up the results of the test in every possible way. The test should mark the beginning of the end of the teacher's study of a given child. As a point of departure, the intelligence test is of great value. Accepted as a final verdict and may lead to mistakes and disappointment. Children who cannot do the schoolwork within at least one year if that corresponding to mental age should be studied. Usually a reason will be found. Perhaps the child lacks self-confidence, possibly because of timidity, his schoolwork has not shown up at its full value.

Perhaps there is a lack of application. Whatever explanation is found, the teacher will understand the child in a way that will never have been possible without the insight which the test gives. Case of which continue doubtful or puzzling should be retested. The use of supplementary data. Before beginning your test, the teacher should secure the following data for each child. 1. Age and years and months. 2. Years in school.

3. Record of illnesses. 4. Nationality of each parent. 5. Occupation which supports the family. 6. Data regarding the child's brothers and sisters. It also greatly enhances the value of test results so these can be compared with ratings based on observation. For this purpose, the teachers should rate each of her pupils for quality of schoolwork, general intelligence, and 2 or 3 personal traits like dependability, social adaptability, conscientiousness, etc. The ratings should be made on the basis of either a five-fold or seven-fold classification as follows. Five-fold classifications.

1. Very superior. 2. Superior. 3. Average. 4. Inferior. 5. Very-firmation. 7-fold classifications. 1. Very superior. 2. Superior. 3. High average. 4 average. 5 low average. 6 inferior. 7. Very inferior. The rating should, of course, be made in advance to the tests in order they may represent an independent judgment. Their comparisons later with the test results will prove of surpassing interest. One pupil tests lower than he was rated, another higher.

Why the discrepancy? In solving such problems, a good many of which are sure to arise in the testing of forty pupils, the teacher will gain insight into the mentality and character of her children that will richly repay her for the somewhat difficult task of making the ratings. The teacher will find it especially interesting and instructive to compare her trait ratings with the IQs letter found in the tests. By doing so, she will see the close correlation which usually exists between desirable traits. Notwithstanding occasional exceptions to the rule, she will find that usually the child she has rated high in consciousness, obedience, willpower, sense of humor, etc.,

will earn a high IQ in the Bennett test. The child, she is rated low and inferior IQ. In this way, she will come to appreciate the close connection which often exists between unsatisfactory conduct and inferior intelligence. In connection with the other supplementary information, the teacher will find it instructive to compare the IQ of the various nationalities and occupational groups represented in her class. The Providence example. The City of Providence, Rhode Island, offers an excellent illustration of what may be accomplished by training teachers in the use of mental tests. Under the leadership, of Mr. Richard D. Allen, Director of Vocational Guidance, and of Miss Green, Supervisor of Primary Instruction,

large numbers of the teachers of that city have been taught to give Bennett tests. The instruction is given in a four-weeks course in the summer normal school, and includes 20 practice tests. A teacher's club of 200 members has been formed for the purpose of promoting the grading of school children by mental ability. Miss Green's work in testing first-grade children has already been mentioned. Mr. Allen has kindly sent us the following information regarding this experiment. I found that at the beginning of my work with the tests there were a great many puzzling things. For example, I occasionally found pupils who tested low and were nevertheless doing fair work. In such cases when I took the mental age into account, I usually found that this was above the mental age of the children with whom they were competing.

The facts were then easily to explain. I have yet to find a single case of the 2,000 tests we have made in which the IQ and mental age, do not throw valuable light upon the reasons for success or failure. Our tests show that 90%, at least, of school retardation is without doubt due to mental inferiority. There are very few seriously retired children who do not do satisfactory work in school when they are placed in a grade which corresponds to mental age. One of the results of placing children of the same mental age together has been cutting down or failures by fully 50%.

We have arranged to give an intelligence test to every time. child who leaves school to go to work, and we use the test in determining roughly the limits of the child's vocational possibilities. We have found, for example, that retarded boys who drop out of the fifth or sixth grade because of lack of ability to do the work often succeed well at painting or playing carpentry. The boys who test higher have, of course, a wide range of vocational possibilities. Concerning one group of 1,016 children whose mental test and schoolwork had being compared, Mr. Allen presented the following facts. 1. Of 67 who tested below 70 IQ, 63 made an average school mark of D or E.

Of 200 who tested above 110 IQ, only 4 had an average school mark as low as D. 2. Of the 69 pupils testing below 70, all except 7 were located in the grade above the corresponding to mental age. Of 84 pupils testing above 120, everyone was located in a grade below that corresponding to mental age. age. Many were below grade as much as three, four or five years. 3. Of 103 children who are located in a grade either one and a half or two years above that corresponding to mental age, over 90% are failures. 4. A great majority of the children who test under 90 IQ never graduate from the grammar school. 5. There is clearly a very close relation between the placement of a child in school

and the quality of work he is able to perform. Scholarship plus chronological age plus the grade in which a child is located gives a fairly good basis for estimating the child's mental age. Conversely, the IQ plus the mental age plus the grade gives a fairly clear estimate of the quality of the work which the child should be able to do. Getting the testing done. The earlier in the term the tests are made that created their value.

Since the testing must ordinarily be done out of school hours, it is likely to be two or three months before the teacher can complete her pupil survey. One test each afternoon will dispose of the difficult cases within a few weeks, and of the entire class in a month or two. Sometimes Saturdays can be utilised to advantage by making special appointments with pupils to come to the school for the purpose. Children invariably like to be tested, and are always willing to forego an hour of play for the experience.

The teacher will not long regard the work as an additional burden, The interest in seeing how the different children respond to the same test grows to the point of fascination. The work is also made easier by noting how the experience adds to the pupil's feelings of intimacy towards a teacher. To test a child skillfully nearly always means to win a devoted little friend. The deaths should be made, however, even though they can only come at the middle or end of the term, as a result can be used to great advantage in deciding doubtful cases of promotion or double promotion. The teacher should record the results in full for each child in a little book to be kept in her desk for handy reference. The record should include after the child's name, the age, in years and months, the mental age, the IQ,

the nationality of each parent, the occupation that supports the home, and the various ratings on schoolwork, intelligence and other traits. If educational tests have been given, the results of these should be recorded here also. The teacher who keeps such a record will soon come to look upon it as indispensable. The testing should be carried on in such a way as not to excite undue comment among the pupils. The teacher will, of course, referring from speaking of the tests as intelligence tests. She may refer to them merely as tests to see what children can do. She can avoid creating apprehension by beginning with the brightest pupils. She will thus prevent the idea getting abroad that to be given a test means to be suspected of mental inferiority.

It is never advisable or necessary to test a child against his will. After a few have been given a test, the others are in very very. anxiously to have the same privilege. The use of abbreviated tests. When possible, each child should be given a complete minute test. But if time does not permit this, the teacher can make a fairly satisfactory survey of her pupils by means an abbreviated form of the scale, which requires no more than 10 to 20 minutes per pupil, according to the form of abbreviation used.

Although the brief test falls a good deal short of the complete test in reliability, it is far better than nothing. The following abbreviations of the Stanford Division will be found serviceable. 1. The 4 tests for each year group, 6 in Year 12, indicated in the record booklet by stars,

time required approximately 30 minutes. 2. Any 3 tests chosen at random from each year group, but 4 in year 12. Time approximately 20 minutes. 3. The vocabulary test alone. Time 8 to 10 minutes. When few with a few,

the regular number of tests are used in a year group. It is of course necessary to increase the value of each test in months in proportion to the reduction of number. In the year groups below 12, each test has a value of two months when all six are used in each year, of three months when four tests are used, and of four months when only three tests are used. The same principle holds in the upper part of the scale. In year 12, for example, each test has a value of three months when all eight are given, of four months when six are given, and of six months when four are given. Perhaps the sure The first way to avoid errors of weighing tests is to follow the rule of giving either all the regular tests or only half of them in each year. If only half a given, the regular weighting will of course be doubled and the tests of different year groups would have the following values.

Years 1 to 10, 4 months. Year 12, 6 months. Year 14, 8 months. Year 16, 10 months. Year 18, 12 months. This form of abbreviation can be given to younger children in 15 months. to younger children in 15 to 20 minutes. Either the first half of the test can be given in each year group, or they can be selected

according to the limitations of time or the preference of the examiner. Otter says determined statistically the reliability of either half of the Stanford Bennett scale when it is thus lit into vertically. His study shows the probable error of an IQ to be about 4.5 points when half the scale is used and about 3 points when all of it is used. This means that in 50% of the cases the IQ found when half the scale is used would fall within the range of four and a half points above or four and half points below the true IQ and that the IQ found when the entire scale is used as in 50%

of cases within the range of three points above or three points below the true IQ. Half the scale is thus accurate enough for most practical purposes. The vocabulary test has a brief intelligence scale. Where a hasty preliminary shifting of the pupils is necessary it is recommended that the vocabulary test be used by itself. It should be given to one child at a time, taken alone and required, on an average, only about 8 or 10 minutes. If the complete business test is given later, the vocabulary scores can be added in and

no time will have been lost. Mental age 7, median vocabulary, 13. Mental age 8, median vocabulary 18. Mental age 9, median vocabulary 23. Mental age 10, median vocabulary 30. Mental age 11, median vocabulary 35. mental age 12, median vocabulary 41. Mental age 13, median vocabulary 46. Mental age 14, median vocabulary 51. Mental age 15, median vocabulary 57. Mental age 16, median vocabulary 62.

Mental age 17, medium vocabulary 67. Mental age 18, medium vocabulary 73. Mental age 19, median vocabulary 75. Mental age 19, median vocabulary 75. On the basis of the above mental age standards, the Stanford vocabulary test gives a mental age correct within one year in about 60% of cases and within a year and a half in 80% of cases. The teacher will doubtless be surprised that any single test requiring only 10 minutes

could possess this degree of accuracy. One might very well suppose that a child's vocabulary would depend upon home environment and formal instruction, that it would be an indexed of special rather than general ability, and that anyway it could not be accurately enough measured by a list of 100 words selected at random from a dictionary. As we have shown elsewhere, all of these theoretical objections are contradicted by the facts. That it measures general intelligence rather than special ability is shown by the high correlation of vocabulary score with Stanford-bin-at mental ages.

Table 41 shows that the correlation for 631 school children was 0.91. The probable error of The mental age based on the vocabulary score alone is approximately nine and a half months. This means that 50% of vocabulary mental ages would deviate less than nine and a half months from the mental age resulting from a complete standard binnet test. It would deviate more than 12 months in only 40% of cases and more than 24 months in only 10% of cases. Table 41 is displayed on the page showing the close agreement between mental age and vocabulary score.

Correlation .91. The vocabulary is much less influenced by the cultural status of the home than one would expect. The following illustration is typical. A. B. The feeble-minded son of a college professor is 14 years old and tests at the mental age of 11 by the Stanford Binnett. His vocabulary score alone indicated a mental age of 114. The exceptional language environment of this boy had raised his vocabulary only a third of a year above his general mental level. The influence of exceptionally poor language environment is also very slight. E is a Portuguese boy whose parents speak only broken English.

This boy, the brightest we have tested from a Portuguese family, tested at the mental age of 186 when he was 14. 5 chronologically. His vocabulary score, so many words, was equal to the median for first-year college students. The extreme poverty of his language environment had not prevent his vocabulary from keeping pace with his general level of intelligence. A vocabulary A preliminary test of 100 words is sufficient to measure an individual's total vocabulary very accurately. When several different word lists of this kind are used, with the same subject they give approximately the same result. The probable error of vocabulary score for a 100 word list is about two words.

And since each word on the list represents 180 words in the dictionary, the probable error of total vocabulary based on the test is 360 words. For example, if a subject defines 40 words correctly, is total vocabulary. figures at 40 by 180 or 7,200 words. The chances are 50 to 50 that this subject's actual vocabulary lies within the range of 7,200 plus or minus 360, i.e. between 6,840 and 7,560. The chances are 22 to 1 that the total vocabulary is calculated from the score in the vocabulary test will not be found to deviate from the true vocabulary by more than 1,000.

thousand words. Group tests. Above the third grade, the preliminary sifting and classification can be done most expeditiously by means of some of the recently devised group tests. These can be given simultaneously to all the pupils of a class in 50 to 60 minutes. Some of the group tests have the great advantage that they require no extended training, either for giving or scoring. The scoring is done mechanically by means of stencils and requires about 10 minutes.

per pupil. The tests can be given as a regular school exercise and the scoring can be done at the teacher's convenience out of school hours. While no scale has been devised for group testing, which he always says dependable results has a binnet method. The group tests are deserving of wide vogue. There should be no rivalry between the group method and the individual method of testing, as each supplements the other, or the pupils above the third or fourth grade should be given a group test annually. We may confidently expect this practice to become common, in the no distant future. The individual method will find its field in the first three grades

and in the more thorough examination of children in the upper grades who make exceptional scores in the group test. End of Chapter 13 of the Intelligence of School Children, recorded by Leon Harvey, and the end of the Intelligence of School Children by Lewis Terman.