Classic Audiobook Collection - The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark ~ Full Audiobook [history]

Starting point is 00:00:00 The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Maryweather Lewis and William Clark, Section 1. The Journal of Lewis and Clark to the mouth of the Columbia River beyond the Rocky Mountains, in the years 1804 to 5 and 6, giving a faithful description of the river Missouri and its source of the various tribes of Indians through which they passed, manners and customs, soil, climate, commerce, gold and silver mines, animal and vegetable productions, etc. From Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, to Congress. Novel and Arduous Undertaking The expedition of Messrs. Lewis and Clark for exploring the river Missouri

Starting point is 00:00:53 and the best communication from that to the Pacific Ocean has had all the success which could be expected. they have traced the Missouri nearly to its source, descended the Columbia to the Pacific Ocean, ascertained with accuracy the geography of that interesting communication across the continent, learned the character of the country, its commerce and inhabitants, and it is but justice to say that Mrs. Lewis and Clark and their brave companions have, by this arduous service, deserved well of their country. Thomas Jefferson

Starting point is 00:01:29 An additional message to the Senate and House In pursuance of a measure proposed to Congress by a message of January 19th, 1,803 and sanctioned by their approbation for carrying it into execution, Captain Maryweather Lewis of the First Regiment of Infantry was appointed with a party of men to explore the river Missouri from its mouth to its source, and, crossing the highlands by the shortest portage, to seek the best water communication thence to the Pacific Ocean, and Lieutenant Clark was appointed

Starting point is 00:02:10 second in command. They were to enter into conference with the Indian nations on the route, with a view to the establishment of commerce with them. They entered the Missouri, May 14, 1804, and on the 1st of November took up their winter quarters near the a mandon towns, 1,609 miles above the mouth of the river, in latitude, 47 degrees, 21 minutes, 27 seconds north, and longitude 99 degrees, 24 minutes, 56 seconds west from Greenwich. On the 8th of April 1805, they proceeded up the river in pursuance of the objects prescribed to them. A letter of the preceding day, April 7th, from capital. in Lewis is herewith communicated. During his stay among the mandans, he had been able to lay down

Starting point is 00:03:05 the Missouri, according to courses and distances taken on his passage up it, corrected by frequent observations of longitude and latitude, and to add to the actual survey of this portion of the river, a general map of the country between the Mississippi and the Pacific, from the 34th to the 54th degrees of latitude. These additions, are from information collected from Indians with whom he had the opportunities of communicating during his journey and residence with them. Copies of this map are now presented to both houses of Congress.

Starting point is 00:03:42 With these I communicate also a statistical view procured and forwarded by him of the Indian nations inhabiting the territory of Louisiana and the countries adjacent to its northern and western borders, of their commerce and of other interesting circumstances respecting them. Thomas Jefferson. End of Section 1. Section 2 of The Journal of Lewis and Clark.

Starting point is 00:04:14 This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by E. Lee. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Merriweather Lewis and William Clark. Preface The advantages that arise from the discoveries of unknown regions are too numerous to be mentioned. They arise one after another in continual succession.

Starting point is 00:04:48 Geography, civilization, humanity, and the arts and sciences receive aid from them. From the knowledge of geography accrues the most intrinsic advantages of any science extent it not only feasts the imagination with the amusement of novel descriptions but is the life of commerce whence the arts and sciences receive succor and a reciprocal exchange it cannot fail of giving pleasure to the philanthropic mind to behold implements of agriculture put in the hands of the uncivilized barbarian to provide and protect him from the precarious reliance on the chase for a scanty sustenance The time is not far distant, in all moral probability, when the uncultivated wilds of the interior part of the continent, which is now only inhabited by the tawny sons of the forest and the howling beasts of prey, will be exchanged for the hardy votaries of agriculture, who will turn the sterile wilderness into rich cultivated and verdant fields. It may be suggested that the intolerable sufferings of the Aborigines from the importation of foreign diseases and the more baneful influence of spiritual liquors more than counterbalance the benefits that they receive from civilization. These objections, it must be frankly confessed, are very powerful.

Starting point is 00:06:18 But it is hoped that vigilant measures will be pursued by a government professed to be founded on the principal. of humanity and wisdom to prohibit the introduction of spiritual liquors among them. The smallpox has raged when little or no communication was held with them. Provisions are already made to introduce vaccine inoculation among them, which will prevent those horrid ravages which are mentioned in the course of the work. Curiosity is often excited to contemplate that regions upwards of 3,000 miles and lengths bordering on a country inhabited by an inquisitive and enterprising people who could avail themselves of the benefits of a lucrative fur trade should remain so long unexplored

Starting point is 00:07:08 many impediments have retarded the tour that has laid open to view a country hitherto hidden from the knowledge of the civilized american attempts have been made by the great discoverer captain cook to find a communication by water in the northern regions between the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. Whether the two great oceans are joined together in those regions remains an uncertainty, but the rigors of a frigid zone convinced that though they joined it, it was impracticable to navigate between them. To travel among the Indians is but too often thought the road that inevitably leads the unfortunate venture to an untimely death. The barbarity of the Indians in war is proverbial, but in time of peace, hospitality and humanity

Starting point is 00:08:04 are traits justly due to their character. It is a judicious saying of an eminent traveler among them that, in time of peace, no greater friends, in time of war, no greater enemies. Before the acquisition of Louisiana by the United States, the jealous, disposed of the of the Spaniards debarred all adventures for discoveries from that quarter. These impediments would compel the discoveries of the western part of the continent to be made by a voyage by the way of Cape Horn, which would be too long, arduous, and expensive to entice the enterprise.

Starting point is 00:08:45 In the year 1789, the celebrated traveler Alexander McKinsey embarked from Fort Chippewa Wayan in latitude 58. north longitude 110 west from greenwich and with the greatest fortitude under embarrassing and perilous circumstances he with assiduity explored the northern region to nearly the seventieth degree of north latitude where obstruction by ice compelled him to return to fort chip awyan thence he ascended peace river to its source and thence to the pacific ocean making many discoveries which he judicious narrated in his journal. The following statement of the commerce of the Missouri is made by a gentleman, which will sufficiently show the advantages that arise from it. The products which are drawn from the Missouri are obtained from the Indians and the hunters in exchange for merchandise. They may be classed according to the subjoined table. Caster

Starting point is 00:09:50 12,281 pounds at $1.20 a pound. Total of $14,737.20. Otters, 1,267 skins at $4.0 a skin. Total of $5,068.0 cents. Foxes, Puafox's, tiger cats, 802 skins at 50 cents a skin. total of $401.0.0. Raccoons, 4,248 skins at 25 cents a skin, total of $1,662.0.

Starting point is 00:10:44 Bears, black, gray and yellow. 2,541 skins at $2.0 a skin. of $5,082.0.0. Puse's. No entry. Buffalo's, 1,714 skins at $3.0 a skin, total of $5,142.0. 0. Dressed cow hides, 189 skins at $1.50 a skin, total of $283.50. Shorn deer skins, 96,926 pounds at 40 cents a pound, total of 38,7,000 7,000, total of 38,7, $770.40. Deer skins with hair. 6,381 skins at 50 cents of skin, total of $3190.50.

Starting point is 00:12:06 Tallow and fat. 8,313 pounds at 20 cents a pound. Total of 1,660. $1,662.60. Bears oil. 2,310 gallons at $1.28 a gallon, total of $2,572.0.0. Muskrats. No entry.

Starting point is 00:12:40 Martins. No entry. Total value, 77,9771. dollars 20 cents. The calculations in this table, drawn from the most correct accounts of the produce of the Missouri during 15 years, make the average of a common year $77,971. On calculating in the same proportion, the amount of merchandise entering the Missouri and given in exchange for peltries, it is found that it amounts 61,200,000. including expenses equal to one-fourth of the value of the merchandise.

Starting point is 00:13:23 The result is that this commerce gives an annual profit of $16,721, or about 27%. If the commerce of the Missouri, without encouragement and badly regulated, gives annually so great a profit, may we not rest assured that it will be greatly augmented should government direct its attention to it? It is also necessary to observe that the price of Peltry, fixed by this table, is the current price in Illinois. If it were regulated by the prices of London, deducting the expenses of transportation, the profit, according to our calculations, would be much more considerable.

Starting point is 00:14:09 If the Missouri, abandoned to savages and presenting by one branch of commerce, yield such great advantages in proportion to the capital employed in it what might we not hope if some merchants or companies with large capital and aided by a population extended along the borders of the river should turn their attention to other branches of the trade which they might undertake i dare say with a certainty of success when we consider the richest buried in its banks and of which i have endeavoured in these notes to give an idea Estimate of the several mines. Mine at Burton or 550,000 pounds, produced 662 thirds, is 336,6 and 2 thirds, lead at $5, is $18,33333. To which add 30 on 120,000 pounds manufactured, to each thousand is $3,600.0. Subtotal, $21,933.33. Old mines.

Starting point is 00:15:31 200,000 pounds mineral. Estimated to produce 662 thirds is, 33,333 l. 330 and 1 third pounds lead at $5 per 100 weight is 6,66. Mine at Lamotte. 200,000 pounds lead at $5 per 100 weight is $10,000 0. Suppose at all the other mines, 30,000 pounds lead at $5.00.0.

Starting point is 00:16:13 Subtotal, $18,166.67. Total amount is $40,100.0. When the manufacture of white and red lead is put into operation, The export valuation will be considerably augmented on the quality of lead. End of Section 2. Section 3 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is the Librevox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain.

Starting point is 00:16:56 For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Recording by Nadine Eckerd Poulay. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Maryweather Lewis and William Clark, Chapter 1. Introduction On the 14th of May 1804, we embarked from St. Louis on our expedition. Having, previous to our setting out, provided ourselves with everything requisite for the prosecution of the voyage which consisted of large quantities of ammunition and firearms,

Starting point is 00:17:27 for the purpose of protecting us from the hostile attacks of the natives, and for procuring us food. We likewise took a large quantity of ornaments consisting of medals, trinkets, etc., for the the purpose of gaining a favorable reception among the Indians and to procure us such articles of use as our situation required. Our company consisting of 43 were generally divided into two companies, the one for hunting, who traveled by land and overtook the other party at night, who were in our water convenience, which consisted only of two small pirogues and a bateau.

Starting point is 00:18:04 We were compelled to encamp by night on the banks of the river, our vessel being too light to sail except by day. The great object of our expedition was to aid commerce and promote immigration. The country bordering on the misery produces immense quantities of fur, which can be purchased of the Indians for a mere trifle, and which can be easily transported from the head of the Missouri to the Columbia River with a very little expense, considering the low rate that horses can be purchased from the snake Indians who inhabit the country at the head of the misery. to transport them to the Columbia River and thence to China by a very short route.

Starting point is 00:18:44 This trade would give employment to an immense number of inhabitants, and the country is sufficiently luxuriant for the population of an immense colony. End of Section 3. Section 4 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Maryweather Lewis and William Clark.

Starting point is 00:19:19 Chapter 2 The Missouri, length, color, various other rivers, Indian tribes, prairies on fire, obstructions in the river, trees, their size, plants, products of the soil, salt springs, salt Peter, stones, volcanoes, good spirit, and evil spirit, oars, salines on the Arkansas, salt mines, etc. The Missouri is already ranked among the greatest rivers. It is an object of astonishment to the whole world. The curious mind admires its rapidity, length, salubrious water, and is astonished at its color, while the reflecting mind admires the innumerable riches scattered on its banks, and foreseeing the future, beholds already this rival of the Nile, flowing through countries as fertile and populist and as extensive as those of Egypt.

Starting point is 00:20:22 A traveler, however intelligent he may be, can give but a faint idea of the innumerable riches accumulated on its banks. This sketch will barely point out the most important. The Missouri joins the Mississippi five leagues above the town of St. Louis, about the fortieth degree of north latitude. It is necessary to observe that after uniting with the Mississippi, it flows through a space of twelve hundred miles

Starting point is 00:20:50 before it empties itself into the Gulf of Mexico. As this part of its course is well known, I shall speak of the Missouri only. I ascended about six hundred leagues without perceiving a diminution either in its width or rapidity. The principal rivers which empty into the Missouri, are as you ascend, the Gasconad, the River of the Osages, the two Chara Turns, the Great River,

Starting point is 00:21:17 the River de Canips, Nichonin, Batoni, the Great and Little Nimaha, the River Platte, the River De Sioux, and Lo-Kee-Cor. As far as 25 leagues above its junction with the Mississippi are to be found different settlements of American families, that is, at Bonomom and and Femme Osage, etc. Beyond this, its banks are inhabited only by savage nations. The great and little Osages, settled 120 leagues on the river of that name, the canyps, the autos, the pannies, the loupes or pants mahas, the mahas, the mahas, the mojas, the mandonais, and the Sioux. The last nation is not fixed on the banks of the Missouri, but habitually goes there to hunt. the banks of the missouri are alternately woods and prairies it is remarked that the higher you ascend this river the more common are these prairies and they seem to increase every year by the fires which are kindled every autumn

Starting point is 00:22:24 by the savages or white hunters either by chance or the design of facilitating their hunting footnote quote we have no means of determining at what period the fires began to sweep over these plains because we know not when they began to be inhabited it is quite possible that they might have been occasionally fired by lightning previous to the introduction of that element by human agency at all events it is very evident that as soon as the fire began to be used in this country by its inhabitants, the annual burning of the prairie must have commenced. One of the peculiarities of this climate is the dryness of its summers and automs. A drought often commences in August, which, with the exception of a few showers towards the close of that month, continues with little interruption throughout the fall season. The The autumno months are almost invariably clear, warm, and dry. The immense mass of vegetation with which this fertile soil loads itself during the summer

Starting point is 00:23:29 is suddenly withered, and the whole earth covered with combustible materials. This is especially true of the prairies, where the grass grows from two to ten feet high, and being entirely exposed to the action of the sun and wind dries with great rapidity. single spark of fire falling anywhere upon these plains at such a time instantly kindles a blaze that spreads on every side and continues its destructive course as long as it finds fuel. Travelers who have described these fires as sweeping with a rapidity which renders it hazardous even to fly before them, and their children's books and school geographies are embellished with plates representing men, horses and wild animals retreating at full speed and with every mark of terror before the devouring

Starting point is 00:24:20 element. These are exaggerations. If instances of this kind of danger have ever occurred, they have been rare. There is not an authenticated case on record or in tradition in which a man or an animal has been burned by these fires unless he was drunk or wounded. The burning of several Indians mentioned by Lewis and Clark was probably the result of some unusual accident which they did not think necessary to explain. The thick sward of the prairie presents a considerable mass of fuel and offers a barrier to the progress of the flame not easily surmounted. The fire advances slowly and with power. The heat is intense. The flames often extend across a wide prairie and advance in a long line. No sight can

Starting point is 00:25:11 be more sublime than to behold at night a stream of fire several miles in breadth, advancing across these plains, leaving behind it a black cloud of smoke, and throwing before it a vivid glare which lights up the whole landscape with the brilliancy of noon day. A roaring and cracking sound is heard like the rushing of a hurricane. The flame, which in general rises to the height of about twenty feet is seen sinking and darting upward in spires precisely as the waves dash against each other and as the spray flies up into the air. And the whole appearance is often that of a boiling and flaming sea violently agitated. The progress of the fire is so slow and the heat so great that every combustible material in its course is consumed. The root of the prairie grass

Starting point is 00:26:03 alone by some peculiar adaptation of nature is spared. For of most other vegetables, not only is the stem destroyed, but the vital principle extinguished. Woe to the farmer whose ripe cornfields extend into the prairie, and who has carelessly suffered the tall grass to grow in contact with his fences. The whole labor of the year is swept away in a few hours. But such accidents are comparatively unfrequent, as the preventive is simple and easily applied. A narrow strip of bare ground prevents the fire from extending to the space beyond it. A beaten road of the width of a single wagon track arrests its progress. The treading of the domestic animals around the enclosures of the farmer affords often

Starting point is 00:26:52 a sufficient protection by destroying the fuel in their vicinity, and in other cases a few furrows are drawn round the field with the plow, or the wild grasses closely mowed down on the outside of the fence, end quote, Hull's statistics of the west. End footnote. The waters of the Missouri are muddy and contain throughout its course a sediment of very fine sand which soon precipitates, but this circumstance which renders them disagreeable to the sight takes nothing from their salubrity. Experience has proved that the waters of the Missouri are more wholesome than those of the Ohio or the upper Mississippi. The rivers and streams which empty into the Missouri below the river platte are clear and limpid, but above this river they are as muddy as those of the Missouri itself. This is occasioned by

Starting point is 00:27:49 beds of sand or hills of a very fine white earth where they take their rise. The bed of the Missouri is obstructed with banks, sometimes of sand and sometimes gravel, which frequently change their place and consequently render navigation always uncertain. Its course is generally west by northwest. To give a precise idea of the incalculable riches scattered on the banks of the Missouri would require unbounded knowledge. The flats are covered with huge trees, the leard or poplar, the sycamore out of one piece of which are made canoes which carry almost eighteen thousand hundred weight, the maple which affords the inhabitants a wholesome and agreeable sugar, the wild cherry tree and the red and black walnut so useful in joiner's work,

Starting point is 00:28:43 the red and white elm necessary to cartwrights, the triacanthos, which when well trimmed forms impenetrable hedges, the water willow, the white and red mulberry tree, etc., etc. On the shores are found, in abundance, the white and black oak, proper for every kind of shipwrights and carpenters, work, the pine so easily worked, and the stony mountains the durable cedar. It would be impossible to detail all the species of trees, even those unknown in other countries, and the use that can be made of them, of which, we are still ignorant. The plants are still more numerous. I will pass lightly over this article for the want of sufficient botanical knowledge. The Indians are well acquainted with the virtues of

Starting point is 00:29:33 many of them. They make use of them to heal their wounds and to poison their arrows. They also use different kinds of Savoyanus to dye different collars. They have one which is a certain and prompt cure for the venereal disease. The lands on the board, borders of the Missouri are excellent, and when cultivated, are capable of yielding abundantly all the productions of the temperate and even some of the warm climates. Wheat, maize, and every species of grain, Irish potatoes, and excellent sweet potatoes, hemp seems here to be an indigenous plant. Even cotton succeeds, though not as well as in more southerly countries.

Starting point is 00:30:16 Its culture, however, yields a real advantage to the inhabitants settled on the the banks of the Missouri, who raise from two acres sufficient for the wants of their families. The natural prairies are a great resource, being of themselves excellent pasturages, and facilitating the labors of the man who is just settled, and who can thus enjoy with little labor from the first year a considerable crop. Clay fit for making brick is very common, is also fiance clay, and every species of clay, which in the opinion of intelligent persons, is the real caolin to which the porcelain of China owes the whole of its reputation. There are found on the borders of the Missouri many springs of salt water of every kind, which will be more than

Starting point is 00:31:05 sufficient for the consumption of the country when it shall become inhabited. Saltpeter is found here in great abundance in numberless caves, which are met with along the bank of the river. The stones are generally calcareous and gates. There is one found also, which I believe to be peculiar to the banks of the Missouri. It is of blood-red color, compact, soft under the chisel, and hardens in the air, and is susceptible of a most beautiful polish. The Indians make use of it for their calumets, and from the extent of its layers it may be easily employed in more important works. They have also quarries of marble, of which we only know the color. They are streaked with red.

Starting point is 00:31:53 One quarry is well known and easily worked, namely a species of plaster, which we are assured is of the same nature as that of Paris, and of which the United States make a great use. We also found volcanic stones, which demonstrate the ancient existence of unknown volcanoes. We are confirmed in the belief that there were volcanoes, in some of their mountains by the intelligence that we received from the Indians, who informed us, quote, that the evil spirit was mad at red people, and caused the mountains

Starting point is 00:32:27 to vomit fire, sand, gravel, and large stones, to terrify and destroy them. But the good spirit had compassion on them, and put out the fire, chased the evil spirit out of the mountains, and left them unhurt. But when they returned to their wickedness, the great spirit had permitted the evil spirit to return to the mountains again and vomit up fire. But on their becoming good and making sacrifices, the great spirit chased away the evil spirit from disturbing them, and for 40 snows, 40 years, he had not permitted him to return, end quote. The short stay we generally made among the savage nations

Starting point is 00:33:09 prevented us from making those researches, which would have supplied us with more extensive information, respecting the various mines found on the borders of the Missouri. We know with certainty only those of iron, lead, and coal. There is, however, no doubt that there are some of tin, of copper, of silver, and even of gold, according to the account of the Indians, who have found some particles or dust of these metals, either on the surface of the earth or on the banks of small torrents. I consider it a duty at the same time to give an idea of the salt mines and the salines which are found in the same latitude on the branches of the river, Arkansas.

Starting point is 00:33:53 At about 300 miles from the village of the Great Osages in a westerly direction, after having passed several branches of the river Arkansas, we find a flat surrounded by hills of an immense extent and about 15 leagues in diameter. The soil is black sand, very fine, and so hard that the horses hardly leave a trace. During a warm and dry season, there exhales from this flat, vapors, which after being condensed fall on this black sand and cover it with an incrustation of salt, very white and fine and about half an inch thick, and rains destroy this phenomenon. at about eighteen miles from this flat there are found mines of genuine salt near the surface of the earth the indians who are well acquainted with them are obliged to use levers to break and raise it at about fifteen leagues from the flat of which we have just spoken and in a southerly direction there is a second mine of genuine salt of the same nature as the other these two mines differ only in color the first border the first border on a blue, the second approaches a red.

Starting point is 00:35:07 In short, much further south and still on the branches of the Arkansas is a saline, which may be considered as one of the most interesting phenomena in nature. On the declivity of a small hill, there are five holes, about a foot and a half in diameter and two in depth, always full of salt water without ever overflowing. If a person were to draw any of this salt water, water, the whole would immediately fill itself, and about ten feet lower there flows from this same hill, a large stream of pure and sweet water. If this country was peopled, the working of these

Starting point is 00:35:45 genuine salt mines would be very easy by means of the River Arkansas. This species of salt is found by experience to be far preferable to any other for salting provisions. Should these notes, imperfect and without order, but in every respect founded on truth, and observations made by myself, cite the curiosity of men of intelligence, capable of investigating the objects which they have barely suggested, I do not doubt but that incalculable advantages would result to the United States, and especially to the District of Louisiana. End of Section 4. Section 5 of the Journal of Louis and Clark.

Starting point is 00:36:34 This is the Librevox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Recording by Nadiney Gurdboulet, The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Mary Wether Lewis and William Clark, Chapter 3, The Fur Trade, etc. By whom carried on, Best Market, Country at the Head of the Missouri and Columbia, snake Indians, their wretchedness, food, character, personal appearance, price of a horse, flatheads, origin of the name, kindness, honesty, etc. It is impossible to give an exact account of the peltries which are brought down the

Starting point is 00:37:19 Mississippi as they are immediately transported to Canada without passing any port of this country. We can obtain a true statement only from the settlements on the lakes. It is but a short time since the Red River was explored. After leaving the River Des Moines, the fur trade from the upper Missouri is carried on by British houses, and almost the whole of the furs which are obtained from the other Indian traders are also sent to Canada, where they command much higher prices than at New Orleans, where, in fact, there is no demand for them. It is also necessary to observe that the further north we grew the great are the value for the pealtries.

Starting point is 00:37:59 It is but a few years since peal trees were exported from the peal trees. America by the way of the Ohio. It is to be desired that the eastern part of America should encourage this exploitation by raising the prices of petries to nearly those of Canada. The country at the head of the Missouri and Columbia River bears a great similarity, being cold and very sterile, except in pasturage only. At the foot of the mountain, at the head of the Missouri, lives a tribe of Indians called serpentine or snake Indians, who are the most abject and miserable of the human race, having little besides the features of human beings.

Starting point is 00:38:39 They live in a most wretched state of poverty, subsisting on berries and fish, the form of they manufacture into a kind of bread, which is very palatable, but possesses very little nutritious quality. The only article of value which they possess is horses, in which the country abounds, and in very severe winters they are compelled to subsist on them for the want of a better substitute for food. They are a very harmless, inoffensive people.

Starting point is 00:39:08 When we first made our appearance among them, they were filled with terror. Many of them fled, while the others who remained were in tears, but were soon pacified by tokens of friendship and by presence of beads, etc., which soon convinced them of our friendly disposition. The snake Indians are in their stature, crooked, which is a peculiarity, as it does not characterize any other tribe or Indians that came within the compass of our observation. To add to this deformity, they have high cheek bones, legger light-colored eyes, and are very meager, which gives them a frightful respect. With an axe we could purchase of them a good horse, we purchased 27 from them, which did not cost more than $100, which will be a favorable circumstance for transporting fur over to the Columbia River. At the head of the Columbia River resides a tribe by the name Palo Tepalos or Flatheads.

Starting point is 00:40:08 The latter name they derive from an operation which renders the top of the head flat, which is performed while they are infants when the bones of the cranium are soft and elastic and are easily brought to the desired deformity. The operation is performed by tying boards, hewn to a proper shape for the purpose, which they compress on the head. In performing this singular operation, many infants, I think, without doubt, lose their lives.

Starting point is 00:40:36 The more they get the head misshapen, it is considered with them the greater beauty. They are very kind and hospitable people. We are left in charge with them when descending the Columbia River, or horses, which they kept safely. They likewise found where we had concealed our ammunition in the earth, and had they not been an honest people and preserved it safe, our lives must have been inevitably lost.

Starting point is 00:41:00 They delivered up the whole, without wishing to reserve any, or to receive for it a compensation. They, like the snake Indians, abound in horses, which subsist in the winter season on the shrub, which they call evergreen, which bears a large leaf and is tolerably nutritious, they likewise feed upon the side of hills which gush out small springs of water, which melt the snow and a fort pasture. In this manner, our horses subsisted while going over the rocky mountains. The country inhabited by the snake and flathead Indians produces but very little game. Captain Clark kept an account of the distances of places from one to another,

Starting point is 00:41:42 which were not kept by myself, for which reason I hope it will be a sufficient apology for subjoining two of his statements. End of Section 5. Section 6 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, visit Libravox.org.

Starting point is 00:42:13 The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 4. from Captain Clark to his excellency Governor Harrison, Fort Mandon April 2nd. Dear sir, by the return of a party which we sent from this place with dispatches, I do myself the pleasure of giving you a summary view of the Missouri, etc. In ascending as high as the Kansas River, which is 334 miles up the Missouri, on the southwest side, we met a strong current, which was five to seven miles an hour.

Starting point is 00:42:57 The bottom is extensive and covered with timber. The high country is interspersed with rich, handsome prairies, well watered, and abound in deer and bears. In ascending as high as the river platte, we met a current less rapid, not exceeding six miles an hour. In this distance we passed several small rivers on each side, which would are some finely diversified country, principally prairies, as between Vincennes and Illinois. The bottoms continue wide and covered with timber. This river is about 6,000 yards wide, at the mouth, not navigable. It heads in the Rocky Mountains with the North River and Yellowstone River. and passes through an open country. Fifteen leagues up this river, the Atos and 30 Missouri's live in one village, and can raise 200 men.

Starting point is 00:44:02 15 leagues higher up, the Panias and Panias Republicans live in one village, and can raise 700 men. Up the wolf fork of this river, Papilla Luysus live in one village, and can raise 200, and 80 men. These Indians have partial ruptures frequently. River Platte is 630 miles up the Missouri on the southwest side. Here we find the antelope or goat. The next river of size ascending is the Stone River, commonly called by the Ingeses Little River Desiris. It takes its rays in Lake Dispice, 15 miles from the River De Moor, and is 64 yards wide. Here commences the Sioux country. The next by note is the Big Sioux River, which heads with the St. Peter's and waters of Lake Winnipeje in some high wooded country. About 90 miles still higher, the river Jacques falls on the same

Starting point is 00:45:12 side and about 100 yards wide. This river heads with the Lake Wineppier, at no great distance east from the place, the head of the river, Demon in Pelican Lake, between the Sioux Rivers and St. Peter's. The country on both sides of the Missouri, from the River Platte to that place, has very much the same appearance. Extensively fertile plains containing but little tenets. and that little principally confined to the river bottoms and streams. The country east of this place, and off, from the Missouri as low as Stone River, contains a number of small streams, many of which are said to be so much impregnated with glouber salt as to produce all its effects.

Starting point is 00:46:05 Certain it is that the water and the small streams from the hill below on the southwest side possesses this quality. About the River Jacques Brough, the country contains a great quantity of mineral, cobalt, Cenobar, Alam, copperous, and several other things. The stone coal, which is on the Missouri, is very indifferent. As ending 52 miles above the Jacques, the River Quicum falls on the southwest side of this river, is 1,026 miles up, 150 yards wide, not navigable. It heads in the Black Hills, which run nearly parallel with the Missouri, from about the head of the Kansas River, and dens southwest of this place. Quicum waters a broken country, 122 miles, by water, higher.

Starting point is 00:47:06 White River fills in on the southwest. west side and is 300 yards wide and navigable, as all the other streams are, which are not particularly mentioned. This river heads in some small lakes short of the Black Hills. The Mahan and Poken nations rove on the heads of this river and the Quicum, and can raise 250 men. They were very numerous a few years ago, but the smallpox and the Sioux had reduced them to their present state. The Sioux possessed the southwest side of the Missouri above White River, 132 miles higher, and on the west side. Teton River falls into it. It is small and heads in the open plains. Here we met a large band of Sioux, and the second which we have seen called Teton's.

Starting point is 00:48:04 These are rascals and may be justly termed, the pie. of the Missouri. They made two attempts to stop us. They are subdivided and stretching on the river near to this place, having reduced the rock race and mandons, and drove them from the country they now occupy. The Sioux bands rove in the country to the Mississippi. About 47 miles above the Teton River, the Cheyenne River, falls in from the southwest, 4,000 yards wide. is navigable to the black hills in which it takes its rise in the third range. Several bands of Indians, but little known, rove on the heads of this and the river plat, and are stated to be as follows.

Starting point is 00:48:56 Joyen, 300 men. Steyans, 100. Keneovic, 400. Kayaanwa and Wetahato, 200. Kajata, 70. De Tame, 30, Mamesun 50, Castagana, 1,300 men. It is probable that some of these bands are the remains of the Paduukar Nation. At 1,40 miles up the Missouri, and a short distance above two handsome rivers,

Starting point is 00:49:31 which take their rise in the Black Hills, the Kikaris live in three villages, and are the remains of ten different tribes of Paneus, who have been reduced and driven from their country lower down by the Sioux. Their number is about 500 men. They raise corn, beans, etc., and appear friendly and well-disposed. They were at war with the nations of this neighborhood, and we have brought about peace. Between the Rekhars and this place,

Starting point is 00:50:04 Two rivers fall in on the southwest, and one on the northeast, not very long, and take their rise in the open country. This country abounds in a great variety of wild animals, but a few of which the Indians take. Many of these animals are uncommon in the United States, such as white, red, and gray bears, long-eared mules, or black-tailed deer, black at the end of the tail only, large hair, antelope, or goat, and red fox. The ground prairie dogs, who burrow in the ground, the brookha, which has a head like a dog, and the size of a small dog, the white brant, maple, calumet, eagle, etc., and many others are said to inhabit the rocky mountains. I have collected the following accounts of the rivers and country in advance of this,

Starting point is 00:51:07 to wit, two days march in advance of this, the little Missouri falls on the south side, and heads at the northwest extremity of the Black Hills. Six days march further, a large river joins the Missouri, affording as much water as the main river. This river is rapid, without a fall, and navigable to the Rocky Mountains. Its branches head with the waters of the River Platte. The country in advance is said to be broken. The trade of the nations at this place is from the

Starting point is 00:51:43 Northwest and Hudson's Bay establishments on the Asiniboine River, distant about 150 miles. Those traders are nearly at open war with each other, and better calculated to destroy than promote the happiness of those nations to which they have latterly extended their trade, and intend to form an establishment near this place in the course of this year. Your most obedient servant, William Clark. End of Section 6, read by Dennis Sayers in Modesto, California for Libervox. Section 7 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording.

Starting point is 00:52:41 All LibraVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visitlibrovox.org. Recording by Leslie Howard. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, Chapter 5. Letter from Captain Clark to His. his brother. St. Louis, September 1806. Dear brother, we arrived at this place at 12 o'clock today from the Pacific Ocean, where we remain during the last winter near the entrance of the Columbia River. This station we left on the 27th of March last, and should have reached St. Louis early in August,

Starting point is 00:53:33 had we not been detained by the snow which barred our passage across the rocky mountains, until the 24th of June. In returning through those mountains, we divided ourselves into several parties, digressing from the route by which we went out in order the more effectually to explore the country, and discover the most practicable route which does exist across the continent, by the way of the Missouri and Columbia rivers. In this, we were completely successful, and have therefore no hesitation and declaring that, such as nature has permitted, we have discovered the best route which does exist across the continent of North America in that direction. Such is that, by way of the Missouri to the foot of the rapids, below the great falls of that river, a distance of 2,575 miles, thence

Starting point is 00:54:29 by land, passing by the rocky mountains to a navigable part of the Kouskowski, 340, and with the Kouskowski, 73 miles. Lewis's River, 154 miles, and the Columbia, 413 miles to the Pacific Ocean, making the total distance from the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi to the discharge of the Columbia into the Pacific Ocean, 3,555 miles. The navigation of the Missouri may be deemed good. Its difficulties arise from its falling banks, the timber embedded in the mud of its channel, its sandbars, and steady rapidity of its current, all which may be overcome by the necessary precaution.

Starting point is 00:55:24 The passage by land of 340 miles from the falls of the Missouri to the Kouskowski is the most formidable part of the tract proposed across the continent. of this distance 200 miles is along a good road and 140 miles over tremendous mountains, which for 60 miles is covered with eternal snows. A passage over these mountains is, however, practicable from the latter part of June to the last of September, and the cheap rate at which horses are to be obtained from the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and west of them reduces the expenses of transportation over this portage to a mere trifle. The navigation of the Kouskowski, Lewis's River, and the Columbia, is safe and good

Starting point is 00:56:15 from the 1st of April to the middle of August, by making three portages on the latter river, the first of which, in descending, is 1,200 paces at the falls of Columbia, 261 miles up that river, the second of two miles at the long narrow, six miles below the falls, and a third also of two miles at the Great Rapids, 65 miles still lower down. The tide flows up the Columbia 183 miles and within seven miles of the Great Rapids. Large slopes may with safety ascend as high as the tide water, and vest. of 300 tons Berthin reached the entrance of the Maltona River, a large southern branch of the Columbia, which takes its rise on the confines of New Mexico, with the Colorado and Apostles Rivers

Starting point is 00:57:12 discharging itself into the Columbia, 125 miles from its entrance into the Pacific Ocean. I consider this track across the continent of immense advantage to the fur trade, as all the the furs collected in nine-tenths of the most valuable fur country in America may be conveyed to the mouth of the Columbia and shipped from thence to the East Indies by the 1st of August in each year, and will, of course, reach Canton earlier than the furs which are annually exported for Montreal, arrive in Great Britain. In our outward-bound passage, we ascended to the foot of the rapids below the Great Falls of the Missouri, where we arrived on the 14th of June, 1805. Not having met with any of the natives of the Rocky Mountains, we were, of course, ignorant of the

Starting point is 00:58:07 passes by land, which existed through those mountains to the Columbia Rivers. And had we even known the route, we were destitute of horses, which would have been indispensably necessary to enable us to transport the requisite quantity of ammunition and other stores to ensure the remaining part of our voyage down the Columbia. We therefore determined to navigate the Missouri as far as it was practicable, or unless we met with some of the natives from whom we could obtain horses and information of the country. Accordingly, we undertook a most laborous portage at the falls of the Missouri of 18 miles, which we affected with our canoes and barrens. by the third of July. From hence ascending the Missouri, we penetrated the rocky mountains at the

Starting point is 00:58:56 distance of 71 miles above the upper part of the portage, and penetrated as far as the three forks of that river, a distance of 180 miles further. Here the Missouri divides into three nearly equal branches at the same point. The two largest branches are so nearly of the same dignity, that we did not conceive that either of them could, with propriety, retain the name of the Missouri, and therefore called these streams Jefferson's, Madison's, and Gallatin's rivers. The confluence of those rivers is 2,858 miles from the mouth of the Missouri by the meanders of that river. We arrived at the three forks of the Missouri on the 27th of July, not having yet been so fortunate as to meet with the natives, although I had previously made several excursions for that purpose,

Starting point is 00:59:52 we were compelled still to continue our route by water. The most northerly of the three forks, that to which we had given the name of Jefferson's River, was deemed the most proper for our purpose, and we accordingly ascended it, 248 miles to the upper forks, and its extreme navigable point, making the total distance to which we had navigated the waters of the Missouri 3,096 miles of which 4299 lay within the Rocky Mountains. On the morning of the 17th of August, 1805, I arrived at the forks of Jefferson's River where I met Captain Lewis, who had previously penetrated with a party of three men to the waters of the Columbia,

Starting point is 01:00:41 discovered a band of the Shoshone Nation, and had found means to induce 35 of their chiefs and warriors to accompany him to that place. From these people we learned that the river in which they resided was not navigable, and that a passage through the mountains in that direction was impracticable. Being unwilling to confide in this unfavorable account of the natives, it was concerted between Captain Lewis and myself, that one of us should go forward immediately with the small party and explore the river, while the other in the interim should lay up the canoes at that place and engage the natives with their horses to assist in transporting our stores and baggage to their camp.

Starting point is 01:01:26 Accordingly, I set out the next day, past the dividing mountains between the waters of the Missouri and Columbia, and descended the river which I call the East Fork of Lewis River about 70 miles. finding that the Indians' account of the country in the direction of this river was correct, I returned and rejoined Captain Lewis on the 29th of August at the Shoshone Camp, excessively fatigued, as you may suppose. Having passed mountains almost inaccessible and compelled to subsist on berries during the greater part of my route, we now purchased 27 horses of these Indians and hired a guide who assured us that he could, and 15 days take us to a large river and an open country west of these mountains by a route some distance to the north of the river on which they lived,

Starting point is 01:02:19 and that by which the natives west of the mountains visit the plains of the Missouri for the purpose of hunting the buffalo. Every preparation being made, we set forward with our guide on the 31st of August, through those tremendous mountains in which we continued until the 22nd of September, before we reached the lower country beyond them, on our way we met with the Olaixote, a band of the touchpox, from whom we obtained in a session of seven horses and exchanged eight or ten others. This proved of infinite service to us, as well as we, we were compelled to subsist on horse beef about eight days before we reached the Kouskowski. During our passage over those mountains, we suffered everything which hunger, cold, and fatigue could impose, nor did our difficulties, with respect to provisions, cease on our arrival at the Kouskowski, for although the Palo to Pollers, a numerous nation inhabiting that country, were extremely hospitable, and for a few trifling articles furnished us with a few. an abundance of roots and dried salmon, the food to which they were accustomed,

Starting point is 01:03:32 we found that we could not subsist on these articles, and almost all of us grew sick on eating them. We were obliged, therefore, to have recourse to the flesh of horses and dogs as food to supply the deficiency of our guns, which produced but little meat, as game was scarce in the vicinity of our camp on the Kouskowski, where we were compelled to remain in order to construct our parrugs to descend the river. At this season, the salmon are meager in form but indifferent food. While we remained here, I was myself sick for several days, and my friend, Captain Lewis, suffered a severe indisposition. Having completed four parogues and a small canoe, we gave our horses in charge to the Palo to Paloas until we returned, and on the 7th of October re-embarked for the Pacific

Starting point is 01:04:24 ocean. We descended by the route I have already mentioned. The water of the river being low at this season, we experienced much difficulty in descending. We found it obstructed by a great number of difficult and dangerous rapids and passing of which our paroved several times filled, and the men escaped narrowly with their lives. However, this difficulty does not exist in high water, which happens within the period which I have previously mentioned. We found the natives extremely, numerous and generally friendly, though we have on several occasions owed our lives and the fate of the expedition to our number, which consisted of 31 men. On the 17th of November, we reached the ocean, where various considerations induced us to spend the winter. We therefore searched for an eligible

Starting point is 01:05:15 situation for that purpose, and selected a spot on the south side of the little river, called by the natives Natal, which discharges itself at a small bar on the south side of the Columbia and 14 miles within Port Adams. Here we constructed some log houses and defended them with a common stockade work. This place we called Fort Clatsop, after a nation of that name who were our nearest neighbors. In this country, we found an abundance of elk on which we subsisted principally during the last winter. We left Fort Clatsop on the 27th of March. On our homeward-bound voyage, being much better acquainted with the country, we were enabled to take such precautions as in a great measure secured us from the want of provisions at any time

Starting point is 01:06:06 and greatly lessened our fatigues when compared with those to which we were compelled to submit in our outward-bound journey. We have not lost a man since we left Mandans, a circumstance which I assure you is a pleasing consideration to me. As I shall shortly be with you, and the post is now waiting, I deem it unnecessary here to attempt minutely to detail the occurrences of the last 18 months. I am and etc. Your affectionate brother, W. M. Clark. End of Section 7, recording by Leslie Howard.

Starting point is 01:06:47 Section 8 of the Journal. of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by J.K. Cayman. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 6. Indian Treatment. Their Dread of the Smallpox. Inattention to Future Wants. Evil Spirit. Murder. Indians restrained from murder by being threatened with the smallpox. Friendship.

Starting point is 01:07:26 Indian prayer. Death of a comrade. Danger from wild beasts. Encounter with a snake. Similarity in the physical organization of Indians of different tribes. Cause of their color. Hatred of beards. Dress.

Starting point is 01:07:44 Boring the nose and ears. Decorating the head with silver plates. huts or lodges, movable houses, beds, utensils, food, mode of cooking meat, devotional dance before and after eating, mode of producing fire, apparent want of affection, fortitude, manner of courting, memory, respect for old age, money, physicians, mode of curing, the fever, etc., etc. The treatment that we received from the Indians during nearly three years that we were with them was very kind and hospitable, except the ill treatment that we received from the Sioux tribe, who several times made attempts to stop us, and we should have been massacred had we not terrified them from their murderous intention by threatening them with the smallpox in such a manner as would kill the whole tribe of them. Nothing could be more horrible to them than the bare mention of this

Starting point is 01:08:48 fatal disease. It was communicated to them by the Americans and spread from tribe to tribe with an unabated pace until it extended itself across the continent. Quote, this fatal infection spread around with a baneful rapidity which no flight could escape and with a fatal effect that nothing could resist. It destroyed with its pestilential breath, whole families and tribes, and the horrid sense presented to those who had the melancholy and affecting opportunity of beholding it, a combination of the dead and dying, and such is to avoid the hard fate of their friends around them, prepared to disappoint the plague of its prey by terminating their own existence. The habits and lives of those devoted people who provide not today for the wants of tomorrow

Starting point is 01:09:32 must have heightened the pains of such an affliction by leaving them not only without remedy, but even without alleviation. But nothing was left them but to submit in agony and despair. To aggravate the picture, if aggravation was. possible, may be added the sight of the helpless child beholding the putrid carcass of its beloved parents dragged by the wolves from their huts, who were invited by the stench, and with a ferocious ferocity satiate their hunger on the mangled corpse. Or in the same manner serve the dog with food from the body of his once-beloved master, nor was it uncommon for the father of a family, whom the

Starting point is 01:10:09 infection had just reached, to call his family around him, to represent the sufferings and cruel fate from the influence of some evil spirit, who was preparing to extirpate their race, and to invite them to baffle death, with all its horrors, with their own weapons. And at the same time, if their hearts failed in this necessary act, he was himself ready to perform the deed of mercy with his own hand as the last act of his affection, and instantly follow them to the chambers of death. Close quote. Footnote. A Western Traveler. End footnote. The Indians, being destitute of physicians, living on animal food, plunging themselves into cold water on the first discovery of the disease, rendered it generally mortal. While we were at Fort Mandan, the Sioux robbed several of our party when they were returning to the fort with the fruits of an excursion after game, and murdered several of the Mandan tribe in cold blood without provocation while reposing on the bosom of friendship. On hearing of this massacre, Captain Clark and the greater part of us volunteered to avenge the murder,

Starting point is 01:11:16 but were deterred by not receiving succor from the Mandan warriors, who declined to avenge the outrage committed on them. The probability of their not enlisting was that they were afraid of the superior number of the suit to warrant an engagement. Soon after this massacre, we received authentic intelligence that the sue had it in contemplation if their threats were true, to murder us and the spread. spring, but were prevented from making the attack by our threatening to spread the smallpox with all its horrors among them. They, knowing that it first originated among the white people, and having heard of inoculation and the mode of keeping the infection in vials, which they had but an imperfect idea of, that barely a threat filled them with horror and was sufficient to deter them from their resolute and bloody purpose. This stratagem may appear insignificant to the reader,

Starting point is 01:12:06 but was of the greatest consequence to us, for to it alone we owe not only the fate of the expedition, but our lives. Most of the tribes of Indians that we became acquainted with, except the Sioux, after being introduced by our interpreter and finding that our intentions were friendly towards them, never failed of greeting us with many tokens of their friendly disposition. Soon after our interview, we were invited to smoke the Calumet of peace and to partake freely of their venison. The women and children in particular were not wanting in showing tokens of friendship by endeavoring to make our stay agreeable. On our first meeting, they generally held a council as they term it, when their chief delivers a, quote, talk, close quote, in which they give their sentiments respecting their new visitors, which were filled with professions of friendship and often were very eloquent and abounded with sublime and figurative language. When we departed after taking leave, they would often put up a prayer of which the following is,

Starting point is 01:13:03 a sample, which was put up for us by a mandan. Quote, that the great spirit would favor us with smooth water, with a clear sky by day, and a bright starlight by night, that we might not be presented with the red hatchet of war, but that the great pipe of peace might ever shine upon us as the sun shines in an unclouded day, and that we might be overshadowed by the smoke thereof, that we might have sound sleep, and that the bird of peace might whisper in our ears pleasant dreams. that the deer might be taken by us in plenty, and that the great spirit would take us home in safety to our squaws and children. Close quote. These prayers were generally made with great fervency, often smiting with great vehemence, their hands upon their breast, their eyes fixed in adoration towards heaven. In this manner, they would continue their prayers until we were out of sight. In the fore part of autumn we experienced slight typhus indisposions, caused by great vicissitudes of weather, which at times were very damp. Our affectionate companion, Sergeant Floyd,

Starting point is 01:14:09 was seized with a severe aesthetic disease of which he fell a victim. He was seized with an acute pain in his intestines, accompanied with a great suppression of the pulmonary function. Every effort that our situation allowed was in vain used for his recovery. We buried him in the most decent manner that our circumstance would admit. He was universally lamented by us. Several times many of our our party were in imminent danger of being devoured by wild beasts of prey, but happily we escaped. Frequently we were annoyed by a kind of light-colored bear, of which the country near the head of the Missouri abounds. After being attacked, they give no quarter but rush with great fury towards their enemy. One of our parties shot at one of them and wounded him. The bear instead of being intimidated

Starting point is 01:14:55 by the smart of the wound was stimulated into rage and rushed with great fury to devour the assailant, who saved his life by running headlong down a steep precipice that formed the bank of the river, but was severely bruised by the precipitate retreat. The following narrative of an encounter with a snake is told by a companion whose veracity can be relied on. I will give it in his own words as he related it in a letter to his friend. Quote, sometime, close quote, says he, quote, before we reached Fort Mandan. While I was out on an excursion of hunting, one of the greatest monsters that ever shocked the mind with horror was presented to my sight. When passing deliberately in a forest that bordered on a prairie, I heard a rustling in the bushes. I leaped towards the object, delighted with the prospect of

Starting point is 01:15:47 acquiring game. But on proceeding a few paces further, my blood was chilled with horror by the appearance of a serpent of enormous size. On discovering me, he immediately erected his head to a great height. His color was of a yellower hue than the spots of a rattlesnake, and on the top of his back were spots of a reddish color. His eyes emitted fire, his tongue darted, as though he menaced my destruction. He was evidently in the attitude of springing at me when I leveled my rifle at him, but probably owing to my consternation I only wounded him, but the explosion of the gun and the wound turned to flight the awful enemy. Perhaps you may think that my fright has magnified the description. I can candidly ever that he was in bulk half as large as a middle-sized man.

Starting point is 01:16:35 Close quote. In the Indian tribes, there is so great a similarity in their stature, color, government, and religious tenets, that it will be requisite for perspicuity to rank them under one general head. And when there is a contrast in course of the description, it will be mentioned. The Indians are all, except the snake Indians, tall in stature, straight and robust. It is very seldom they are deformed, which has given rise to the supposition that they put to death their deformed children, which is not the case. Their skin is of a copper color, their eyes large, black, and of a bright and sparkling color, indicative of a subtle

Starting point is 01:17:15 and discerning mind. Their hair is of the same color, and prone to grow long, straight, and seldom were never curled. Their teeth are large and white. I never observed any decayed among them, which makes their breath as sweet as the air they exhale. The women are about the stature of the English women, and much inclined to corpulency, which is seldom the case with the other sex. I shall not enter into a discussion about the cause of their hue, I shall barely mention the suppositions that are made respecting it.

Starting point is 01:17:44 Some have asserted that it is derived principally from their anointing themselves with fat in the summer season to prevent profuse perspiration, and this, combined with the influence of the sun, has given the tincture of their complexion. To support the hypothesis, they assert that the repeated above-mentioned causes give color to the parent who procreates his own likeness until at length it is entailed on posterity. But notwithstanding this curious reasoning, others are of opinion that the hand of the creator gave the redishue to the Indians, the sable color to the African, and that of white to the civilized nations.

Starting point is 01:18:19 They esteem a beard exceedingly unbecoming, and take great pains to get rid of it, nor is there ever any to be perceived on their faces, except when they grow old and become inattentive to their appearance. Every crinous excrescence on other parts of their body is held in as great abhorrence by them, and both sexes are equally careful to extirpate it, in which they often employ much time. The Palo-Tipalars, serpentine, mandan, and other interior tribes of Indians, plucked them out with bent pieces of hard wood, formed into a kind of nippers made for that purpose. while those that have a communication with Americans or Europeans procure from them wire which they ingeniously make into an instrument resembling a screw, which will take so firm a hold of the beard that with a sudden twitch they extirpate them out by the roots when considerable blood never fails to flow. The dress of the Indians varies according to the tribe that they belong to, but in general it is very commodious not to encumber them in pursuing the chase or their enemy. those that inhabit the Missouri, I have often seen, in cold weather, without any apparel to screen themselves from the inclemency of the weather. The lower rank of the Palotipalers and Clatsops were nothing in the summer season, but a small garment about their hips, which is either a manufactured out of bark or skins, and which would vie with, if not excel, any European manufacturer, being diversified with different colors, which gave it a gray appearance.

Starting point is 01:19:48 Their chiefs are generally dressed in robes that are made out of small skins, which takes several hundred for a garment, of different colors, neatly tanned, which they hang loosely over their shoulders. In deep snows they wear skins which entirely cover their legs and feet, and almost answer for breaches, being held up by strings tied to the lower part of the waist. Their bodies in the winter season are covered with different kinds of skin, which are tanned with the fur on, which they wear next to the skin. those of the men who wish to appear more gay than others pluck out the greatest part of their hair leaving only small locks as fancy dictates on which are hung different kinds of quills and feathers of elegant plumage superbly painted the sioux and osage who traffic with the americans wear some of our apparel such as shirts and blankets the former they cannot bear tied at the wristbands in color and the latter they throw loosely over their shoulders their chiefs dress very gay about their heads they wear all kinds of ornaments that can't bear can well be bestowed upon them, which are curiously wrought, and in the winter long robes of the richest fur that trail on the ground. In the summer there is no great peculiarity, only what the higher rank wear is excessively ornamented. The Indians paint their heads and faces yellow, green, red, and black, which they esteem very ornamental. They also paint themselves when they go

Starting point is 01:21:08 to war, but the method they make use of on this occasion differs from that which they wear merely as a decoration. The chip-away young men, who are emulous of excelling their companions in finery, slit the outward rim of both ears at the same time they take care not to separate them entirely, but leave the flesh thus cut, still untouched at both extremities, around this spongy substance, from the upper to the lower part. They twist brass wire till the weight draws the amputated rim in a bow of five or six inches diameter, and draws it down almost to the shoulder. This decoration is esteemed gay and becoming. It is also accustomed among them to bore their noses and wear in them pendants of different sorts. Shells are often worn, which when painted are reckoned very ornamental.

Starting point is 01:21:54 The dress of the Indians who inhabit the borders of Louisiana is for their legs a kind of stocking, either of skins or cloth. These are sewed up as much as possible in the shape of their leg, so as to admit of being drawn on and off. The edges of the stuff on which they are composed are left annexed to the seams and hang loose about the breadth of a hand. And this part which is placed on the outside of the leg is generally ornamented with lace and ribbons, and often with embroidery and porcupine quills variously colored. The hunters from Louisiana find these stockings much more convenient than any others. Their shoes are made of the skins of deer or elk. These after being dressed with the hair on are cut into shoes and fashioned so as to be easy to their feet and

Starting point is 01:22:36 convenient for walking. The edges around the ankle are decorated with pieces of brass or tin, fixed around a leather string about an inch long, which being placed very thick, make a delightsome noise when they walk or dance. The dress of the women in the summer season consists only of a petticoat that does not reach down to their knees. In the winter they wear a shift made of skins which answers a very good purpose when they stand erect, as it is sufficiently low. But when they bend over, they often put modesty to the blush. Their feet and legs are covered similarly to the other sex. Most of the female Indians who dwell on the west side of the Mississippi, near its confluence with the Missouri, decorate their heads by enclosing their hair and plates of

Starting point is 01:23:18 silver. It is a costly ornament and is made use of by the highest rank only. Those of the lower rank make use of the bones, which they manufacture to resemble that of silver. The silver made use of is formed into thin plates of about four or five inches broad, and several of which they confine their hair. That plate which is nearest the head is of considerable width, the next narrower and made so as to pass a little way under the other, and gradually tapering till they get to a very inconsiderable magnitude. This proves to be of great expense, for they often wear it on the back side of the head, extending to the full length of their hair, which is commonly very long. The women of every nation generally paint a spot against each about the size of a crown piece.

Starting point is 01:24:03 Some of them paint their hair, and sometimes a spot on the middle of the forehead. The Indians have no fixed habitations when they are hunting, but build their houses where conveniency presents, which are made so small that it obliges that inhabitants to grope about in them, being so low as not to admit one to stand erect and are without windows. Those that are built for permanent residents are much more substantial, They are built of logs and bark, large enough to contain several apartments. Those built for the chiefs are often very elegant. That of the chief warrior of the Mahas is at least 60 feet in circumference,

Starting point is 01:24:38 and lined with furs and painting. The furs are of various colors, many of which I had never seen before, and were extremely beautiful. The variety in color formed a contrast that much added to its elegance. The paintings were elegant, and would adorn the dwellings of an opulent European prince, but the houses of the common people are very different. They have also movable houses which they use for fishing, and sometimes for hunting, which are made of deer skins or birch bark sewed together, which they cover over poles made for that purpose. They are bent over to form a semicircle,

Starting point is 01:25:09 which resemble those bent by the Americans for beans or hops to grow on, and are covered over as before mentioned, which are very light and easily transported where necessity requires. The best of their cabins have no chimneys, but a small hole to let the smoke through, which they are compelled to stop up in stormy weather, and when it is too cold to put out their fire, their huts are filled with clouds of smoke, which render them insupportable to any but an Indian. The common people lie on bare skins, which are spread on the floor. Their chiefs sleep on beaver skins, which are sometimes elevated. Their utensils are few, and in point of usefulness, very defective. Those to hold water in are made of the skins of animals and the naughty excrescence of hard wood. Their spoons are manufactured out of wood

Starting point is 01:25:56 or the bones of a buffalo, and are tolerably commodious, and I have often seen them elegant and sometimes painted. The flatheads and clatsops make baskets out of brushes that will hold water if they are not very dry. These two nations appear to have more of a mechanical genius than any other people that I have ever been acquainted with, and I think they are not rivaled by any nation on earth when taking into consideration their very limited mechanical instruments. Many of the Indian nations make no use of bread, salt, and spices, and many live to be old without seeing or tasting of either. Those that live near the snowy mountains live in a great measure on berries, which clothe the fields in great abundance. The Tauchis and other eastern

Starting point is 01:26:38 tribes where Indian corn grows, take green corn and beans, boil them together with bears' flesh, the fat of which gives flavor and renders it beyond comparison delicious. They call this dish Sakatash. In general, they have no idea of the use of milk, although great quantities might be collected from buffalo and elk. They only consider it proper for the nourishment of the young of these beasts in their tender state. It cannot be perceived that any inconvenience arises from the disuse of articles so much esteemed by civilized nations,

Starting point is 01:27:10 which they used to give a relish and flavor to their food. but on the contrary the great healthiness of the indians and the unhealthiness of the sons of epicurus prove that the diet of the former is the most salutary they preserve their meat by exposing it to the sun in the summer and in the winter by putting it between cakes of ice which keep it sweet and free from any putrefact of quality their food consists in a great measure of the flesh of the bear buffalo and deer those that reside near the head of the missouri and columbia rivers chiefly make use of the buffalo and elk, which are often seen from 50 to 100 in a drove. When there are plenty of the last two mentioned beasts, there are but a few of the former, and where there are many of the former, but few of the latter. The mode of roasting their meat is by burning it underground on the side of a hill, placing stones next to the meat. The mode of building to heat it somewhat resembles the fire made under a lime kill. In this manner they roast the largest of their animals. The mode of cooking

Starting point is 01:28:11 smaller pieces is to roast it in stones that are hewn out for the purpose. The flatheads and clatsops procure a root about the size of a potato, which grows spontaneously in great abundance and is tolerably palatable, and perfectly agrees with the natives, but made us all sick while we were among them. Before we descended the Columbia River, we were unable to procure game, and had recourse to the flesh of dogs and horses to preserve life, as those roots would, without doubt have destroyed us, and we were unable to procure any other kind of food. Many of the tribes of Indians are extremely dirty. I have seen the Maha Indians bring water in the paunches of animals that were very dirty, and in other things equally so. But the Maha chiefs are

Starting point is 01:28:55 very neat and cleanly in their tents, apparel, and food. The Indians commonly eat in large parties so that their meals may with propriety be termed feasts. They have not set hours for their meals, but obey the dictates of nature. Many of the tribes dance before or after their meals in devotion to the great spirit for the blessings they receive. Being informed of the mode of our saying grace, they answered that they thought we were stupid and ungrateful, not to exercise our bodies for the great benefits that we received, but muttering with our lips, they thought was an unacceptable sacrifice to the great spirit and the stupid mode of the ceremony ridiculous in the extreme. In their feasts, men and women eat apart, but in the domestic way of living, they promiscuously eat together.

Starting point is 01:29:43 Instead of getting together and drinking as the Americans do, they make use of feasting as a substitute. When their chiefs are assembled together on any occasion, they always conclude with a feast at which their hilarity and cheerfulness know no bounds. No people on earth are more hospitable, kind, and free than the Indians. They will readily share with any of their own tribe the last part of their provisions, and even those of a different nation. Though they do not keep one common stock, yet the community of goods is so prevalent among them, and their generous dispositions render it nearly of the same effect. They strike fire by rubbing together two sticks of wood of a particular kind, which they procure with ease from other kinds it is impossible to procure fire.

Starting point is 01:30:28 They are extremely circumspect and deliberate in every word and action. There is nothing that hurries them into any intemperate wrath, but that inveteracy of their enemies, which is rooted in every Indian's breast, and never can be eradicated. In all other instances, they are cool and deliberate, taking care to suppress the emotions of the heart. If any Indian has discovered that a friend of his is in danger of being cut off by a lurking enemy, he does not inform him of his danger in direct terms as though he was in fear, but he first coolly asks him which way he is going that day, and having his answer, with the same indifference, tells him that he has been informed that an obnoxious beast lies on the route where he is going, which might probably do him mischief.

Starting point is 01:31:11 This hint proves sufficient, and his friend avoids the danger with as much caution as though every design and motion of his enemy had been pointed out to him. This apathy often shows itself on occasions that would draw forth the fervor of a susceptible heart. If an Indian had been absent from his family for several months, either on a war or hunting party, and his wife and children meet him at some distance from his habitation, instead of the affectionate sensations that naturally arise in the breast of more refined beings and are productive of mutual congratulations, he continues his course without looking to the right or left, without paying the least attention to those around him, till he arrives at his house. He there sits down, and with the same

Starting point is 01:31:53 concern as if he had not been absent a day, smokes his pipe. Those of his friends who followed him do the same. Perhaps it is several hours before he relates to them the incidents that have befallen him during the absence, though perhaps he has left a father, a brother, or a son dead on the field, whose loss he ought to have lamented, or has been successful in the undertaking that called him from home. If an Indian has been engaged for several days in the chase or any other laborious expedition, and by accident continued long without food. When he arrives with the hut of a friend where he knows that his wants will be immediately supplied, he takes care not to show the least symptoms of inpatients or betray the extreme hunger that he is tortured with, but on being

Starting point is 01:32:36 invited in sits contentedly down and smokes his pipe with as much composer as if his appetite was cloyed, and he was perfectly at ease. He does the same if among strangers. This custom is strictly at to by every tribe, and they esteem it a proof of fortitude, and think the reverse would entitle them to the appellation of old women. If you tell an Indian that his children have greatly signalized themselves against an enemy, have taken many scalps, and brought home many prisoners, he does not appear to feel any great emotions of pleasure on the occasion. His answer generally is, quote, they have done well, end quote, and makes but very little inquiry about it. on the contrary if you inform him that his children are slain or taken prisoners he makes no complaints he only replies quote it is unfortunate unquote and for some time asks no questions about how it happened

Starting point is 01:33:34 this seeming indifference however does not proceed from a want of the natural affections for notwithstanding they are esteemed savages i never saw among any other people greater proofs of filial tenderness and although they meet their wives after a long absence with the stoical indifference just mentioned, they are not, in general, void of conjugal affection. Another peculiarity is observable in their manner of paying visits. If an Indian goes to visit a particular person in a family, he mentions to whom his visit is intended, and the rest of the family immediately retire to the other end of the hut or tent, and are careful not to come near enough to interrupt them during the whole conversation.

Starting point is 01:34:17 The same method is pursued when a young man goes to pay his addresses to a young woman, but then he must be careful not to let love be the subject of his discourse while the daylight remains. They discover an amazing sagacity and acquire with the greatest readiness anything that depends upon the attention of the mind. By experience and an acute observation, they attain many perfections to which the Americans are strangers. For instance, they will cross a forest or a plane which is 200 miles in breadth, and reach with great exactness the point at which they intend to arrive, keeping during the whole of that space in a direct line without any material deviations, and this they will do, with the same ease, let the weather be fair or cloudy.

Starting point is 01:35:03 With equal acuteness, they will point to that part of the heavens the sun is in, though it be intercepted by clouds or fogs. Besides this they are able to pursue with incredible facility the traces of man or beast, either on leaves or grass, and on this account it is with great difficulty that a flying enemy escapes discovery. They are indebted for these talents not only to nature, but to an extraordinary command of the intellectual faculties, which can only be acquired by an unremitted attention and by long experience. They are in general very happy in a retentive memory. They can recapitulate every particular that has been treated of in councils,

Starting point is 01:35:43 and remember the exact time when they were. held. Their belts of Wampum preserve the substance of the treaties they have concluded with the neighboring tribes, for ages back, to which they will appeal, and refer with as much perspicuity and readiness as Europeans can to their written records. Every nation pays great respect to old age. The advice of a father will never receive any extraordinary attention from the young Indians. Probably they receive it with only a bare assent, but they will tremble before a grandfather and submit to his injunctions with the utmost alacrity. The words of the ancient part of the community are esteemed by the young as oracles.

Starting point is 01:36:22 If they take during hunting parties any game that is reckoned by them uncommonly delicious, it is immediately presented to the eldest of their relations. They never suffer themselves to be overburdened with care, but live in a state of perfect tranquility and contentment, being naturally indolent. If provisions just sufficient for their subsistence can be procured with little trouble, and near at hand, they will not go far or take any extraordinary pains for it, though by so doing they might acquire greater plenty, and of a more estimable kind. Having much leisure time they indulge this indolence to which they are prone, by sleeping or

Starting point is 01:37:00 rambling about among their tents, but when necessity obliges them to take the field, either to oppose an enemy, or to procure themselves food, they are alert and indefatigable. Many instances of their activity on these occasions will be given. when we treat of their wars. The greatest blemish in their character is that savage disposition, which impels them to treat their enemies with a severity that every other nation shudders at. But if they are this barbarous to those with whom they are at war, they are friendly, hospitable, and humane in peace. It may with truth be said of them that they are the worst enemies and the best friends of any people in the world. They are in general strangers to the passion of

Starting point is 01:37:42 jealousy and brand a man with folly that is distrustful of his wife. Among some tribes the very idea is not known, as the most abandoned of their young men very rarely attempt the virtue of married women, nor do these put themselves in the way of solicitations. Yet the Indian women in general are of an amorous disposition, and before they are married are not the less esteemed for the indulgence of their passions. The Indians in their common state are strangers to all distinction of property, except in the articles of domestic use which everyone considers as his own, and increase as circumstances admit. They are extremely liberal to each other, and supply the deficiency of their friends with any surprefluity of their own. In dangers they readily give

Starting point is 01:38:28 assistance to any of their ban that stand in need of it, without any expectation of return, except those just rewards that are always conferred by the Indians on merit. governed by the plain and equitable laws of nature, everyone is rewarded according to his desserts, and their equality of condition, manners, and privileges with that constant and social familiarity which prevails through every Indian nation, animates them with a pure and patriotic spirit that tends to the general good of the society to which they belong. If any of their neighbors are bereaved by death or by an enemy of their children, those who are possessed of the greatest number of prisoners who are made slaves supply the deficiency,

Starting point is 01:39:11 and these are adopted by them and treated in every respect as if they really were the children of the person to whom they are presented. The Indians conform to themselves no idea of the value of money. They consider it when they are made acquainted with the uses to which it is applied by other nations as the source of innumerable evils. To it they attribute all the mischiefs that are prevalent among Europeans. such as treachery, plundering, devastation, and murder. They esteem it irrational that one man should be possessed of a greater quantity than another,

Starting point is 01:39:46 and are amazed that any honor should be annexed to the possession of it. But that the want of this useless metal should be the cause of depriving persons of their liberty, and that on account of this particular distribution of it, great numbers should be shut up within the dreary walls of a prison, cut off from society of which they constitute a part, exceeds their belief, nor do they fail on hearing this part of the United States system of government-related,

Starting point is 01:40:12 to charge the institutors of it with a total want of humanity and to brand them with the names of savages, brutes. They shall almost an equal degree of indifference for the productions of art. When any of these are shown them, they say, quote, it is pretty, I like to look at it, unquote, and are not inquisitive about the construction of it, neither can they form proper conceptions of its use. But if you tell them a person runs with great agility,

Starting point is 01:40:38 is skilled at hunting, can direct with an airing aim, a gun, or bends with ease a bow, can dexterously work a canoe, understands the art of war, is acquainted with the situations of the country, and can make his way without a guide through an immense forest, subsisting during this on a small quantity of provisions, they are in raptures. They will listen with great attention to the pleasing tale. and bestow the highest commendation on the hero of it. They make but very little use of physicians and medicine, and consequently they have but very few diseases among them. There is seldom an Indian but what blooms with the appearance of health.

Starting point is 01:41:17 They have no midwives among them, and among several tribes. The mother is without the assistance of any person to being with her at the time of her delivery, not even a female attendance. Soon after the birth of a child, it is placed on a board, which is covered with a skin stuffed with soft moss. The child is laid on its back and tied to it. To these machines are tied strings, by which they hang them to branches of trees,

Starting point is 01:41:43 or if they do not find trees handy, they lean them against a stump or stone, while they dress the deer or fish or do any other domestic business. In this position, they are kept until they are several months old. When taken out, they are suffered to go naked and are daily bathed in cold water, which render them vigorous and active.

Starting point is 01:42:02 The diseases manufactured by the modern sons of dissipation were unknown to them. These hearty disciples of health do not hear of the powerful and painful eloquence of the gout, consumption, and the rest of the long catalog of typhus diseases, which is preached to the votaries of Epicurus and Bacchus when their repentance is too late. An Indian child is generally kept at the breast until it is two years old, and sometimes, though rarely, until three years. The Indians often occasion inflammatory disease by excessive eating, after a fast of three or four days, when you're treating from or pursuing an enemy. The inequality of riches, the disappointment of ambition, and merciless oppressions are not with them exciting causes of insanity.

Starting point is 01:42:49 I made great inquiry, but was not able to learn that a single case of melancholy or madness was ever known among them. The dreadful havoc that the smallpox has made has necessarily been. mentioned. The mode of curing a fever is by profuse perspiration, which is affected by the patients being confined in a close tent or wigwam over a hole in the earth, in which red-hot stones are placed. A quantity of hot water is then thrown upon the stones, which involves the patient in a cloud of vapors and sweat. In this situation he rutches out and plunges into a river of water, and from hence he retires into a warm bed. They never think of giving medicine until they have first made an attempt to remove the disease by sacrifices and prayer, and if the patient recovers soon,

Starting point is 01:43:36 it is attributed to the holy management of the priest, and if medicine is to be used as the last alternative, they never administer it without its being accompanied with prayer, and a large quantity of meat, which they consume on the fire for a sacrifice. They have a plant among them, which has the power of producing abortion. It is related by Mr. Jefferson in his notes on Virginia, that the Indians inhabiting the frontiers possess a plant that produces the same effect. End of Section 8. Section 9 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark.

Starting point is 01:44:13 This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by The Rat King. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, Chapter 7. Indian mode of counting time, names of the different months, Indian charts, mode of reckoning distance, knowledge of arithmetic, civil divisions, names of the different tribes, chiefs, democracy of government, hereditary succession of the chief, style of language and debate or speech, young men not allowed to speak, etc.

Starting point is 01:44:59 Considering their ignorance of astronomy, time is very rationally divided by the Indians. Those in the interior parts, and those I would generally be understood to speak, count their years by the winters, or, as they express themselves, by snows. Some nations among them reckon their years by moons, and make them consist of 12 synodical or lunar months, observing when 30 moons have waned, to add a supernumerary one, which they termed the lost moon, and then begin to count as before. They pay a great regard to the first appearance of every moon, and on the occasion always repeat some joyful sounds, stretching at the same time their hands toward it. Every month has with them a name expressive of its season. For instance, they call the month of March, in which their year generally begins at the first new moon, after the vernal equinox, the worm month, or moon, because at this time the worms quit their retreats in the bark of the trees, wood, etc., where they have sheltered themselves during the winter. The month of April is termed by them the month of plants, May, the month of flowers, June, the hot moon, July, the buck moon.

Starting point is 01:46:05 The reason for thus denominating these is obvious. August, the sturgeon moon, because this month they catch great numbers of that fish. September, the corn moon, because in that month they gather in their Indian corn. October, the traveling moon, as they leave at this time their villages and travel towards the place where they intend to hunt during the winter. November, the beaver moon, for in this month the beavers begin to take shelter in their houses, having laid up a sufficient store of provisions for the winter season. December, the hunting moon, because they employ this month in pursuit of their game. January, the cold moon, as it generally freezes harder and the cold is more intense in this

Starting point is 01:46:43 than in any other month. February, they call the snow moon, because more snow commonly falls during this month than any other in the winter. When the moon does not shine, they say the moon is dead, and some call the last three days of it the naked days. The moon's first appearance they termed is coming to life again. They make no division of weeks, but days they count by sleeps, half days by pointing to the sun at noon, and quarters by the rising and setting of the sun, to express which in their traditions they make use of very significant hieroglyphics. The Indians are totally unskilled in geography as well as all other sciences, and yet they draw on their birch bark very exact.

Starting point is 01:47:21 charts or maps of the countries they are acquainted with. The latitude and longitude is only wanting to make them tolerably complete. Their sole knowledge and astronomy consists of being able to point out the pole star, by which they regulate their course when they travel in the night. They reckon the distance of places, not by miles or leagues, but by a day's journey, which according to the best calculations I could make, appears to be about 20 English miles. These they also divide into halves and quarters, and will demonstrate them in their maps with great exactness by the hieroglyphics just mentioned, when they regulate and counsel their war parties, or their most distant hunting excursions. They have no idea of arithmetic, and though they

Starting point is 01:48:00 are able to count any number, figures as well as letters appear mysterious to them, and above their comprehension. Every separate body of Indians is divided into bands or tribes, which band or tribe forms a little community with a nation to which it belongs. As the nation has some particular symbol by which it is distinguished from others, so each tribe has a badge from which it is nominated as that of the eagle, the panther, the tiger, the buffalo, etc. One band is represented by a snake, another a tortoise, a third a squirrel, a fourth a wolf, and a fifth a buffalo. Throughout every nation they particularize themselves in the same manner, and the meanest person among them will remember his lineal descent and distinguish himself by his respective family. Did not many

Starting point is 01:48:43 circumstances tend to confute the supposition, I should be almost induced to conclude from the distinction of tribes and the particular attachment of the Indians to them, that they derive their origin, as some have asserted, from the Israelites. Besides this, every nation distinguishes itself by the manner of constructing its tents or huts, and so well versed are all Indians in this distinction that though they appear to be no difference on the nicest observations made by an American, yet they will immediately discover, from the position of a pole left in the ground, what nation has encamped on the spot many months before. Every band has a chief who is term the great chief, or chief warrior, and of his approved valor to direct their military

Starting point is 01:49:22 operations and to regulate all concerns belonging to that department. But this chief is not considered as the head of state. Besides the great warrior who is elected for his warlike qualifications, there is another who enjoys preeminence as his hereditary right, and has the more immediate management of their civil affairs. This chief might, with great propriety, be denominated their sachem, whose assent is necessary in all conveyances and treaties, to which he affixes the mark of the tribe or nation. Though these two were considered as the heads of the band, and the latter is usually denominated their king, yet the Indians are sensible of neither civil nor military subordination, as every one of them entertains a high opinion of his

Starting point is 01:50:02 consequence, and is extremely tenacious of his liberty. All injunctions that carry with them the appearance of a positive command are instantly rejected with scorn. On this account, it is seldom that their leaders are so indiscreet as to give out any of their order. in a preemptory style. A bare hint from a chief that he thinks such a thing necessary to be done instantly arouses an emulation among the inferior ranks, and it is immediately executed with great alacrity. By this method, the disgustful part of the command is evaded,

Starting point is 01:50:33 and an authority that falls little short of absolute sway instituted in its room. Among the Indians, no visible form of government is established. They allow of no such distinction as magistrate and subject, everyone appearing to enjoy an independence that cannot be controlled. The object of government among them is rather foreign than domestic, for their attention seem more be employed in preserving such a union among members of their tribes as will enable them to watch the motion of their enemies

Starting point is 01:50:59 and acts against them in concert and vigor than to maintain interior order by any public regulations. If a scheme that appears to be of service to the community is proposed by the chief, everyone is at liberty to choose whether he will assist in carrying it on. They have no compulsory laws that lay them under any restrictions. If violence is committed or blood is shed, the right of revenging these misdemeanors is left to the family of the injured. The chiefs assume neither the power of inflicting or moderating the punishment. Some nations, where the dignity is hereditary, limit the succession to the female line. On the death of a chief, his sister's son sometimes succeeds him in preference to his own son.

Starting point is 01:51:40 And if he happens to have no sister, the nearest female relation, the dignity. This accounts for a woman being at the head of the Winnebago Nation, which, before I was acquainted with their laws, appeared strange to me. Each family has a right to appoint one of its chiefs to be an assistant chief, and without whose consent nothing of a public nature can be carried into execution. These are generally chosen for their ability in speaking, and such only are permitted to make orations in their councils and general assemblies. In this body, with the hereditary chief at its head, the supreme authority appears to be. lodged, as by its determination every transaction relative to their hunting, to their making

Starting point is 01:52:19 war or peace, and to all their public concerns are regulated. Next to these, the body of warriors, which comprehends all that are able to bear arms hold their rank. This division has sometimes at its head a chief of the nation, if he has signalled himself by any renowned action, if not some chief that has rendered himself famous. In their councils which are held by the foregoing members, every affair of consequence is debated, and no interpretation of the surprise of the least moment undertaken unless it there meets with general approbation of the chiefs they commonly assemble in a hunt or tent appropriated for this purpose and being seated in a circle on the ground the eldest chief rises and makes a speech when he has concluded another gets up and thus they speak if necessary by turns on this occasion their language is nervous and their manner of expression emphatical their style is adorned with images comparisons and strong metaphors and is equal in allegory to that of any of the Eastern nations. In all their said speeches, they express themselves

Starting point is 01:53:18 with much vehemence, but in common discourse according to our usual method of speech. The young men are suffered to be present at the councils, though they are not allowed to make a speech till they are regularly admitted. They, however, listen with great attention and show that they both understand and approve of the resolutions taken by the assembled chiefs. They frequently exclaim, that is right, that is good. The customary mode among all ranks of expressing their assent and which they repeat at the end of almost every period is by uttering a kind of forcible aspiration which seems like a union of the letters OAB. End of section 9, recording by the Rat King in Medicine Hat, Alberta. Section 10 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a

Starting point is 01:54:11 Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by Barbara Dirkson. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Mary Weather Lewis and William Clark, Section 10. Dancing, Eating Dogs Flesh, Superstition, Dangerous Situation, Hunting, Fasting, Dreaming, Agility, Method of Hunting Buffalo, Hunting Beaver, and Etcetera. dancing is a favorite exercise among the indians they never meet on any public occasion but this makes a part of the entertainment and when they are not engaged in war or hunting the youth of both sexes amuse themselves in this manner every evening they always dance as i have just observed at their feasts in these as well as other dances every man rises in his turn and moves about with great freedom and boldness, singing as he does so the exploits of his ancestors. During this, the company, who are seated on the ground in a circle around the dancer, join with him in making the cadence,

Starting point is 01:55:32 by an odd tune which they utter altogether, which sounds, hey, hey, hey. These notes, if they might be so termed, are articulated with a harsh accent and strained out with the utmost, force of their lungs, so that one would imagine their strength must soon be exhausted by it, instead of which they repeat it with the same violence during the whole of the entertainment. The women, particularly those of the Western nations, dance very gracefully. They carry themselves erect and with their arms hanging down close to their sides, move first a few yards to the right and then back again to the left. This movement they perform without taking any steps as an American would do,

Starting point is 01:56:22 but with their feet co-joined, moving by turns their toes and heels. In this manner they glide with great agility to a certain distance, and then return, and let those who join in the dance be ever so numerous, they keep time so exactly with each other that no interruption ensues. During this, at stated periods, they mingle their shrill voices with the harsher ones of the men, who sit around, for it is observed that the sexes never intermix in the same dance, which, with the music of the drums and the chickacos, make an agreeable harmony. The Indians have several kinds of dances, which they use on different occasions,

Starting point is 01:57:09 as the pipe calumet dance, the war dance, the marriage dance, and the dance of the sacrifice. The movements of every one of these are dissimilar, but it is almost impossible to convey any idea of the points in which they are unlike. Different nations likewise vary in their manner of dancing. The chip away throw themselves into a greater variety of attitudes than any other people. Sometimes they hold their heads erect, at others they bend them almost to the ground,

Starting point is 01:57:42 then recline on one side and immediately on the other. Others carry themselves more upright, step firmer, and move more gracefully, but they all accompany their dances with the disagreeable noise just mentioned. The pipe dance is the principle and most pleasing to a spectator of any of them, being the least frantic and the movement of it is most graceful. It is but on particular occasions that it is used, as when ambassadors from an enemy arrived to treat of peace, or when strangers of eminence pass through their territories. The war dance, which they use both before they set out on their war parties and on their return from them, strikes terror into strangers. It is performed as others amidst a circle of the warriors, a chief generally begins it, who moves from the right to the left,

Starting point is 01:58:40 singing at the same time both his own exploits and those of his ancestors. When he has concluded his account of any memorable action, he gives a violent blow with his war club against a post that is fixed in the ground near the center of the assembly for this purpose. Everyone dances in his turn and recapitulates the wondrous deeds of his family till they all at last join in the dance. it becomes truly alarming to any stranger that happens to be among them, as they throw themselves into every horrible and terrifying posture that can be imagined, rehearsing at the same time the

Starting point is 01:59:24 parts they expect to act against their enemies in the field. During this, they hold their sharp knives in their hands, with which, as they whirl about, they are at every moment in danger of cutting each other's throats, and did they not shun the threatened mischief with inconceivable dexterity it could not be avoided. By these motions they intend to represent the manner in which they kill, scalp, and take their prisoners. To heighten the scene they set up the same hideous yells, cries, and war-hoops they use in the time of action, so that it is impossible to consider them in any other light than as an assemblage of demons. After some hours spent in dancing, the feast begins.

Starting point is 02:00:15 The dishes being brought near me, I perceived that they consisted of dog's flesh, and I was informed that at all public grand feasts they never make use of any other kind of food. In this custom of eating dogs' flesh on particular occasions, they resemble the inhabitants of some of the countries that lie on the northeast borders of Asia. The author of the account of Kamsatka,

Starting point is 02:00:44 published by Order of the Empress of Russia, informs us that the people inhabiting Kourika, a country north of Kamsatka, who wander about in hordes like the Arabs, when they pay their worship to the evil beings, kill a reindeer or a dog, the flesh of which they eat and leave the head and tongue sticking on

Starting point is 02:01:06 a pole with the front towards the east. Also, that when they are afraid of any infectious distemper, they kill a dog, and winding the guts about two poles pass between them. These customs in which they are nearly imitated by the Indians seem to add strength to my supposition that America was first peopled from this quarter. I know not, says a traveller among them, under what class of dances to rank that performed by the Indians who come to my tent when I landed near Lake Pepin on the banks of the Mississippi. When I looked out, as I there mentioned, I saw about twenty naked young Indians, the most perfect in their shape, and by far the handsomest of any I had ever seen coming towards me and dancing as they approached to the music of their drums. At every ten or twelve yards they

Starting point is 02:02:02 halted and set up their yells and cries. When they were, reached my tent I asked them to come in, which, without deigning to make me any answer, they did. As I observed that they were painted red and black, as they usually are when they go against an enemy, and perceived that some parts of the war dance was intermixed with their other movements, I doubted not, but they were set on by the inimical chief who had refused my salutation. I therefore determined to sell my life as dear as possible. this purpose, I received them sitting on my chest with my gun and pistols beside me, and ordered my men to keep a watchful eye on them and be also upon their guard. The Indians, being entered,

Starting point is 02:02:49 they continued their dance alternately, singing at the same time of their heroic exploits and the superiority of their race over every people. To enforce their language, though it was uncommonly nervous and expressive, and such as would of itself have carried terror to the firmest heart. At the end of every period they struck their war-clubs against the poles of my tent, with such violence that I expected every moment it would have tumbled upon us. As each of them in dancing round passed by me, they placed their right hand above their eyes, and coming close to me looked me steadily in the face. which I could not construe into a token of friendship.

Starting point is 02:03:38 My men gave themselves up for lost, and I acknowledge, for my own part, that I never found my apprehensions more tumultuous on any occasion. When they had nearly ended their dance, I presented to them the pipe of peace, but they would not receive it. I then, as my last resource, thought I would try what presents would do. accordingly I took from my chest some ribbons and trinklets, which I laid before them.

Starting point is 02:04:10 These seemed to stagger their resolutions and to avert in some measure their anger, for after holding a consultation together they sat down on the ground, which I considered as a favorable omen. Thus it proved that in a short time they received the pipe of peace, and lighting at first presented it to me, and then smoke, with it themselves. Soon after, they took up the presence, which had hitherto lain neglected, and appearing to be greatly pleased with them, departed in a friendly manner. And never did I receive greater pleasure than at getting rid of such formidable guests. It was not ever in my power to gain a thorough knowledge of the designs of my visitors. I had sufficient reason to conclude that

Starting point is 02:04:59 they were hostile, and that their visit at so late an hour was made through the instigation of the grand satire. But I was afterwards informed that it might be intended as a compliment, which they usually pay to the chiefs of every other nation who happened to fall in with them, and that the circumstances in their conduct, which had appeared so suspicious to me, were merely the effects of their vanity, and designed to impress on the minds of those whom they've thus visited an elevated opinion of their valor and prowess. In the morning, before I continued my route, several of their wives brought me a present of some sugar for whom I found a few more ribbons. The dance of the sacrifice is not so denominated from their offering up at the same time a sacrifice to any good or evil

Starting point is 02:05:55 spirit, but is a dance to which the Naudawesi's give that title from being used when any public fortunate circumstance befalls them. Whilst I resided amongst them, a fine, large deer accidentally strayed into the middle of their encampment, which they soon destroyed. As this happened just at the new moon, they esteemed it a lucky omen, and, having roasted it whole, everyone in the camp partook of it. After their feast, they all joined in a dance, which they, from its being somewhat of a religious nature, termed a dance of the sacrifice.

Starting point is 02:06:38 Note, see Dr. Hubbard's compilation of Indian history. Hunting is the principal occupation of the Indians. They are trained to it from their youth, and it is an exercise which is esteemed no less honorable than necessary toward their service. subsistence. A dexterous and resolute hunter is held in nearly as great estimation by them as a distinguished warrior. Scarcely any device which the ingenuity of man has discovered for ensnaring or destroying those animals that supply them with food or whose skins are valuable is unknown to them.

Starting point is 02:07:18 Whilst they are engaged in this exercise, they shake off the indolence peculiar to their nature, and become active, persevering, and indefatigable. They are equally sagacious in finding their prey, and in the means they use to destroy it. They discern the footsteps of the beast they are in pursuit of, although they are imperceptible to every other eye, and can follow them with certainty through their pathless forest. The beasts that the Indians hunt,

Starting point is 02:07:50 both for their flesh on which they subsist, and for their skins, of which they either make their apparel or barter with the Europeans for necessaries, are the buffalo elk, deer, moose, caribou, bear, beaver, otter, Martin, etc. I defer giving a description of these animals here, and shall only at present treat of the manner of hunting them. The route they shall take for this purpose, and the parties that shall go on the different expeditions are fixed in their general councils, which are held sometime in the summer, when all the operations for the ensuing winter are concluded on. The chief warrior, whose province it is to regulate their proceedings on this occasion, with great solemnity,

Starting point is 02:08:43 issues out an invitation to those who choose to attend him. For the Indians, as before observed, acknowledge no superiority, nor have they any idea of compulsion, and every one that accepts it prepares himself by fasting during several days. The Indians do not fast as some other nations do, on the richest and most luxurious food, but they totally abstain from every kind, either of victuals or drink, and such as their patience and resolution, that the most extreme thirst could not oblige them to taste a drop of water, yet amidst this severe abstinence they appear cheerful and happy. The reasons they give for thus fasting are that it enables them freely to dream, in which dreams they are informed where they shall find the greatest plenty of game. Also,

Starting point is 02:09:41 that it averts the displeasure of the evil spirits and induces them to be propitious. They also, on these occasions, blacken those parts of their bodies that are uncovered. The fast being ended and the place of hunting made known, the chief who is to conduct them, gives a grand feast to those who are to form the different parties, of which none of them dare to partake till they have bathed themselves. At this feast, notwithstanding they have fasted so long, they eat with great moderation. and the chief that presides employs himself in rehearsing the feats of those who have been most successful in the business they are about to enter upon they soon after set out on the march towards the place appointed painted or rather be dobed with black amidst the acclamations of all the people It is impossible to describe their agility or perseverance whilst they are in pursuit of their prey.

Starting point is 02:10:44 Neither thickets, ditches, torrents, pools, or rivers stop them. They always go straight forward in the most direct line they possibly can, and there are few of the savage inhabitants of the woods that they cannot overtake. When they hunt for bears, they endeavor to find out their retreats, for during the winter these animals conceal themselves in the hollow trunk of trees or make themselves holes in the ground where they continue with food whilst the severe weather lasts when the indians think they have arrived at a place where these animals usually hunt they form themselves into a circle according to their number and moving onward endeavor as they advance towards the center to discover the retreats of their prey. By this means, if any lie in the intermediate space, they are sure of arousing and bringing them down, either with their bows or their guns. The bears will take to flight at sight of a man or a dog

Starting point is 02:11:49 and will only make resistance when they are extremely hungry or after they are wounded. The Indian method of hunting the buffalo is by forming a circle or a square, nearly in the same manner as when they search for the bear. Having taken their different stations, they set the grass, which at this time is rank and dry, on fire, and these animals, who are extremely fearful of that element, flying with precipitation before it, great numbers are hemmed in a small compass and scarcely a single one escapes. They have different ways of hunting the elk, the deer, and the caribou. Sometimes they seek them out in the woods to which they retire during the severity of the cold, where they are easily shot from behind the trees. In the more northern climates, they take advantage of the weather to destroy the elk.

Starting point is 02:12:47 When the sun has just strength enough to melt the snow, and the frost in the night forms a kind of crust on the surface, this animal, being heavy, breaks it with his forked hoofs, and, with difficulty, extricates himself from it. At this time, therefore, he is soon overtaken and destroyed. Some nations have a method of hunting these animals, which is more easily executed and free from danger. The hunting party divide themselves into two bands, and, choosing a spot near the borders of some river, one party embarks on board their canoes, whilst the other, forming themselves into a semicircle, on the land, the flanks of which reach the shore, let loose their dogs, and, by this means, rouse all the game that lies within these bounds. They then drive them towards the river,

Starting point is 02:13:45 into which they no sooner enter, than the greatest part of them are immediately dispatched by those who remain in the canoes. Both the elk and buffalo are very furious when they are wounded, and will turn fiercely on their pursuers and trample them under their feet if the hunter finds no means to complete their destruction, or does not seek for security in flight to some adjacent tree. By this method they are frequently avoided, and so tired with the pursuit that they voluntarily give it over. But the hunting in which the Indians, particularly those who inhabit the northern parts chiefly employ themselves, and from which they reap the greatest advantage, is the beaver hunting. The season for this is throughout the whole of the winter, from November to April,

Starting point is 02:14:39 during which time the fur of these animals is in the greatest perfection. A description of this extraordinary animal, the construction of their huts, and the regulations of their almost rational community, I shall give in another place. The hunters make use of several methods to destroy them. Those generally practiced are either that of taking them in snares, cutting through the ice, or opening their causeways. As the eyes of these animals are very quick and their hearing exceedingly acute, great precaution is necessary in approaching their bodies. For they seldom go far from the water, and their houses are always built close to the side of some large river or lake, or dams of their own construction. Upon the least alarm they hasten to the deepest part of the water

Starting point is 02:15:36 and dive immediately to the bottom. As they do this, they make a great noise by beating the water with their tails, on purpose to put the whole fraternity on their guard. They take them with snares in the following manner. Though the beavers usually lay up a sufficient store of provisions to serve for their subsistence during the winter, they make from time to time excursions to the neighboring woods to procure fresh supplies of food. The hunters, having found out their haunts, place a trap in their way, baited with small pieces of bark, or young shoots of trees which the beaver has no sooner laid hold of than a large log of wood falls upon him and breaks his back. His enemies who are upon the watch soon appear and instantly dispatch the helpless animal. At other times when the ice on the rivers

Starting point is 02:16:35 and lakes is about a foot thick, they make an opening through it with their hatchets, to which the beavers will soon hasten on being disturbed at their houses for a supply of fresh air. as their breath occasions a considerable motion in the water the hunter has sufficient of their approach and methods are easily taken for knocking them on the head the moment they appear above the surface when the houses of the beavers happen to be near a rivulet they are more easily destroyed the hunters then cut the ice and spreading a net under it break down the cabins of the beavers who never fail to make towards the deepest part where they are entangled and taken. But they must not be suffered to remain there long, as they would soon extricate themselves with their teeth, which are well known to be excessively sharp and strong. The Indians take great care to hinder their dogs from touching the bones of the beavers. The reasons they give for these precautions are, first,

Starting point is 02:17:44 that the bones are so excessively hard they spoil the teeth of the dogs, and, Secondly, they are apprehensive they shall so exasperate the spirits of the beavers by this permission as to render the next hunting season unsuccessful. When the Indians destroy buffalo, elk, deer, etc., they generally divide the flesh of such as they have taken among the tribe to which they belong. But in hunting the beaver, a few families usually unite and divide the spoil among them. Indeed, in the first instance, they generally pay some attention to the division to their own families, but no jealousies or murmurings are ever known to arise on account of any apparent partiality. Among the noto-esies, if a person shoots a deer, buffalo, etc., and it runs a considerable distance before it drops,

Starting point is 02:18:42 where a person belonging to another tribe being nearer, first sticks a night, into it, the game is considered as the property of the latter, notwithstanding it had been mortally wounded by the former. Though this custom appears to be arbitrary and unjust, yet the people cheerfully submit to it. This decision is, however, very different from that practiced by the Indians on the back of the colonies, where the first person that hits is entitled to the best share. Section 11 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain.

Starting point is 02:19:32 For more information, or to volunteer, please visit Librivox.org. Recording by Bill Mosley. The Journal of Lewis and Clark, I'm Mary with a Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 9 Age necessary for Warriors implements of war, causes of war, boundaries of territory, propensity for war, a war chiefs harangue to his soldiers, war counsel, dreams, fasting, influence of priests and women, mode of soliciting allies, mode of declaring war, never encumbered with baggage in war, protecting spirit, StrataGIM. Time of attack. Disposing of a conquered enemy. Eluding their pursuers. Securing prisoners. Death song. Treatment of prisoners. Slaves, etc. The Indians began to bear arms at the age of 15 and lay them aside when they arrive at the age of 60.

Starting point is 02:20:52 Some nations to the southward I have been informed do not continue their military exertions after they are 50. In every band or nation there is a select number who are styled the warriors who are always ready to act either offensively or defensively as occasion requires. These are well armed, bearing the weapons commonly used among them which vary according to the situation of their countries. Some make use of tomahawks, knives, and firearms, but those who have not an opportunity of purchasing these kinds of weapons use bows and arrows and also the Casaetete or War Club.

Starting point is 02:21:30 The Indians that inhabit still further to the westward, a country which extends to the South Sea, use in fight a warlike instrument that is very uncommon. Having great plenty of horses, they always attack their enemies on horseback and encumber themselves with no other weapon than a stumbling. stone of a middling size, curiously wrought which they fastened by a string about a yard and a half long, to their right arm, a little above the elbow. These stones they conveniently carry in their hands till they reach their enemies, and then, with great dexterity as they ride full speed, never fail of doing execution. The country which these tribes possess, abounding with large extensive plains, those who

Starting point is 02:22:15 attack them, seldom return, as the swiftness of the horse on which they should have been. they are mounted, enables them to overtake even the fleetest of their invaders. I was informed that unless they found morasses or thickets, to which they could retire, they were sure of being cut off. To prevent this, they always took care whenever they made an onset, to do it near such retreats as were impassable for cavalry, they then, having a great advantage over their enemies, whose weapons could not reach them there. Some nations make use of a javelin pointed with bone, worked into different forms, but the Indian weapons in general are bows and arrows, and the short club already mentioned. The latter is made of a very hard wood,

Starting point is 02:23:01 and the head of it fashioned round like a ball, about three inches and a half diameter. In this rotund part is fixed on edge resembling that of a tomahawk, either of steel or flint, whichever they can procure. The dagger is peculiar to some nations, and of ancient construction, but they can give no account how long it has been in use among them. It was originally made of flint or bone, but since they have communication with the European traders, they have formed it of steel. The length of it is about ten inches, and that part close the handle nearly three inches broad.

Starting point is 02:23:40 Its edges are keen, and it gradually tapers towards a point. They wear it in a sheath made of deer's leather, neatly ornamented with porcupine's quilts, and it is usually hung by a string, decorated in the same manner, which reaches as low only as the breast. This curious weapon is worn by a few of principal chiefs alone, and considered both as unuseful instrument and an ornamental badge of superiority. I observed among them a few targets or shields, made of raw buffalo-huffalo, hides, and in the form of those used by the ancients, but as the number of these was small, and I could gain no intelligence of the area in which they first were introduced among them,

Starting point is 02:24:28 I suppose those I saw had descended from father to son for many generations. The reasons the Indians give for making war against one another are much the same as those urged by more civilized nations for disturbing the tranquility of their neighbors. The pleas of the former are in general, however, more rational and just than such as are brought by Europeans in vindication of their proceedings. The extension of empire is seldom a motive with these people to invade or to commit depredations on the territories of those who happen to dwell near them, to secure the rights of hunting within particular limits, to maintain the liberty of passing through their accustomed

Starting point is 02:25:12 tracks, and to guard those lands, which they consider from a long tenure as their own, against any infringement, are the general causes of those dissensions that so often break out between the Indian nations, and which are carried on with so much animosity. Though strangers to the idea of separate property, yet the most uncultivated among them, are well acquainted with the rights of the community to the domains they possess, and oppose with vigor every encroachment on them. notwithstanding it is generally supposed that from their territories being so extensive the boundaries of them cannot be ascertained yet i am well assured that the limits of each nation in the interior parts are laid down in their rude plans with great precision By theirs, as I have just observed, was I in able to regulate my own, and after the most exact observations and inquiries, I found but very few instances in which they erred.

Starting point is 02:26:14 But interest is not either the most frequent or most powerful incentive to their making war on each other. The passion of revenge, which is the distinguishing characteristic of these people, is the most general motive. injuries are felt by them with exquisite sensibility and vengeance pursued with unremitted ardor to this may be added that natural excitation which every indian is sensible of as soon as he approaches the age of manhood to give proof of his valor and prowess as they are early possessed with a notion that war ought to be the chief business of their lives that there is nothing more desirable than the reputation of being a great warrior and that the scalps of their enemies or a number of prisoners are alone to be esteemed valuable it is not to be wondered at that the young indians are continually restless and uneasy if their order is repressed they are kept in a state of inactivity either of these propensities the desire of revenge or the gratification of an impulse that by degrees becomes habitual to them is sufficient frequently to induce them to commit hostile on some of the neighboring nations. When the chiefs find any occasion for making war,

Starting point is 02:27:35 they endeavor to arouse their habitudes, and by that means soon excite their warriors to take arms. For this purpose, they make use of their material eloquence, nearly in the following words, which never fails of proving effectual. The bones of our deceased countrymen lie uncovered. They call out to us to revenge their wrongs, and we must satisfy the request.

Starting point is 02:27:58 Their spirits cry out against us. They must be appeased. The genie, who are the guardians of our honor, inspire us with a resolution to seek the enemies of our murdered brothers. Let us go and devour those by whom they were slain. Sit there no longer inactive. Give way to the impulse of your natural valor. Anoint your hair, paint your faces, fill your quivers,

Starting point is 02:28:24 cause the forest to resound with your songs, console the spirits of the dead, and tell them they shall be revenged. Animated by these exhortations, the warriors snatch their arms, in a transport of fury, sing the song of war, and burn with impatience to imbrew their hands in the blood of their enemies. Sometimes private chiefs assemble small parties and make excursions against those with whom they are at war, or such as have injured them.

Starting point is 02:28:54 A single warrior prompted by river, binge or desire to show his prowess will march unattended several hundred miles to surprise and cut off a straggling party. These irregular salaries, however, are not always approved of by the elder chiefs, though they are often obliged to connive at them. But when a war is national and undertaken by the community, their deliberations are formal and slow. The elders assemble in council, to which all the head warriors and young men are admitted, where

Starting point is 02:29:27 they deliver their opinions in solemn speeches, weighing with maturity the nature of the enterprise they're about to engage in, and balancing with great sagacity, the advantages or inconveniences that will arise from it. Their priests are also consulted on the subject, and even sometimes the advice of the most intelligent of their women is asked. If the determination be for war, they prepare for it without much ceremony. The chief warrior of a nation does not on all occasions head the war party. party himself. He frequently deputes a warrior of whose valor and prudence. He has a good opinion.

Starting point is 02:30:05 The person then fixed on being first to be daubed with black, observes a fast of several days, during which he invokes the great spirit, or deprecates the anger of the evil ones, holding while it lasts no converse with any of his tribe. He is particularly careful at the same time to observe his dreams, for on these do they suppose their success, will in a great measure depend, and from the firm persuasion, every Indian, actuated by his own presumptuous thoughts, he is impressed with, that he shall march forth to certain victory. These are generally favorable to his wishes. After he has fasted as long as custom prescribes, he assembles the warriors, and holding a belt of wampum in his hand, thus addresses them.

Starting point is 02:30:54 Brothers, by the inspiration of the great spirit, I now speak unto you, and by him am I prompted to carry into execution the intentions which I am about to disclose to you. The blood of our deceased brother is not yet wiped away, their bodies are not yet covered, and I am going to perform this duty to them. Having then made known to them all the motives that induce him to take up arms against the nation with whom they are to engage, he thus proceeds. I have therefore resolved to march through the warpath to surprise them. We will cut their flesh and drink their blood. We will take scalps and make prisoners, and should we perish on this glorious enterprise, we shall not be forever hid in the dust, for this belt shall be a recompense to him who

Starting point is 02:31:41 buries the dead. Having said this, he lays it on the ground, and he who takes it up, declares himself as the lieutenant, and is considered as the second in command. This, however, is only done by some distinguished warrior who has a right by the number of his scalps to the post. Though the Indians thus assert that they will eat the flesh and drink the blood of their enemies, the threat is only to be considered as a figurative expression. Notwithstanding, they sometimes devour the hearts of those they sleigh and drink the blood by way of bravado, or to gratify in a more complete manner their revenge. The chief is now washed from his sable covering, anointed with bed,

Starting point is 02:32:24 fairs fat and painted with their red paint in such figures as will make him appear most terrible to his enemies. He then sings the war song and enumerates his warlike actions. Having done this, he fixes his eyes on the sun and pays his adoration to the great spirit, in which he is accompanied by all the warriors. This ceremony is followed with dances, such as I have before described, and the whole concludes with a feast which usually consists of the war. with dog's flesh.

Starting point is 02:32:56 This feast is held in the hut or tent of the chief warrior, to which all those who intend to accompany him and his expedition send their dishes to be filled, and during the feast, notwithstanding he has fasted so long, he sits composedly with his pipe in his mouth and recounts the valorous deeds of his family. As the hopes of having their wounds, should they receive any properly treated and expeditiously cured, must be some additional inducement to the warriors to expose themselves more freely to danger. The priests, who are also their doctors, prepare such medicines as will prove efficacious.

Starting point is 02:33:34 With great ceremony, they carry various roots and plants and pretend that they impart to them the power of healing. Notwithstanding the superstitious method of proceeding, it is very certain that they have acquired a knowledge of many plants and herbs that are of a medical-quality, and which they know how to use with skill. From the time the resolution of engaging in war is taken, to the departure of the warriors. The knights are spent in festivity and their days

Starting point is 02:34:05 and making the needful preparations. If it is thought necessary by the nation going to war to solicit the alliance of any neighboring tribe, they fix upon one of their chiefs who speaks the language of that people well, and who is a good orator, and send to them by him a belt of Wampum, on which is specified the purport of the embassy in figures that every nation is acquainted with.

Starting point is 02:34:29 At the same time, he carries with him a hatchet painted red. As soon as he reaches the camp or village to which he is destined, he acquaints the chief of the tribe with the general tenor of his commission, who immediately assembles a council to which the ambassador is invited. There, having laid the hatchet on the ground, he holds the belt in his hand, and enters more minutely into the occasion of the embassy. In his speech, he invites them to take up the hatchet, and as soon as he has finished speaking, delivers the belt.

Starting point is 02:35:06 If his ears are inclined to become auxiliaries to his nation, a chief steps forward and takes up the hatchet, and they immediately espouse with spirit the cause they have thus engaged to support. but if on this application either the belts or hatchets are accepted the embassy concludes that the people whose assistant he solicits have already entered into an alliance with the foes of his nation and returns with speed to inform his countrymen of his ill success the manner in which the indians declare war against each other is by sending a slave with a hatchet the handle of which is bringing red to the nation which they intend to break with and the messenger notwithstanding the date to which he is exposed from the sudden fury of those whom he thus sets that defiance, executes his commission with great fidelity. Sometimes this token of defiance has such an instantaneous effect on those to whom it is presented

Starting point is 02:36:05 that in the first transports of their fury a small party will issue forth without waiting for the permission of the elder chiefs, and slaying the first of the offending nation they meet, cut open the body, and stick a hatchet of the same kind as they just received, and to the heart of their slaughtered foe. Among the more remote tribes, this is done with an arrow or spear, the end of which is painted red, and the more to exasperate they dismember the body

Starting point is 02:36:32 to show that they esteem them not as men but as old women. The Indians seldom take this field in large bodies, as such numbers would require a greater degree of industry to provide for their subsistence. during their tedious marches through dreary forests or long voyages over lakes and rivers, then they would care to bestow. Their armies are never encumbered with baggage or military stores. Each warrior, besides his weapons, carries with him only a map,

Starting point is 02:37:05 and whilst at a distance from the frontiers of the enemy, supports himself with the game he kills or the fish he catches. When they pass through a country where they have no apprehensions of meeting with an enemy, they use very little precaution. Sometimes there are scarcely a dozen warriors left together, the rest being in pursuit of their game. But though they should have roved to a very considerable distance from the warpath, they are sure to arrive at the place of Rondervo by the hour appointed.

Starting point is 02:37:33 They always pitch their tents long before sunset, and being naturally presumptuous, take very little care to guard against a surprise. They place great confidence in their manitose or household gods, which they carry with them, and being persuaded that they take upon them the office of sentinels, they sleep very securely under their protection. These manitus, as they are called by some nations, but which are termed walk-ons, that is spirits, by the Naudawesi's, are nothing more than the otter and martin skins I have already described,

Starting point is 02:38:07 for which, however, they have a great veneration. After they have entered the enemy's country, no people can be more cautious. and circumspect. Fires are no longer lighted, no more shouting is heard, nor the game no longer pursued. They are not even permitted to speak. They must convey whatever they have to impart to each other by signs and motions. They now proceed wholly by stratagem and ambuscade. Having discovered their enemies, they send to reconnoiter them, and a council is immediately held, during which they speak only in whispers, to consider of the intelligence imparted by those who were sent out.

Starting point is 02:38:49 The attack is generally made just before daybreak, at which period they suppose they're posed to be in the sound asleep. Throughout the whole of the preceding night, they will lie flat upon their faces without stirring, and make their approaches in the same posture, creeping upon their hands and feet until they are got within bowshod of those they have destined to destruction. On a signal given by the chief warrior, to which the whole body makes answer by the most hideous yells,

Starting point is 02:39:17 they all start up and discharging their arrows in the same instant, without giving their adversaries time to recover from the confusion into which they were thrown, pour in upon them with their war clubs or tomahawks. The Indians think there is little glory to be acquired from attacking their enemies openly in the field. Their greatest pride is to surprise and destroy. they seldom engage without a manifest appearance of advantage if they find the enemy on their guard too strongly entrenched or superior in numbers they retire providing there is an opportunity of doing so and they esteem it the greatest qualification of a chief warrior to be able to manage an attack so as to destroy as many of the enemies as possible at the expense of a few men when the indians succeed in their silent approaches and are able to force the camp which they attack, a scene of horror that exceeds description ensues, the savage fierceness

Starting point is 02:40:17 of the conquerors, and the desperation of the conquered, who well know what they have to expect should they fall alive into the hands of their assailants, occasion the most extraordinary exertions on both sides, the figure of the combatants all besmeared with black and red paint and covered with the blood of the slain, their horrid yells and unguarded. venerable fury are not to be conceived by those who have never seen them. Though the Indians are negligent in guarding against surprise, they are alert and dexterous in surprising their enemies. To their caution and perseverance in stealing on the party they designed to attack,

Starting point is 02:40:57 they add that admirable talent, or rather instinctive qualification I have already described of tracing out those they are in pursuit of. On the smoothest grass, on the hardest earth, and even on the very stones, will they discover the traces of an enemy, and by the shape of the footsteps, and the distance between the prince, distinguish not only whether it is a man or a woman who has passed that way, but even the nation to which they belong.

Starting point is 02:41:26 However incredible this might appear, yet from the many proofs I have received whilst among them of their amazing sagacity in this point, I see no reason to discredit even these extraordinary, of it. When they have overcome an enemy and victory is no longer doubtful, the conquerors first dispatch all such as they think they shall not be able to carry off without great trouble, and then endeavor to take as many prisoners as possible. After this they return to scalp those who are either dead or too much wounded to be taken with them. At this business they are exceedingly expert. They seize the head of a disabled or dead enemy, and placing

Starting point is 02:42:08 one of their feet on the neck, twist their left hand in the hair, by this means having extended the skin that covers the top of the head, they draw out their scalping knives, which are always kept in good order for this cruel purpose, with a few dexterious strokes, takes off the part that is termed the scalp. They are so expeditious in doing this that the whole time required scarcely exceeds a minute. These they preserve as monuments of their prowess, and at the same time as proofs of the vengeance they have inflicted on their enemies. If two Indians seize in the same instant a prisoner and seem to have an equal claim, a contest between them is soon decided, for to put a speedy end to any dispute that might arise,

Starting point is 02:42:56 the person that is apprehensive he shall lose his expected reward, immediately has recourse to his tomahawk or war club and knocks on the head the unhappy cause of their contention. having completed their purposes and made as much havoc as possible they immediately retire towards their own country with the spoil they have acquired for fear of being pursued should this be the case they make use of many stratagems to elude the searches of the pursuers they sometimes scatter leaves sand or dust over the prints of their feet sometimes tread in each other's footsteps and sometimes lift their feet so high and tread their feet so high and tread their feet so high and tread their feet so high and tread their feet so high so lightly as not to make any impression on the ground. But if they find all these precautions unavailing, and that they are near being overtaken, they first dispatch and scalp their prisoners,

Starting point is 02:43:50 and then dividing each endeavors to regain his native country by different route. This prevents all further pursuit, for their pursuers, now despairing, either gratifying their revenge or releasing those of their friends who were made captive, return home. If the successful party is so lucky as to make good their retreat unmolested, they hasten with the greatest expedition to reach a country where they may be perfectly secure, and that their wounded companions may not retard their fight, may carry them by turns in litters,

Starting point is 02:44:23 or if it is in the winter season, draw them on sledges. The prisoners during their march are guarded with the greatest care. During the day, if the journey is over land, they are always held by some of the victorious party. If by water they are fastened to the canoe. In the night time they are stretched along the ground quite naked, with their legs, arms, and neck fastened to hooks fixed in the ground. Besides this, cords are tied to their arms or legs, which are held by an Indian who instantly awakes at the least motion of them. During their march, they oblige their prisoners to sing their death song, which generally consists of these or similar sentences.

Starting point is 02:45:04 I am going to die, I am about to suffer, but I will bear the severest tortures my enemies can inflict with becoming fortitude. I will die like a brave man, and I shall then go to join the chiefs who have suffered on the same account. These songs are continued with necessary intervals, until they reach the village of camp to which they are going. When the warriors are arrived within hearing, they set up different cries, which communicate to their friends a general history of the secret.

Starting point is 02:45:34 of the expedition. The number of the dead cries they give declare how many of their own party are lost, and the number of war-hoops, the number of prisoners they have taken. It is difficult to describe these cries, but the best idea I can convey of them is that the former consists of the sound who-woo-whoo-woo-whoop, which is continued in a long, shrill tone, nearly till the breath is exhausted, and then broken off with a sudden elevation of the voice. the latter is a loud cry of much the same kind which is modulated into notes by the hand being placed before the mouth both of them might be heard to a very considerable distance while these are uttering the persons to whom they are designed to convey the intelligence continue motionless and all attention when this ceremony is performed the whole village issue out to learn the particulars of the relation they have just heard in general terms and accordingly as as the news proves mournful or the contrary,

Starting point is 02:46:36 they answer by so many acclamations or cries of lamentation. Being by this time arrived at the village or camp, the women and children armed themselves with sticks and bludgeon's and form themselves as two ranks, through which the prisoners are obliged to pass. The treatment they undergo before they reach the extremity of the line is very severe. Sometimes they are so beaten over the head and face as to have scarcely any remains of life, and happy would it be for them if by this usage an end was put to their wretched beings but their tormentors take care that none of the blows they give prove mortal as they wish to reserve the miserable sufferers for more severe infractions

Starting point is 02:47:21 after having undergone this introductory discipline they are bound hand and foot whilst the chiefs hold a council in which their fate is determined those who are decreed to be put to death by the usual torments are delivered to the chief of the warriors such as are to be spared or given into the hands of the chief of the nation so that in a short time all the prisoners may be assured of their fate as the sentence now pronounced is irrevocable the former they termed being consigned to the house of death the latter to the house of grace such captives as are pretty far advanced in life and have acquired great honor by their warlike deeds always atoned for the blood they have spilt by the tortures of fire their success in war is readily known by the blue marks upon their breasts and arms which are legible to the indians as letters to americans the manner in which these hieroglyphics are made is by breaking the skin with the teeth of fish or sharpened flints dipped in a kind of ink made of the soot of pitch pine like those of ancient picks of britain these are esteemed ornamental and at the same time they serve as registers of the heroic actions of the warrior who thus bears about him indelible marks of his valor the prisoners destined to death are soon led to the place of execution, which is generally in the center of a camp or village, where being stripped

Starting point is 02:48:56 and every part of their bodies blackened, the skin of a crow or raven is fixed on their heads. They are then bound to a stake with fagots heaped around them and obliged for the last time to sing their death song. The warriors, for such it is only who commonly suffer this punishment, now perform in a more prolix manner this sad solemnity. They recount, with an audible voice, all the brave actions they have performed, and pride themselves in the number of enemies they have killed. In this rehearsal, they spare not even their tormentors,

Starting point is 02:49:32 but strive by every provoking tale they can invent to irritate and insult them. Sometimes this has the desired effect, and the sufferers are dispatched sooner than they otherwise would have been. There are many other methods which the Indians make use of to put their prisoners to death, but these are only occasional, that of burning is most generally used. This method of tormenting their enemies is considered by the Indians as productive of more than one beneficial consequence. It satiates in a greater degree that diabolical lust of revenge, which is the predominant passion in the breast of every individual of every tribe,

Starting point is 02:50:09 and it gives the growing warriors an early propensity to that cruelty and thirst of blood, which is so necessary of qualification for some. such as would be thoroughly skilled in their savage art of war. Notwithstanding these acts of severity exercised by the Indians toward those of their own species who fall into their hands, some tribes of them have been very remarkable for their moderation to such female prisoners, belonging to the English colonies, as have happened to be taken by them.

Starting point is 02:50:41 Women of great beauty have frequently been carried off by them, and during a march of three or four hundred miles, through their retired forests have lain by their sides without receiving any insult, and their chastity has remained in violence. Instances have happened where female captives, who have been pregnant at the time of they're being taken, have found the pangs of childbirth come upon them in the midst of solitary woods, and savages their only companions.

Starting point is 02:51:08 Yet from these savages, as they were, have they received every assistance their situations would admit up, and being treated with a degree of delixtreous. and humanity they little expected. Those prisoners that are consigned to the House of Grace, and these are commonly the young men, women, and children, await the disposal of the chiefs, who after the execution of such as are condemned to die,

Starting point is 02:51:32 hold a council for this purpose. A herald is sent round the village or camp to give notice that such as have lost any relative in the late expedition are desired to attend the distribution which is about to take place. Those women who have lost their sons or husbands are generally satisfied in the first place, after these, such as have been deprived of friends of a more remote degree of consanguinity, or who choose to adopt some of the youth. The division being made, which is done, as in other cases, without the least dispute,

Starting point is 02:52:07 those who have received any share lead them to their tents or huts, and having unbound them wash and dress their wounds, if they happen to have any, they then clothe them and give the most comfortable and refreshing food their store will afford whilst their new domestics are feeding they endeavor to administer consolation to them they tell them that as they are redeemed from death they must now be sure for unhappy and if they serve them well without murmuring or repining nothing shall be wanting to make them such atonement for the loss of their country and friends as circumstances will allow if any men are spared they are commonly given to the widows that have lost their husbands by the hands of the enemy should there be any such to whom if they happen to prove agreeable they are soon married but should the dame be otherwise engaged the life of him who falls to her lot is in great danger especially if she fancies that her late husband wants a slave in the country of spirits, to which he is gone. When this is the case, a number of young men take the devoted captive to some distance

Starting point is 02:53:18 and dispatch him without any ceremony. After he has been spared by the council, they consider him of too little consequence to be entitled to the torments of those who have been judged worthy of them. The women are usually distributed to the men of whom, they do not fail of meeting with a favorable reception. The boys and girls are taken into the families of such as have need of them and are considered as slaves, and it is not uncommon that they are sold in the same capacity to the American traders who come among them. The Indians have no idea of moderating the ravages of war by sparing their prisoners,

Starting point is 02:53:56 and entering into a negotiation with the ban from whom they have been taken for an exchange. all that are captivated by both parties are either put to death, adopted, or made slaves of. And so particular is every nation in this respect that if any tribe, even a warrior, should be taken prisoner, and by chance be received into the house of grace,

Starting point is 02:54:22 either as an adopted person or a slave, and should afterwards make his escape, they will by no means receive him or acknowledge him as one, of their band. The condition of such as are adopted differs not in any one instance on the children of the nation to which they belong. They assume all the rights of those whose places they supply, and frequently make no difficulty in going in the war parties against their own countrymen. Should however any of those by chance make their escape and be afterwards retaken,

Starting point is 02:54:56 they are esteemed as unnatural children and ungrateful persons who have, have deserted and made war upon their parents of benefactors, and are treated with uncommon severity. That part of their prisoners, which are considered as slaves, are generally distributed among the chiefs, who frequently make presence of some of them to the American governors of the outposts, or to the superintendents of Indian affairs. I have been informed that it was the Jesuits and French missionaries, at first occasion the introduction of these unhappy captives into the settlements, and by so doing taught the Indians that they were valuable.

Starting point is 02:55:37 Their views indeed were laudable, as they imagined that by this method they should not only prevent much barbarity and bloodshed, but find the opportunities much increased of spreading their religion among them. To this purpose, they have encouraged the traders to purchase such slaves as they met with. The good effects of this mode of proceeding were not, however, equal to the expectations of these pious fathers. Instead of being the means of preventing cruelty and bloodshed, it only caused dissensions between the Indian nations to be carried on with a greater degree of violence and with unremitted ardor. The prize they fought for being no longer revenge or fame, but the acquirement of spiritual liquors for which they are captive, were to be exchanged, and of which almost every nation is immoderately fond, they sought for their

Starting point is 02:56:33 enemies with unwanted alacrity, and were constantly on the watch to surprise and carry them off. It might still be said that fewer of the captives are tormented and put to death, since these expectations of receiving so valuable a consideration for them have been excited than there usually had been. But it does not appear that their accustomed cruelty to the warriors they take is in the least abated.

Starting point is 02:57:03 Their natural desire of vengeance must be gratified. They now only become more assiduous in securing a greater number of young prisoners, whilst those who are made captive in their defense are tormented and put to death

Starting point is 02:57:18 as before. And this, even in despite of the disgraceful, estimation. For the Indians consider every concrete people as in a state of vassalage to their conquerors. After one nation has finally subdued another and a conditional submission is agreed on is customary for the chiefs of the conquered when they sit in counsel with their subduers to wear petticoats as an acknowledgment that they are in a state of subjection and ought to be ranked among the women. Their partiality of the French has, however, taken

Starting point is 02:57:52 to Deep Route 4 time itself to eradicate it. The wars that are carried on between the Indian nation are in general hereditary and continue from age to age with a few interruptions. If a peace becomes necessary, the principal care of both parties is to avoid the appearance of making the first advances. When they treat with an enemy

Starting point is 02:58:17 relative to a suspension of hostilities, the chief who is commissioned to undertake the negotiation, if it is not brought about by the meditation of some neighboring ban, abates nothing of his natural haughtiness, even when the affairs of his country are in the worst situation. He makes no concession, but endeavors to persuade his adversaries that it is their interest to put an end to the war. End of Section 11, Chapter 9. Recording by

Starting point is 02:58:50 Bill Mosley Krellsburg, Texas, U.S.A Section 12 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by Jeff Kirby The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, Chapter 10.

Starting point is 02:59:17 End of war, pipe of peace, mode of presenting it, burying the war club or hatchet, belt of wampum, of what made, etc. Accidents sometimes contribute to bring about a peace between nations that otherwise could not be prevailed on to listen to terms of accommodation. Sometimes the Indians grow tired of a war which they have carried on against some neighboring nation for many years without much success, and in this case they seek for mediators to begin in negotiation. These being obtained, the treaty is thus conducted. A number of their own chiefs, joined by those who have accepted the friendly office, set out together for their enemy's country.

Starting point is 02:59:59 Such as are chosen for this purpose are chiefs of the most extensive abilities, and of the greatest integrity. They bear before them the pipe of peace, which I need not inform my readers, is of the same nature as a flag of truce among the Americans, and is treated with the greatest respect and veneration, by the most barbarous nations. I never heard of an instance wherein the bears of this sacred badge of friendship were ever treated disrespectfully, or its rights violated. The Indians believe that the Great Spirit never suffers an infraction of this kind to go unpunished.

Starting point is 03:00:34 The pipe of peace, which is termed by them Kalmet, for what reason I could never learn, is about four feet long. The bowl of it is made of red marble, and the stem of it of a light wood, curiously painted with hieroglyphies in various colors and adorned with feathers of the most beautiful birds, but it is not in my power to convey an idea of the various tints and pleasing ornaments of this much esteemed Indian implement. Every nation has a different method of decorating these pipes, and they can tell at first sight to what band it belongs. It's used as an introduction to all treaties. The assistant or aide-de-camp of the great warrior, when the chiefs are assembled and seated,

Starting point is 03:01:13 fills it with tobacco mixed with herbs, taking care at the same time that no part of it touches the ground. When it is filled, he takes a coal that is thoroughly kindled, from a fire that is generally kept burning in the midst of the assembly, and places it on the tobacco. As soon as it is sufficiently lighted, he throws off the coal. He then turns the stem of it towards the heavens, after this towards the earth, and now, holding it horizontally, moves himself round till he has completed a circle. By the first action he is supposed to present it to the great spirit, whose aid is thereby supplicated, by the second to avert any malicious interposition of the evil spirits, and by the third to gain the protection of the spirits inhabiting the air, the earth, and the waters.

Starting point is 03:02:00 Having thus secured the favor of these invisible agents, in whose power they suppose it is either to forward or obstruct the issue of their present deliberations, he presents it to the hereditary chief, who, having taken two or three whiffs, blows the smoke from his mouth, first towards heaven, and then around him upon the ground. It is afterwards put in the same manner into the mouths of the ambassadors or strangers, who observe the same ceremony, then to the chief of the warriors, and then to all other chiefs in turn, according to their credation. During this time the person who executes this honorable office holds the pipes slightly in his hand, as if he feared to press the sacred instrument, nor does anyone presume to touch it

Starting point is 03:02:41 but with his lips. When the chiefs who were instructed with the commission for making peace approach the town or camp to which they are going, they begin to sing and dance the songs and dance as appropriate to this occasion. By this time the adverse party are praised of their arrival, and, at the side of the pipe of peace divesting themselves of their wanton enmity, invite them to the habit of the habit of the habitations of the great chief, and furnish them with every conveniency during the negotiation. A council is then held, and when the speeches and debates are ended, if no obstructions arise to

Starting point is 03:03:17 put a stop to the treaty, the painted hatchet is buried in the ground, as a memorial that all animosities between the contending nations have ceased, and a peace has taken place. Among the rudder bands, such as have no communication with the Americans, a war club painted red is buried instead of the hatchet. A belt of Wampum is also given on this occasion, which serves as a ratification of the piece, and records to the latest posterity by the hieroglyphics into which the beads are formed every stipulated article in the treaty. These belts are made of shells found on the coasts of New England and Virginia, which are sought out into beads of knoblong form, about a quarter of an inch long and round like other beads, being

Starting point is 03:04:01 Being strong on leathery strings, and several of them sewed neatly together with fine sinewy threads, they then composed what is termed a belt of wampum. The shells are generally of two colors, some white and others violet, but the latter are more highly esteemed than the former. They are held in as much estimation by the Indians as gold or silver or precious stones are by the Americans. The belts are composed of ten, twelve, or a greater number of strings, according to the importance of the affair in agitation.

Starting point is 03:04:30 or the dignity of the person to whom it is presented. A more trifling occasion, strings of these beads are presented by the chiefs to each other, and frequently worn by them about their necks as a valuable ornament. End of Section 12. Section 13 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Librevox recording. All Librevox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.

Starting point is 03:05:00 dot org recording by Sue Anderson the Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark chapter 11 polygamy treatment to wives marriage ceremonies mode of divorcing another ceremony children called by the mother's name etc the Indians allow of polygamy and persons of every rank indulge themselves in this point. The chiefs in particular have a serralio, which consists of an uncertain number, usually from six to twelve or fourteen. The lower rank are permitted to take as many as there is a probability of their being able, with the children they may bear, to maintain. It is not uncommon for an Indian to marry two sisters, sometimes, if there happen to be more, the whole number,

Starting point is 03:05:56 and notwithstanding this, as it appears to civilized nations, unnatural union, they all live in the greatest harmony. The younger wives are submissive to the elder, and those who have no children do such menial offices for those who are fertile, as causes their situation to differ but little from a state of servitude. However, they perform every injunction with the greatest cheerfulness, in hopes of gaining thereby the affections of their husbands, that they, in their turn, may have the happiness of becoming mothers

Starting point is 03:06:30 and be entitled to the respect attendant on that state. It is not uncommon for an Indian, although he takes to himself so many wives, to live in a state of continents with many of them for several years, such as are not so fortunate as to gain the favor of their husband by their submissive and prudent behavior, and by that means to share in his embraces, continue in their virgin state during the whole of their lives, except they happen to be presented by him to some stranger chief, whose abode among them will not admit of his entering into a more

Starting point is 03:07:05 lasting connection. In this case, they submit to the injunction of their husband without murmuring and are not displeased at the temporary union. But if at any time it is known that they take this liberty without first receiving his consent, they are punished in the same manner as if they had been guilty of adultery. This custom is more prevalent among the nations which lie in the interior parts than among those that are nearer to the settlements, as the manners of the latter are rendered more conformable in some points to those of the Americans by the intercourse they hold with them. The Indian nations differ but little from each other in their marriage ceremonies and less in the manners of their divorces. The tribes that inhabit the borders of Canada

Starting point is 03:07:52 make use of the following custom. When a young Indian has fixed his inclinations on one of the other sex, he endeavors to gain her consent, and if he succeeds, it is never known that her parents ever obstruct their union. When every preliminary is agreed on, and the day appointed, the friends and acquaintances of both parties assemble at the house or tent of the oldest relation of the bridegroom, where a feast is prepared on the occasion. The company who has meet to assist at the festival are sometimes very numerous. They dance, they sing, and enter into every other diversion usually made use of on many of their public rejoicings. When these are finished, all those who attended merely out of ceremony depart, and the bridegroom and bride are

Starting point is 03:08:42 left alone with three or four of the nearest and oldest relations of either side, those of the bridegroom being men and those of the bride women. Presently the bride attended by these few friends, having withdrawn herself for the purpose, appears at one of the doors of the house, and is led to the bridegroom who stands ready to receive her. Having now taken their station on a mat placed in the center of the room, they lay hold of the extremities of a wand, about four feet long, by which they continue separated, whilst the old men pronounces some short harangues suitable to the occasion. The married couple then make a public declaration of the love and regard they entertain for each other, and holding the rod between them, dance and sing.

Starting point is 03:09:31 When they have finished this part of the ceremony, they break the rod into as many pieces as there are witnesses present, who each take a piece and preserve it with care. The bride is then reconducted out of the door at which she entered, where her young companions wait, to attend her to her father's house. There, the bridegroom is obliged to seek her, and the marriage is consummated. Very often the wife remains at her father's house till she has a child, when she packs up her apparel, which is all the fortune she is generally possessed of, and accompanies her husband to his habitation. When, from any dislike, a separation takes place, for they are seldom known to quarrel, they generally give their friends a few days' notice of their intentions.

Starting point is 03:10:18 and sometimes offer reasons to justify their conduct. The witnesses, who were present at the marriage, meet on the day requested at the house of the couple that are about to separate, and bringing with them the pieces of rod, which they had received at their nuptials, throw them into the fire in the presence of all the parties. This is the whole of the ceremony required, and the separation is carried on without any murmurings

Starting point is 03:10:45 or ill-will between the couple or the relations. and after a few months they are at liberty to marry again. When a marriage is thus dissolved, the children which have been produced from it are equally divided between them, and as children are esteemed a treasure by the Indians, if the number happens to be odd, the woman is allowed to take the better half.

Starting point is 03:11:09 Though this custom seems to encourage fickleness and frequent separations, yet there are many of the Indians who have but one wife, and enjoy with her a state of connubial happiness not to be exceeded in more refined societies. There are also not a few instances of women preserving and inviable attachments to their husbands, except in the cases before mentioned, which are considered as either a violation of their chastity or fidelity. Although I have said that the Indian nations differ very little from each other in their marriage ceremonies, there are some exceptions. The Nadoeses have a singular method of celebrating their marriages,

Starting point is 03:11:52 which seems to bear no resemblance to those made use of by any other nation I passed through. When one of their young men has fixed on a young woman he approves of, he discovers his passion to her parents, who give him an invitation to come and live with them in their tent. He accordingly accepts the offer, and by so doing engages to reside in it for a whole year in the character of a menial servant. During this time he hunts and brings all the game he kills to the family, by which means the father has an opportunity of seeing whether he is able to provide for the support of his daughter and the children that might be the consequence of their union. This, however, is only done whilst they are young men and for their first wife,

Starting point is 03:12:41 and not repeated like Jacob's servitude. When this point, period is expired, the marriage is solemnized after the custom of the country in the following manner. Three or four of the oldest male relations of the bridegroom, and as many of the brides, accompany the young couple from their respective tents to an open part in the center of the camp. The chiefs and warriors, being here assembled to receive them, a party of the latter are drawn up in two ranks on each side of the bride and bridegroom, immediately on. their arrival. Their principal chief then acquaints the whole assembly with the design of their meeting and tells them that the couple before them, mentioning at the same time their names, are come to

Starting point is 03:13:27 avow publicly their intentions of living together as man and wife. He then asks the two young people alternately whether they desire that the union might take place. Having declared with an audible voice that they do so, the warriors fix their arrows and distaste. charge them over the heads of the married pair. This done, the chief pronounces them, man and wife. The bridegroom then turns round, and bending his body, takes his wife on his back, in which manner he carries her amidst the acclamations of the spectators to his tent. The ceremony is succeeded by the most plentiful feast the new married man can afford, and songs and dances, according to the usual custom, conclude the festival.

Starting point is 03:14:17 Among the Indians, as well as European nations, there are many that devote themselves to pleasure, and notwithstanding the accounts given by some modern writers of the fragility of an Indian's constitution, become the zealous votaries of Venus. The young warriors that are thus disposed seldom want opportunities for gratifying their passion, and as the mode usually followed on these occasions is rather singular, I shall describe it. When one of these young DeBashis imagines, from the behavior of the person he has chosen for his mistress, that he shall not meet with any great obstruction to his suit from her, he pursues the following plan. It has been already observed that the Indians acknowledged no superiority,

Starting point is 03:15:03 nor have they any ideas of subordination except in the necessary regulation. of their war or hunting parties. They consequently live nearly in a state of equality, pursuant to the first principles of nature. The lover, therefore, is not apprehensive of any check or control in the accomplishments of his purposes if he can find a convenient opportunity for completing them. As the Indians are also under no apprehension of robbers or secret enemies, they leave the doors of their tents or huts unfastened during the night as well as in the day. Two or three hours after sunset, the old people cover over the fire that is generally burning in the midst of their apartment with ashes and retire to their repose.

Starting point is 03:15:52 While darkness thus prevails and all is quiet, one of these sons of pleasure, wrapped up closely in his blanket to prevent his being known, will sometimes enter the apartment. of his intended mistress. Having first lighted at the smothered fire, a small splinter of wood, which answers the purpose of a match, he approaches the place where she reposes, and gently pulling away the covering from the head, jogs her till she awakes. If she then rises up and blows out the light, he needs no further confirmation that his company is not disagreeable, but if after he has

Starting point is 03:16:31 discovered himself she hides her head and takes no notice of him, he might rest assured that any further solicitations will prove vain, and that it is necessary immediately for him to retire. During his stay, he conceals the light as much as possible in the hollow of his hands, and as the tents or rooms of the Indians are usually large and capacious, he escapes without detection. It is said that the young women who admit their lovers on these occasions take great care by an immediate application to herbs with a potent efficacy of which they are well acquainted to prevent the effects of these illicit amours from becoming visible. For should the natural consequences ensue, they must forever remain unmarried. The children of the Indians are always

Starting point is 03:17:23 distinguished by the name of the mother, and if a woman, and marries several husbands and has issue by each of them, they are called after her. The reason they give for this is that, as their offspring are indebted to the father for their souls, the invisible part of their essence, and to the mother for their corporeal and apparent part, it is more rational that they should be distinguished by the name of the latter from whom they indutably derive their being than by that of the father, of which a doubt might sometimes arise whether they are justly entitled. There are some ceremonies made use of by the Indians at the opposition of the name, and it is considered by them as a matter of great importance. But what these are

Starting point is 03:18:10 I could never learn, through the secrecy observed on the occasion. I only know that it is usually given when the children have passed the state of infancy. Nothing can exceed the tenderness shown by them to their offspring, and a person cannot recommend himself to their favor by any method more certain than by paying some attention to the younger branches of their families. There is some difficulty attends an explanation of the manner in which the Indians distinguish themselves from each other. Besides the name of the animal by which every nation and tribe is denominated, there are others that are personal, and which the children receive from their mother. The chiefs are also distinguished by a name that has either some reference to their abilities or to the hieroglyphic

Starting point is 03:19:00 of their families, and these are acquired after they arrive at the age of manhood. Such as have signaled themselves either in their war or hunting parties, or are possessed of some eminent qualifications, receive a name that serves to perpetuate the fame of these actions, or to make their abilities conspicuous. Section 14 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org.

Starting point is 03:19:41 The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Maryweather Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 12 Great Spirit, Good spirits of a lesser degree, ideas of a future state. priests, superstition, religion, anecdote, fearless of death, dying speech, character of the Indians, love of country, sons of honor, etc. It is certain the Indians acknowledge one supreme being or giver of life who presides over all things. That is, the great spirit, and they look up to him as the source of good from whom no evil can proceed. They also believe in a bad spirit, to whom they ascribe great power, and suppose that through his means all the evils which

Starting point is 03:20:30 befall mankind are inflicted. To him, therefore, do they pray in their distresses, begging that he would either avert their troubles, or moderate them, when they are no longer avoidable. They say that the great spirit, who is infinitely good, neither wishes nor is able to do any mischief to mankind, but on the contrary, that he showers down on them all the blessings they deserve, whereas the evil spirit is continually employed in contriving how he may punish the human race, and to do which he is not only possessed of the will, but of the power. They hold also that there are good spirits of a lesser degree, who have their particular departments in which they are constantly contributing to the happiness

Starting point is 03:21:12 of mortals. These they supposed to preside over all the extraordinary productions of nature, such as those lakes, rivers, or mountains that are of an uncommon magnitude, and likewise the beasts, birds, fishes, and even vegetables, or stones that exceed the rest of their species in size or singularity. To all of these, they pay some kind of adoration. But at the same time, I fancy that the ideas they annexed to the world's spirit are very different from the conceptions more enlightened nations entertain of it. They appear to fashion to themselves corporeal representations of their gods

Starting point is 03:21:48 and believe them to be of a human form, though of a nature more excellent than man. Of the same kind are their sentiments relative to futurity. They doubt not, but they shall exist in some future state. They, however, fancy that their employments there will be somewhat similar to those they are engaged in here, without the labor and difficulties annex to them in this period of their existence. They consequently expect to be translated to a delightful country, where they shall always have a clear, unclouded sky and enjoy a perpetual spring, where the forests will be abound with game, and the lakes with fish, which might be taken without a painful exertion of skill or a laborious pursuit. In short, that they shall live forever in regions of plenty, and

Starting point is 03:22:35 enjoy every gratification they delight in here in a greater degree. To intellectual pursuits, they are strangers, nor are those included in their schemes of happiness. They expect that even these animal pleasures will be proportioned and distributed according to their merit. The skillful hunter, the bold and successful warrior, will be entitled to a greater share than those who, through indolence or want of skill, cannot boast any superiority over the common herd. The priests of the Indians are, at the same time, their physicians, and their conjurers. Whilst they heal their wounds or cure their diseases, they interpret dreams, give them

Starting point is 03:23:14 protective charms, and satisfy that desire which is so prevalent among them, of searching into futurity. How well they execute the latter part of their professional engagements, and the methods they make use of on some of these occasions, I have already shown in the exertions of the priest of the Killistinoes, who was fortunate enough to succeed in his extraordinary attempt near Lake Superior. They frequently are successful, likewise in administering the salubrious herbs they have acquired a knowledge of, but that the serubrious herbs they have acquired a knowledge of, but that the

Starting point is 03:23:44 ceremonies they make use of during the administration of them contributes to their success, I shall not take upon me to assert. When any of the people are ill, the person who is invested with this triple character of doctor, priest, and magician, sits by the patient day and night, rattling in his ears a goad shell filled with dry beans called the chichikui, and making a disagreeable noise that cannot be well described. This uncouth harmony, one would imagine, should disturb the sick person, prevent the good effects of the doctor's prescription. But on the contrary, they believe that the method made use of contributes to his recovery

Starting point is 03:24:22 by diverting from his malignant purposes the evil spirit who has inflicted the disorder, or at least that it will take off his attention so that he shall not increase the malady. This they are credulous enough to imagine he is constantly on the watch to do, and would carry his inveteracy to a fatal length if they did not thus charm him. I could not discover that they make use of his. any other religious ceremonies than those I have described. Indeed, on the appearance of the new moon, they dance and sing, but it is not evident that they pay that planet any adoration. They only seem to rejoice at the return of a luminary that makes the night cheerful, and which

Starting point is 03:25:00 serves to light them on their way when they travel during the absence of the sun. nonwithstanding Mr. Adair has asserted that the nations among whom he resided observed with very little variation, all the rights appointed by the Mosaic law, I own I could never discover among the tribes that lie but a few degrees to the northwest the least traces of the Jewish religion, except it be admitted that one particular female custom and their divisions into tribes carry with them proof sufficient to establish this assertion. The Jesuits and French missionaries have also pretend, that the Indians had, when they first traveled into America, some notions, though these were

Starting point is 03:25:38 dark and confused, of the Christian institution, that they have been greatly agitated at the sight of a cross, and given proofs by the impressions made on them that they were not entirely unacquainted with the sacred mysteries of Christianity. I need not say that these are two glaring absurdities to be credited, and could only receive their existence, from the zeal of those fathers, who endeavored at once to give the public a better opinion of the success of their missions, and to support the cause they were engaged in. The Indians appear to be in their religious principles, rude and uninstructed. The doctrines they hold are few and simple, and such as have been generally impressed on the

Starting point is 03:26:16 human mind, by some means or other, in the most ignorant ages. They, however, have not deviated, as many other uncivilized nations, and too many civilized ones have done, into idolatrous modes of worship. They venerate indeed and make offerings to the one of the one of the world. parts of the creation, as I have before observed. But whether these rites are performed on account of the impressions such extraordinary appearances make on them, or whether they consider them as the peculiar charge or the unusual place of residence of the invisible spirits they acknowledge, I cannot positively determine.

Starting point is 03:26:52 The human mind, in its uncultivated state, is apt to ascribe the extraordinary occurrences of nature, such as earthquakes, thunder, or hurricanes, to the interposition of unseen beings. The troubles and disasters also that are re-annexed to a savage life. The apprehensions, attendant on the precarious subsistence and those numberless inconveniences which man in his improved state has found means to remedy, are supposed to proceed from the interposition of evil spirits. The savage, consequently, lives in continual apprehensions of their unkind attacks, and to avert them has recourse to charms, to the fantastic ceremonies of his priest, or the powerful influence of his manateaus. Fear has, of course, a greater share in his devotions than gratitude,

Starting point is 03:27:39 and he pays more attention to deprecating the wrath of the evil than to securing the favor of the good beings. The Indians, however, entertain these absurdities in common with those of every part of the globe who have not been illuminated with that religion, which can only disperse the clouds of superstition in ignorance, and they are as free from error as people can be that have not been favored with its instinctive doctrines. In Penobscot, a settlement in the province of Maine, in the northeast parts of New England, the wife of a soldier was taken in labor, and notwithstanding every necessary assistance was given her could not be delivered.

Starting point is 03:28:19 In this situation, she remained for two or three days, the persons around her expecting that the next pang would put an end to her existence. An Indian woman, who accidentally passed by, heard the groans of the unhappy sufferer, and inquired from whence they proceeded. Being made acquainted with the desperate circumstances attending the case, she told the informant that if she might be permitted to see the person, she did not doubt that she could be of great service to her. The surgeon that had attended, and the midwife, who was then present,

Starting point is 03:28:51 having given up every hope of preserving their patient, the Indian woman was allowed to make use of any method she thought proper. She accordingly took a handkerchief and bound it tight over the nose and mouth of the woman. This immediately brought on suffocation, and from the struggles that consequently ensued she was in a few seconds delivered. The moment this was achieved, in time enough to prevent any fatal effect, the handkerchief was taken off. The long-suffering patient, thus happily relieved from her pains soon after perfectly recovered to the astonishment of those who had been witnessed to the desperate situation. The reason given by the Indian for this hazardous method of proceeding was that desperate disorders

Starting point is 03:29:32 require desperate remedies. That, as she observed, the exertions of nature were not sufficiently forcible to affect the desired consequence, she thought it necessary to augment their force which could only be done by some mode that was violent in the extreme. An Indian meets death, when it approaches him in his hut, with the same resolution he has often faced him in the field. His indifference relative to this important article, which is the source of so many apprehensions, to almost every other nation is truly admirable. When his fate is pronounced by the physician and it remains no longer uncertain,

Starting point is 03:30:09 he harangues those about him with the greatest composure. If he be a chief and has a family, he makes a kind of funeral oration, which he concludes by giving to his children such advice for the regulation of their conduct as he thinks necessary. He then takes leave of his friends and issues out orders for the preparation of a feast,

Starting point is 03:30:28 which is designed to regale those of his people, his tribe that can come to pronounce his eulogium. The character of the Indians, like that of other uncivilized nations, is composed of a mixture of ferocity and gentleness. They are at once guided by passions and appetites which they hold in common with the fiercest beasts that inhabit the woods, and are possessed of virtues which do honor to human nature. In the following estimate, I shall endeavor to forget, on the one hand, the prejudices of the

Starting point is 03:30:57 Americans, who usually annexed to the word Indian, epithets that are disgraceful to human nature, and who view them as savages and cannibals, whilst with equal care I avoid my partiality towards them, as some must naturally arise from the favorable reception I have met with during my stay among them. That the Indians are of a cruel, revengeful, inexorable disposition, that they will watch whole days unmindful of the cause of nature, and make their way through pathless and almost unbounded woods, subsisting only on the scanty produce of them to pursue and avenge themselves of an enemy, that they hear unmoved the piercing eerie

Starting point is 03:31:35 of such as unhappily fall into their hands and receive a diabolical pleasure from the tortures they inflict on their prisoners, I readily grant. But let us look on the reverse of this terrifying picture, and we shall find them temperate both in their diet and potations. It must be remembered that I speak of those tribes who have little or no communication with Americans, that they withstand, with unexampled patience, the attacks of hunger, or the inclemency of the seasons,

Starting point is 03:32:04 and esteem the gratification of their appetites but as a secondary consideration. We shall likewise see them social and humane to those whom they consider as their friends, and even to their adopted enemies, and ready to partake with them of that last morsel, or to risk their lives in their defense. In contradiction to the report of many other travelers, all of which have been taken, punctured with prejudice, I can assert that nonwithstanding the apparent indifference with which an Indian meets his wife and children after a long absence, an indifference proceeding rather from custom than insensibility, he is not unmindful of the claims either of connubial or parental

Starting point is 03:32:43 tendencies. Accom accustomed from their youth to innumerable hardships, they soon become superior to a sense of danger, or the dread of death, and their fortitude, implanted by nature, and nurtured by example, by precept and accident, never experience a moment's allay. Though slothful and inactive whilst their stores of provision remain unexhausted, and their foes are at a distance, they are indefatigable and persevering in pursuit of their game or in circumventing their enemies. If they are artful in designing and ready to take every advantage, if they are cool and deliberate in their counsels and cautious in the extreme either of discovering their sentiments or of revealing a secret, they might at the same time boast

Starting point is 03:33:31 of possessing qualifications of a more animated nature, of the sagacity of a hound, the penetrating sight of a lynx, the cunning of a fox, the agility of abounding doe, and the unconquerable fierceness of the tiger. In their public characters, as forming part of a community, they possess an attachment for that band to which they belong, unknown to the enhanced, and inhabitants of any other country. They combine as if they were actuated only by one soul against the enemies of their nation and banished from their minds every consideration opposed to this. They consult without unnecessary opposition or without giving way to the excitements of envy or ambition on those measures necessary to be pursued for the destruction of those who have

Starting point is 03:34:20 drawn on themselves their displeasure. No selfish views ever influence their advice. or obstruct their consultation, nor is it in the power of bribes or threats to diminish the love they bear for their country. The honor of their tribe and the welfare of their nation is the first and most predominant emotion of their hearts, and from hence proceed in a great measure all their virtues and their vices. Actuated by this, they brave every danger, endure the most exquisite torments, and expire triumphing in their fortitude, not as a personal qualification, but as a national characteristic. From thence also flows that insatiable revenge towards those with whom they are at war, and all the consequent horrors that disgrace their name.

Starting point is 03:35:12 Their uncultivated mind being incapable of judging of the propriety of an action, in opposition to their passions, which are totally insensible of the controls of reason and humanity, they know not how to keep their fury within any bounds, and consequently that courage and resolution, which would otherwise do them honor, degenerates into a savage ferocity. But this short dissertation must suffice. The limits of my work will not permit me to treat the subject more copiously, or to pursue it with a logical regularity. The observations already made by my readers on preceding pages will, I trust, render it

Starting point is 03:35:52 unnecessary, as by them they will be enabled to form a tolerable, just idea of the people I have been describing. Experience teaches that anecdotes and relations of particular events, however trifling they might appear, enable us to form a truer judgment of the manners and customs of a people, and are much more declaratory of their real state than the most studied and elaborate disquisitions without these aids. End of section 14. Section 15 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording.

Starting point is 03:36:35 All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 13 The two subjoined delineations of the two tribes of Indians who inhabit the country on this side of the Rocky Mountains is a summary from the pen of Mackenzie. Venista now are of a moderate stature, well-proportioned, and of great activity. Examples of deformity are seldom to be seen among them. Their complexion is of a copper color and their hair black, which is common to all the natives of North America.

Starting point is 03:37:19 It is cut in various forms, according to the fancy of the several tribes, and by some is left in the long, length flow of nature. Their eyes are black, keen, and penetrating. Their continents open and agreeable, and it is a principal object of their vanity to give every possible decoration to their persons. A material article in their toilets is vermilion, which they contrast with their natives blue, white, and brown earths, to which charcoal is frequently added. Their dress is at one simple and commodious. It consists of tight leggings reaching near the hip. A strip of cloth or leather, called a seine, about a foot wide and five feet long,

Starting point is 03:38:04 whose ends are drawn inwards and hang behind and before, over a belt tied round the waist for that purpose. A close vest or shirting reaching down the former garment, and tinctured with a broad strip of parchment fastened with thongs behind, and a cap for the head, consisting of a piece of fur or small skin with the brush of the animal as a suspended ornament. A kind of robe is occasionally thrown over the whole of the dress and serves both night and day. These articles, with the addition of shoes and mittens, constitute the variety of their apparel. The materials vary according to the season, and consists of dressed moose skin, beaver prepared with the fur, or European woolens.

Starting point is 03:38:47 The leather is neatly painted and fancifully worked in some parts with porcupine quills and moose-deer hair. The shirts and leggings are also adorned with fringe and tassels, nor are the shoes and mittens without somewhat of appropriate decoration and worked with a considerable degree of skill and taste. These habiliments are put on, however, as fancy or convenience suggests, and they will sometimes proceed to the chase in the severest frost covered only with the slightest of them. Their headdresses are composed of feathers of the swan, the eagle, and other birds. The teeth, horns, and claws of different animals are also the occasional ornaments of the head and neck.

Starting point is 03:39:33 Their hair, however arranged, is always besmeared with grease. The making of every article of dress is a female occupation, and the women, though by no means inattentive to the decoration of their own persons appear to have a still greater degree of pride in attending to the appearances of the men whose faces are painted with more care than those of the women. The female dress is formed of the same materials as those of the other sex, but of a different make and arrangement. Their shoes are commonly plain and their leggings gartered beneath the knees. The coat or body covering falls down to the middle of the leg and is fastened over the shoulders with cords, a flap or cape turning down about eight inches both before and behind,

Starting point is 03:40:20 and agreeably ornamented with quill work and fringe. The bottom is also fringed and fancifully painted as high as the knee. As it is very loose, it is enclosed round the waist with a stiff belt, decorated with tassels and fastened behind. The arms are covered to the wrist with detached sleeves, which are sewed as far as the bend of the arm. From thence they are drawn up to the neck and the corners of them fall down behind as low as the waist.

Starting point is 03:40:50 The cap, when they wear one, consists of a certain quality of leather or cloth sewed at one end, by which means it is kept on the head, and, hanging down the back, is fastened to the belt as well as under the chin. The upper garment is a robe like that worn by the men. Their hair is divided on the crown and tied behind,

Starting point is 03:41:11 or sometimes fastened in large knots over the ears. They are fond of European articles and prefer them to their own native commodities. Their ornaments consist, in common with all other savages, in bracelets, rings, and similar bibles. Some of the women tattoo three perpendicular lines, which are sometimes double, one from the center of the chin to that of the upper lip, and one parallel on either side of the corner of the mouth. Of all the nations which I have seen on this continent, the Kistinaw women, are the most comely. These people are naturally mild and affable, as well as just in their dealings,

Starting point is 03:41:52 not only among themselves, but with strangers. They have been called thieves, but when that vice can with justice be attributed to them, it may be traced to their connection with the civilized people who come into their country to traffic. They are also generous and hospitable, and and good-natured in the extreme, except when their nature is perverted by the inflammatory influence of spiritous liquors. To their children, they are indulgent to a fault. The father, though he assumes no command over them, is ever anxious to instruct them in all the preparatory qualifications for war and hunting, while the mother is equally attentive to her daughters in teaching them everything that is considered as necessary to their character and situation.

Starting point is 03:42:37 It does not appear that the husband makes any distinction between the children of his wife, though they may be the offspring of different fathers. Ill legitimacy is only attached to those who are born before their mothers have cohabited with any man by the title of husband. When a man loses his wife, it is considered as a duty to marry her sister, if she has one. Or he may, if he pleases, have them both at the same time. It will appear from the fatal consequence I have repeatedly imputed to the use of spiritous liquors that I more particularly considered these people as having been, morally speaking,

Starting point is 03:43:18 great sufferers from their communication with the subjects of civilized nations. At the same time, they were not in a state of nature without their vices, and some of them of a kind which are the most abhorrent to cultivated and reflecting man. I shall only observe that incest and bestiality are among them. When a young man marries, he immediately goes to live with the father and mother of his wife, who treat him nevertheless as a perfect stranger until after the birth of his first child. He then attaches himself more to them than to his own parents, and his wife no longer gives him any other denomination than that of the father of her child.

Starting point is 03:44:02 The profession of the men in war and hunting, and the more active scene of their duty, is the field of battle, and the chase in the woods. They also spearfish, but the management of the nets is left to the women. The females of this nation are in the same subordinate state with those of all other savage tribes, but the severity of their labor is much diminished by their situation on the banks of lakes and rivers, where they employ canoes. In the winter, when the waters are frozen, they make their journeys, which are never of any great length, with sledges drawn by dogs. They are at the same time subject to every kind of domestic drudgery.

Starting point is 03:44:42 They dress the leather, make the clothes and shoes, weave the nets, collect wool, erect the tents, fetch water, and perform every culinary service. So that when the duties of maternal carer added, it will appear that the life of these women is in an uninterrupted succession of toil and pain. This, indeed, is the sense they entertain of their own situation, and, under the influence of that sentiment, they are sometimes known to destroy their female children to save them from the miseries which they themselves have suffered. They also have a ready way, by the use of certain simplets, of procuring abortions, which they sometimes practice from their hatred of the father, or to save themselves the trouble which children occasion. And, as I have been credibly informed, this unnatural act is repeated without any injury to the health

Starting point is 03:45:37 of the women who perpetrate it. The funeral rites begin, like all other solemn ceremonials, with smoking, and are concluded by a feast. The body is dressed in the best habiliments possessed by the deceased, or his relations, and is then deposited in a grave, lined with branches. Some domestic utensils are placed on it, and a kind of canopy erected over it. During this ceremony, great lamentations are made. And if the departed person is very much regretted, the near relations cut off their hair,

Starting point is 03:46:13 pierce the fleshy part of their thighs and arms with arrows, knives, etc., and blacken their face with charcoal. If they have distinguished themselves in war, they are sometimes on a kind of of scaffolding, and I have been informed that women in the East have been known to sacrifice themselves to the mains of their husbands. The whole of the property belonging to the departed person is destroyed, and the relations take in exchange for the wearing apparel any rags that will cover their nakedness. The feast bestowed on the occasion, which is, or at least used to be, repeated annually,

Starting point is 03:46:50 is accompanied with eulogiums of the deceased, and without any kind of a few hundred and, any acts of ferocity. On the tomb is carved or painted the symbols of his tribe, which are taken from the different animals of the country. They have frequently feasts, and particular circumstances never fail to produce them, such as tedious illness, long fasting, etc. On these occasions, it is usual for the person

Starting point is 03:47:17 who means to give the entertainment to announce his design on a certain day of opening the medicine bag and smoking out his sacred stem. This declaration is considered as a sacred vow that cannot be broken. There are also stated periods, such as the spring and autumn, when they engage in very long and solemn ceremonies. On these occasions, dogs are offered as sacrifices, and those who are very fat and milk white are preferred. They also make large offerings of their property, whatever it may be. The scene of these ceremonies is in an open enclosure on the bank of a river,

Starting point is 03:47:54 or lake, and in the most conspicuous situation, in order that such as our passing along or traveling, may be induced to make their offerings. There is also a particular custom among them that on these occasions, if any of the tribe, or even a stranger, should be passing by and be in real want of anything that is displayed as an offering, he has a right to take it, so that he replaces it with some article he can spare, that would be of far inferior value. But to take touch anything wantonly is considered as a sacrilegious act and highly insulting to the great master of life, to use their own expression, who is the sacred object of their devotion. The scene of private sacrifice is the lodge of the person who performs it, which is prepared for that purpose

Starting point is 03:48:44 by removing everything out of it and spreading green branches in every part. The fire and ashes are also taken away. A new hearth is made of fresh earth and another fire is lighted. The owner of the dwelling remains alone in it and he begins the ceremony by spreading a piece of new cloth or a well-dressed moose skin neatly painted on which he opens his medicine bag and exposes its contents consisting of various articles. The principle of them is a kind of household god which is a small carved image about eight inches long. It's first covering is of down, over which a piece of birch bark is closely tied, and the hole is enveloped in several folds of red and blue cloth. This little figure is an object of the most pious regard. The next

Starting point is 03:49:34 article is his war cap, which is decorated with the feathers and plumes of scarce birds, beavers, and eagles' claws, etc. There is also suspended from it a quill or feather for every enemy whom the owner of it has slain in battle. The remaining content, of the bag are, a piece of Brazil tobacco, several roots and simples, which are in great estimation for the medicinal qualities, and a pipe. These articles being all exposed, and the stem resting upon two forks, as it must not touch the ground, the master of the lodge sends for the person he most esteems, who sits down opposite to him. The pipe is then filled and fixed to the stem. A pair of wooden pincers is provided to put the fire in the pipe, and a double-pointed

Starting point is 03:50:20 pin to empty it of the remnant of tobacco which is not consumed. This arrangement being made, the men assemble, and sometimes the women are allowed to be humble spectators, while the most religious awe and solemnity pervade the whole. The Machinawais, or assistant, takes up the pipe, lights it, and presents it to the officiating person, who receives it standing, and holds it between both hands. He then turns himself to the east and draws a few whiffs, which he is. blows to that point. The same ceremony he observes to the other three quarters, with his eyes directed upwards during the whole of it. He holds the stem about the middle between the three first

Starting point is 03:51:03 fingers of both hands, and raising them upon a line with his forehead, he swings it three times round from the east, with the sun, when, after pointing and balancing it in various directions, he reposes it on the forks. He then makes a speech to explain the design of their being called together, which concludes with an acknowledgement of past mercies and a prayer for the continuance of them from the Master of Life. He then sits down, and the whole company declare their approbation and thanks by uttering the word, ho, with an emphatic prolongation of the last letter. The Machinawais then takes up the pipe and holds it to the mouth of the officiating person,

Starting point is 03:51:44 who, after smoking three whiffs out of it, utters a short prayer, and then goes around with it, taking his course from east to west to every person present, who individually says something to him on the occasion. And thus the pipe is generally smoked out. When after turning it three or four times round his head, he drops it downwards and replaces it in its original situation. He then thanks the company for their attendance and wishes them, as well as the whole tribe, health, and long life. These smoking rights proceed every matter of great importance, with more or less ceremony, but always with equal solemnity. The utility of them will appear from the following relation. If a chief is anxious to know the disposition of his people towards him, or he wishes to settle any difference between them,

Starting point is 03:52:35 he announces his intention of opening his medicine bag and smoking in his sacred stem, and no man who entertains a grudge against any of the party thus assembled can smoke with the sacred stem, as that ceremony dissipates all differences and is never violated. No one can avoid attending on these occasions, but a person may attend and be excused from assisting at the ceremonies by acknowledging that he has not undergone the necessary purification. The having cohabited with his wife or any other woman, within 24 hours preceding the ceremony renders him unclean, and consequently disqualifies him

Starting point is 03:53:14 from performing any part of it. If a contract is entered into and solemnized by the ceremony of smoking, it never fails of being faithfully fulfilled. If a person, previous to his going on a journey, leaves the sacred stem as a pledge of his return, no consideration whatever will prevent him from executing his engagement. It is, however, to be lamented that of late there is a relaxation of the duties originally attached to the festivals. The chief, when he proposes to make a feast, sends quills or small pieces of wood as tokens of invitation to such as he wishes to partake of it.

Starting point is 03:53:54 At the appointed time, the guests arrive, each bringing a dish or platter, and a knife, and take their seats on each side of the chief, who receives them sitting, according to the respective ages. The pipe is then lighted, and he makes an equal division of everything that is provided. While the company are enjoying their meal, the chief sings, and accompanies his song with the tambourine,

Starting point is 03:54:16 or shishiqui, or rattle. The guest, who has first eaten his portion, is considered as the most distinguished person. If there should be any who cannot finish the whole of their mess, they endeavor to prevail on some of their friends to eat it for them, who are rewarded for their own. assistance with ammunition and tobacco. It is proper also to remark that at these feasts a small quantity of meat offering is sacrificed before they begin to eat by throwing it into the fire or on the

Starting point is 03:54:46 earth. These feasts differ according to circumstances. Sometimes each man's allowance is no more than he can dispatch in a couple of hours. At other times, the quantity is sufficient to supply each of them with food for a week, though it must be devoured in a day. On these occasions it is very difficult to procure substitutes, and the whole must be eaten whatever time it may require. At some of these entertainments, there is a more rational argument, when the guests are allowed to carry home with them the superfluous part of their portions. Great care is always taken that the bones may be burned, as it would be considered a profanation where the dogs permitted to touch them. The public feasts are conducted in the same manner, but with some additional ceremony.

Starting point is 03:55:34 Several chiefs officiate at them and procure the necessary provisions, as well as prepare a proper place of reception for the numerous company. Here the guests discourse upon public topics, repeat the heroic deeds of their forefathers, and excite the rising generation to follow their example. The entertainments on these occasions consists of dried meats, as it is a very good meal, as would not be practicable to dress a sufficient quantity of fresh meat for such a large assembly, though the women and children are excluded. Similar feasts used to be made at funerals and annually in honor of the dead, but they have been for some time growing into disuse, and I have never

Starting point is 03:56:14 had an opportunity of being present at any of them. The women, who are forbidden to enter the places sacred to these festivals, dance and sing around them, and sometimes beat time to the music within them, which forms an agreeable contrast. With respect to their divisions of time, they compute the length of journeys by the number of nights passed in performing them, and they divide the year by their own succession of moons. In this calculation, however, they are not altogether correct, as they cannot account for odd days.

Starting point is 03:56:50 The names which they give to the moons are descriptive of the several seasons, and as follows. May, Frog Moon. June, the moon in which birds begin to lay their eggs. July, the moon when birds cast their feathers. August, the moon when the young birds begin to fly. September, the moon when the moose deer cast their horns. October, the rotting moon.

Starting point is 03:57:19 November, hoarfrost moon. December, whirlwind moon. January, extreme cold moon. February, Big Moon, some say Old Moon. March, Eagle Moon. April, Goose Moon. These people know the medicinal virtues of many herbs and simples, and apply the roots of plants and the bark of trees with success.

Starting point is 03:57:46 But the conjurers, who monopolize the medicinal science, find it necessary to blend mystery with their art and do not communicate their knowledge. Their Materia medica, they administer in the form of the form of the form of the form of the form of of purges and clisters, but the remedies and surgical operations are supposed to derive much of their effect from magic and incantation. When a blister rises in the foot from the frost, the chafing of the shoe, etc., they immediately open it and apply the heated blade of a knife to the part, which, painful as it may be, is found to be efficacious. A sharp flint serves them as a lancet for letting blood, as well as for sacrification in bruises and swelling. For spring,

Starting point is 03:58:27 the dung of an animal just killed is considered as the best remedy. They are very fond of European medicines, though they are ignorant of their application, and those articles form an inconsiderable part of their European traffic with them. Among their various superstitions, they believe the vapor which is seen to hover over moist and swampy places is the spirit of some person lately dead. They also fancy another spirit, which appears in the shape of a form of a little bit. man upon the trees near the lodge of a person deceased whose property has not been interred with him. He is represented as bearing a gun in his hand, and it is believed he does not return

Starting point is 03:59:09 to his rest until the property that has been withheld from the grave has been sacrificed to it. End of Section 15. Section 16 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librabox.org. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Maryweather Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 14 Some Account of the Chippewan Indians

Starting point is 03:59:45 They are in numerous people who consider the country between the parallels of latitude 60 and 65 north and longitude 100 to 110 west as their lands of home. They speak a copious language which is very difficult to be at The notion which these people entertain of the creation is of a very singular nature. They believe that, at the first, the globe was one vast and entire ocean inhabited by no living creature except a mighty bird, whose eyes were fire, whose glances were lightning, and the clapping of whose wings was thunder.

Starting point is 04:00:21 On his descent to the ocean, and touching it, the earth instantly arose and remained on the surface of the waters. this omnipotent bird then called forth all the variety of animals from the earth except the chippewyans who were produced from a dog and this circumstance occasions their aversion to the flesh of that animal as well as the people who eat it this extraordinary tradition proceeds to relate that the great bird having finished his work made an arrow which was to be preserved with great care and to remain untouched but that the chippewyans were so devoid of understanding as to carry it away and the sacrilege so enraged the bird that he has never since appeared they have also a tradition among them that they originally came from another country inhabited by a very wicked people and have traversed a great lake which was narrow, shallow, and full of islands, where they had suffered great misery, it being always winter, with ice and deep snow. At the Copper Mine River, where they made the first land, the ground was covered with copper, over which a body of earth has since

Starting point is 04:01:33 been collected, to the depth of a man's height. They believe also that in ancient times their ancestors lived till their feet were worn out with walking and their throats with eating. They describe a deluge when the waters spread over the whole earth except the highest mountains, on the tops of which they preserved themselves. They believe that immediately after their death they pass into another world where they arrive at a large river, on which they embark in a stone canoe, and that a gentle current bears them on to an extensive lake, in the center of which is a most beautiful island, and that, in the view of this beautiful abode, they receive that judgment for their conduct during life, which terminates their final state and unalterable allotment.

Starting point is 04:02:22 If their good actions are declared to predominate, they are landed upon the island, where there is to be no end to their happiness, which, however, according to their notions, consist in an eternal enjoyment of sensual pleasure and carnal gratification. But if there be bad actions to weigh down the balance, the stone canoe sinks at once, and leaves them up to their chins in the water to behold and regret the reward enjoyed by the good, and eternally struggling, but with unavailing endeavors, to reach the blissful island from which they are excluded forever. They have some faint notions of the transmigration of the soul,

Starting point is 04:03:02 so that if a child be born with teeth, they instantly imagine from its premature appearance that it bears a resemblance to some person who had lived to an advanced period, and that he has assumed a renovated life with these extraordinary tokens of maturity. The Chippewyans are sober, timorous, and vagrant, with a selfish disposition which has sometimes created suspicions of their integrity. Their stature has nothing remarkable in it, but though they are seldom corpulent, they are sometimes robust. Their complexion is swore. their features coarse and their hair length but not always of a dingy black nor have they universally the piercing eye which generally animates the indian countenance the woman have a more agreeable aspect than the men but their gait is awkward which proceeds from their being accustomed nine months in the year to travel on snow-shoes and drag sledges of a weight from two to four hundred pounds they are very submissive to their husbands who have however

Starting point is 04:04:07 their fits of jealousy, and for very trifling causes, treat them with such cruelty as sometimes to occasion their death. They are frequently objects of traffic, and the father possesses the right of disposing of his daughter. Footnote. They do not, however, sell them as slaves, but as companions to those who are supposed to live more comfortably than themselves. And footnote. The men in general extract their beards, though some of them are seen to pre-experienced. refer a bushy black beard to a smooth chin. They cut their hair in various forms or leave it in a long natural flow according as their caprice or fancy suggests. The woman always wear it in a great length, and some of them are very attentive to its arrangement. If they at any time

Starting point is 04:04:56 appear despoiled of their tresses, it is to be esteemed a proof of the husband's jealousy and is considered as a severer punishment than manual correction. Both sexes have blue or or black bars or from one to four straight lines on their cheeks or forehead, to distinguish the tribe to which they belong. These marks are either tattooed or made by drawing a thread dipped in the necessary color beneath the skin. There are no people more attentive to the comforts of their dress or less anxious respecting its exterior appearance. In the winter, it is composed of the skins of deer and their fons and dressed as fine as any chamois leather in the hair. In the summer their apparel is the same, except that it is prepared without the

Starting point is 04:05:44 hair. The shoes and leggings are sewed together, the latter reaching upwards to the middle, and being supported by a belt, under which a small piece of leather is drawn to cover the private parts, the ends of which fall down both before and behind. In the shoes they put the hair of the moose or reindeer with additional pieces of leather as socks. The shirt or coat, when girded round the waist, reaches the middle of the thigh, and the mittens are sewed to the sleeves or are suspended by strings from the shoulders. A rough or tippet surrounds the neck, and the skin of the head of the deer forms a curious kind of cap.

Starting point is 04:06:25 A robe made of several deer or fawn skins sewed together covers the hole. This dress is worn single or double, but always in the winter with the hair within and without. thus arrayed a chippewyian will lay himself down on the ice in the middle of a lake and repose in comfort though he will sometimes find a difficulty in the morning to disencumber himself from the snow drifted on him during the night if in his passage he should be in want of provision he cuts a hole in the ice when he seldom fails of taking some trout or pike whose eyes he instantly scoops out and eats as a great delicacy but if they should not be sufficient to satisfy his appetite he will in this necessity make his meal of the fish in its raw state but those whom i saw preferred to dress their victuals when circumstances admitted the necessary preparation when they are in that part of the country which does not produce a sufficient quantity of wood for fuel they are reduced to the same exigency though they generally dry their meat in the sun footnote the provision called pemmican on which the chippewyans as well as other savages of this country chiefly subsists in their journeys is prepared in the following manner the lean parts of the flesh of the larger animals are cut in thin slices and are placed on a wooden grate over a slow fire or exposed to the sun and sometimes to the frost these operations dry it and in that state it is pounded between two stones it

Starting point is 04:08:03 will then keep with care for several years. If, however, it is kept in large quantities, it is disposed to ferment in the spring of the year, when it must be exposed to the air, or it will soon decay. The inside fat, and that of the rump, which is much thicker in these wild than in our domestic animals, is melted down and mixed in a boiling state with the pounded meat in equal proportions. It is then put in baskets or bags for the convenience of carrying it. Thus it becomes a nutritious food and is eaten without any further preparation or the addition of spice, salt, or any vegetable, or farinaceous substance. A little time reconciles it to the palate. There is another sort made with the addition of marrow and

Starting point is 04:08:49 dried berries which is of a superior quality. End footnote. The dress of the woman differs from that of the men. Their legons are tied below the knee, and their coat or shift is wide, hanging down to the ankle, and is tucked up at pleasure by means of a belt, which is fastened round the waist. Those who have children have these garments made full about the shoulders, and when they are traveling, they carry their infants upon their backs next their skin, in which situation they are perfectly comfortable, and in a position convenient to be suckled. Nor do they discontinue to give their milk to them until they have another child. Childbirth is not the object of that tender care and serious attention among the savages as it is among civilized people. At this period, no part of their usual occupation is omitted,

Starting point is 04:09:43 and this continual and regular exercise must contribute to the welfare of the mother, both in the progress of partitution and in the moment of delivery. The women have a singular custom of cutting off a small piece of the navel string of the newborn children and hanging it about their necks. They are curious in the covering they make for it, which they decorate with porcupine quills and beads. Though the women are as much in the power of the men as any other articles of their property,

Starting point is 04:10:13 they are always consulted and possess a very considerable influence in the traffic with Europeans and other important concerns. Plurality of wives is common among them, and the ceremony of marriage is of a very simple nature. The girls are betrothed at a very early period to those whom the parents think the best able to support them, nor is the inclination of the woman considered. Whenever a separation takes place, which sometimes happens, it depends entirely on the will and pleasure of the husband. In common with the other Indians of this country, they have a custom respecting the periodical state of a woman which is vigorously observed. At that time, she must seclude herself from society.

Starting point is 04:10:58 They are not even allowed in that situation to keep the same path as the men when traveling, and it is considered a great breach of decency for a woman so circumstanced to touch any utensils of manly occupation. Such a circumstance is supposed to defile them, so that their subsequent use would be followed by certain mischief or misfortune. There are particular skins which the women never touch, as of the bear and wolf, but these animals the men are seldom known to kill. As these people are not addicted to spiritual liquors,

Starting point is 04:11:34 they have a regular and uninterrupted use of their understanding, which is always directed to the advancement of their own interests, and this disposition, as may be readily imagined, sometimes occasions them to be charged with fraudulent habits. They will submit with patients to the severest treatment when they are conscious they deserve it, but will never forget nor forgive any wanton or unnecessary rigor. A moderate conduct I never found to fail,

Starting point is 04:12:03 nor do I hesitate to represent them altogether as the most peaceable tribe of Indians known in North America. There are conjurers and high priests, but I was not present at any of their ceremonies, though they certainly operate in an extraordinary manner on the imaginations of the people in the cure of disorders. Their principal maladies are the rheumatic pains, the flux and consumption. The venereal complaint is very common, but though its progress is slow,

Starting point is 04:12:35 it gradually undermines the constitution and brings on premature decay. They have recourse to superstition for their cure, and charms are their only remedies, except the bark of the willow, which being burned and reduced to powder, is strewed upon green wounds and ulcers, and places contrived for promoting perspiration. Of the use of simples and plants, they have no knowledge, nor can it be expected, as their country does not produce them.

Starting point is 04:13:05 In their quarrels with each other, they very rarely proceed to a greater degree of violence than is occasioned by blows, wrestling, and pulling of the hair, while their abusive language consists in applying the name of the most offensive animal to the object of their displeasure, and adding the term ugly and chie or stillborn. Footnote. This name is also applicable to the fetus of an animal when killed,

Starting point is 04:13:31 which is considered as one of the greatest delicacies. End footnote. The snow shoes are of very superior workmanship. The inner part of their frame is straight, the outer is curved, and it is painted at both ends with that in front turned up. They are also laced with great neatness, with thongs made of deer skin. The sledges are formed of thin strips of board,

Starting point is 04:13:55 turned up also in front, and are highly polished with crooked knives in order to slide along with facility. Close-grained wood is, on that account, the best, but theirs are made of the red or swamp spruce fir tree. Their amusements or recreations are but few. Their music is so inharmonious and they're dancing so awkward

Starting point is 04:14:17 that they might be supposed to be ashamed of both, as they very seldom practice either. They also shoot at marks and play at the games common among them, but in fact prefer sleeping to either, and the greater part of their time is passed in procuring food and resting from the toil necessary to obtain it. They are also of a querulous disposition, and are continually making complaints, which they express by a constant repetition of the word

Starting point is 04:14:46 it do we, it is hard, in a whining and plaintive tone of voice. They are superstitious in the extreme, and almost every action of their lives, however trivial, is more or less influenced by some whimsical notion. I never observed that they had any particular form of religious worship, but as they believe in a good and evil spirit and a state of future rewards and punishments, they cannot be devoid of religious impressions. At the same time, they men of manifested decided unwillingness to make any communications on the subject the chippewyans have been accused of abandoning their aged and infirm people to perish and of not burying their dead but these are melancholy necessities which proceed from their wandering way of life they are by no means universal for it is within my knowledge that a man rendered helpless by palsy was carried about for many years with the greatest tenderness and attention till he died a natural death.

Starting point is 04:15:48 That they should not bury their dead in their own country, cannot be imputed to them a custom arising from a savage insensibility, as they inhabit such high latitudes that the ground never thaws, but is well known that when they are in the woods they cover their dead with trees. Besides, they manifest no common respect to the memory of their departed friends by a long period of mourning, cutting of their hair, and never make use of the property of the deceased. Nay, they frequently destroy or sacrifice their own as a token of regret and sorrow. End of Section 16.

Starting point is 04:16:28 Section 17 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Librevox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 15. Statistical View Grand Osage They claim the country within the following limits, biz, commencing at the mouth of a south

Starting point is 04:16:57 branch of the Osage River, called Nogua, and with the same to its source, thence southwardly to intersect the Arkansas, about 100 miles below the three forks of that river. thence up the principal branch of the same to the confluence of a large northwardly branch of the same, lying a considerable distance west of the great saline, and with that stream nearly to its source, thence northwardly towards the Kansas River, embracing the waters of the upper portion of the Osage River, and thence obliquely approaching the same to the beginning. The climate is delightful and the soil fertile in the extreme. The face of the country is generally level, and why,

Starting point is 04:17:39 well watered. The eastern part of the country is covered with a variety of excellent timber, the western and middle country, high prairies. It embraces within its limits four salines, which are in point of magnitude and excellence, unequaled by any known in North America. There are also many others of less note. The principal part of the great Osage have always resided at their villages on the Osage River, since they have been known to the inhabitants of Louisiana. About three years since, nearly one half of this nation, headed by their chief the Big Trac, immigrated to the three forks of the Arkansas, near which, and on its north side, they established a village, where they now reside.

Starting point is 04:18:23 The little Osage formerly resided on the southwest side of the Missouri, near the mouth of Grand River, but being reduced by continual warfare with their neighbors, were compelled to seek the protection of the great Osage, near whom they now reside. Kansas The limits of the country they claim is not known. The country in which they reside, and from thence to the Missouri, is a delightful one, and generally well watered, and covered with excellent timber. They hunt to the upper part of Kansas and Arkansas rivers.

Starting point is 04:18:55 Their trade may be expected to increase with proper management. At present they are a dissolute, lawless banditti, frequently plunder their traders and commit depredations on persons ascending and descending the Missouri River. population rather increasing. The people, as well as the great and little osages, are stationary at their villages from about the 15th of March to the 15th of May, and again from the 15th of August to the 15th of October. The balance of the year is appropriated to hunting. They cultivate corn, etc. Autos They have no idea of an exclusive possession of any country, nor do they assign themselves any

Starting point is 04:19:36 limits. I do not believe that they would object to the introduction of any well-disposed Indians. They treat the traders with respect and hospitality generally. In their occupations of hunting and cultivation, they are the same with the Kansas and Osage. They hunt on the saline and Nimaha rivers, and west of them in the plains. The country in which they hunt lies well. It is extremely fertile and well-watered. That part of it which borders on Nimaha and Missouri possesses a good portion of timber, population rather increasing. They have always resided near the place their village is situated, and are the descendants of the Missouri's. Missouri. These are the remnant of the most numerous nation inhabiting the Missouri when first known to the French. Their ancient and

Starting point is 04:20:24 principal village was situated in an extensive and fertile plain on the north bank of the Missouri, just below the entrance of the Grand River. Repeated attacks of the small, pox together with their war with the sawkeys and renards has reduced them to their present state of dependence on the autos with whom they reside as well in their village as on their hunting excursions the autos view them as their inferiors and sometimes treat them amiss these people are the real proprietors of an extensive and fertile country lying on the missouri above their ancient village for a considerable distance and as low as the mouth of the osage river and thence to the mississippi Panias. With respect to their idea of the possession of soil, it is similar to that of the autos. They hunt on the south side of the river Platte, higher up, and on the head of the Kansas. A great proportion of this country is open plains, interspersed, however, with groves of timber, which are most generally found in the vicinity of the watercourses. It is generally fertile and well-watered, lies level, and free of stone. They have resided in the country which they

Starting point is 04:21:34 now inhabit since they were known to the whites. Their trade is a valuable one, from the large proportion of beaver and otter which they furnish, and it may be expected yet to increase, as those animals are still abundant in their country. The periods of their residence at their village and hunting are similar to the Kansas and Osages. Their population is increasing. They are friendly and hospitable to all white persons, pay great respect and deference to their traders, with whom they are punctual in their payment of their debts. Peneas Republicans are a branch of the Penea proper,

Starting point is 04:22:11 or, as they are frequently termed, the Big Ponce, about ten years since they withdrew themselves from the mother nation and established a village on a large northwardly branch of the Kansas, to which they have given name. They afterwards subdivided and lived in different parts of the country on the waters of Kansas. They rejoined the Peneas proper last spring. What has been said with respect to the Peneas proper is applicable on the Republican River,

Starting point is 04:22:38 which is better stocked with timber than that hunted by the Peneas. Peneas loops or wolves. These are also a branch of the Peneas proper, who separated themselves from that nation many years since, and established themselves on a north branch of the River Platte, to which their name was also given. These people have likewise no idea of an exclusive right to any portion of that country. They hunt on the Wolf River above their village and on the River Platte above the mouth of that river. This country is very similar to that of the River Peneas proper, though there is an extensive

Starting point is 04:23:15 body of fertile, well-timbered land between the Wolf River below their village and the River Corn DeServe, or Elkhorn River. They cultivate corn, beans, etc. The particulars related of the other Peneas are also applicable to them. Mahas They have no idea of exclusive possession of soil. About ten years since, they boasted of 700 warriors. They have lived in a village on the west bank of the Missouri, 236 miles above the mouth of the river Platte,

Starting point is 04:23:47 where they cultivated corn, beans, and melons. They were warlike, and the terror of their neighbors. In the summer and autumn of 1802, they were visited by the smallpox, which reduced their notes. numbers to something less than three hundred they burnt their village and have become a wandering nation deserted by the traitors and the consequent deficiency of arms and ammunition has invited frequent aggressions from their neighbors which have tended to reduce them still further they rove principally on the waters of the river kinkir or rapid river PONCARS The remnant of a nation once respectable in point of numbers. They formerly resided on a branch of the Red River of Lake Winnipe.

Starting point is 04:24:31 Being oppressed by the Sioux, they were moved to the west side of the Missouri, on Pondcar River, where they built and fortified a village and remained some years. But being pursued by their ancient enemies the Sioux, and reduced by continual wars, they have joined and now reside with the Mahas, whose language they speak. rickars are the remains of ten large tribes of peneas who have been reduced by the smallpox and the sioux to the present number they live in fortified villages and hunt immediately in their neighborhood the country around them in every direction for several hundred miles is entirely bare of timber except on the watercourses and steep declivities of hills where it is sheltered from the ravages of fire the land is tolerably well watered and lies well for cultivation The remains of the villages of these people are to be seen on many parts of the Missouri, from the mouth of the Teton River to the Mandans.

Starting point is 04:25:30 They claim no land except that on which their villages stand, and the fields which they cultivate. The Teton's claim the country around them. They are the oldest inhabitants, and may properly be called the farmers or tenants at will of that lawless, savage, and rapacious race, the Sioux Teton, who rob them of their horses, plunder their gardens and fields, and sometimes murder them without opposition. If these people were freed from the oppression of the Teton's, their trade would increase, rapidly, and might be extended to a considerable amount. They maintain a partial trade with their oppressors, the Teton's, to whom they barter horses,

Starting point is 04:26:09 mules, corn, beans, and a species of tobacco, which they cultivate, and receive in return guns, ammunition, kettles, axes, and other articles which the Teton, tetans obtained from the Yanktrons of the north, and the Sicitones, who trade with Mr. Cameron on the river St. Peter's. These horses and mules the Rikara is obtained from their western neighbors, who visit them frequently for the purpose of trafficking. Mandans. These are the most friendly, well-disposed Indians inhabiting the Missouri. They are brave, humane, and hospitable. About 25 years since they lived in six villages, about forty miles below their present villages, on both sides of the Missouri.

Starting point is 04:26:52 Repeated visitations of the smallpox, aided by frequent attacks of the Sioux, have reduced them to their present number. They claim no particular tract of country. They live in fortified villages, hunt immediately in their neighborhood, and cultivate corn, beans, squashes, and tobacco, which form the articles of traffic with their neighbors, the Assiniboines. They also barter horses with the Assiniboines for arms, ammunition, axes, kettle, and other articles of European manufacture, which these last obtained from the British establishments on the Assiniboine River. The articles which they thus obtain from the Asiniboines and the British traders who visit them, they again exchange for horses and leather tents with the Crow Indians, Cheyens, Weta Pahato's, Cayawas, Canaanavia, Stapton, and Kataka, who visit them occasionally

Starting point is 04:27:45 for the purpose of traffic. Awahue. They differ but very little, in any particular from the Mandans, their neighbors, except in the unjust war which they, as well as the Minotares, prosecute against the defenseless Snake Indians, from which I believe it will be difficult to induce them to desist. They claim to have once been a part of the Crow Indians, whom they still acknowledge as relations. They have resided on the Missouri as long as their tradition will enable them to inform. Minotares. They claim no particular country, nor do they assign themselves any limits. Their tradition relates that they have always resided at their present villages.

Starting point is 04:28:25 In their customs, manners, and dispositions they are similar to the Mandans and Oahuas. The scarcity of fuel induces them to reside during the cold season, in large bands, in camps, on different parts of the Missouri, as high up that river as the mouth of the river Yellowstone, and west of their villages about the Turtle Mountain. I believe that these people, as well as the Mandans and Oahuas, might be prevailed on to remove to the mouth of Yellowstone River, provided an establishment is made at that place. They have as yet furnished scarcely any beaver, though the country they hunt abounds with them. The lodges of these animals are to be seen within a mile of their villages. These people have also suffered considerably by the small-pox, but have successfully resisted the attack of the Sioux.

Starting point is 04:29:14 Sockies and Renards or Foxes These nations are so perfectly consolidated that they may in fact be considered as one nation only. They speak the same language, they formerly resided on the east side of the Mississippi, and still claim the land on that side of the river, from the mouth of the Wisconsin to the Illinois River and eastward toward Lake Michigan,

Starting point is 04:29:38 but to what particular boundary I am not informed. They also claim by conquest the whole of the country belonging to the ancient Missouri's, which forms one of the most valuable portions of Louisiana. But what proportion of this territory they are willing to assign to the Ayuways, who also claim a part of it, I do not know, as they are at war with the Sioux, who live north and northwest of them, except the Yankton-Anne. Their boundaries in that quarter are also undefined. Their trade would become much more valuable if peace was established between them and the nations west of the Missouri, with whom they are at war.

Starting point is 04:30:14 The population has remained nearly the same for many years. They raise an abundance of corn, beans, and melons. They sometimes hunt in the country west of them, towards the Missouri, but their principal hunting is on both sides of the Mississippi, from the mouth of the Wisconsin to the mouth of the Illinois River. These people are extremely friendly to the whites, and seldom injure their traitors, but they are most implacable enemies to the Indian nations with whom they are at war. To them is justly attributable the archivable the almost entire destruction of the Missouries, the Illinois, Cahokias, Cascassias, and Peoriaes. Wapotone

Starting point is 04:30:54 Claim the country in which they rove on the northwest side of the River St. Peter's, from their village to the mouth of the Chippewa River, and thence north-eastwardly towards the head of the Mississippi, including the crowing river. Their lands are fertile and generally well-timbered. They are only stationary while their traders are with them, which is from the beginning of October to the last of March. Their trade is supposed to be at its greatest extent. They treat their traders with respect and seldom attempt to rob them. This, as well as other Sioux bands, acts in all respects independently of each other, as if they were a distinct nation.

Starting point is 04:31:32 Mendowar Carton. This is the only band of Sioux that cultivates corn, beans, etc., and these even cannot properly be turned to stationary people. They live in tents of dressed leather, which they transport by means of horses and dobs, and ramble from place to place during the greater part of the year. They are friendly to their traders, but the inveterate enemies to such as supply their enemies, the chippaways, with merchandise. They also claim the country in which they hunt, commencing at the entrance of the River St. Peter's, and extending upwards on both sides of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Crow River. Wapakuta They rove in the country southwest of the River St. Peter's,

Starting point is 04:32:14 from a place called the Harwood to the mouth of Yellow Medicine River. Never stationary, but when their traders are with them, and this does not happen at any regular or fixed point. At present they treat traders tolerably well. Their trade cannot be expected to increase much. Sissotone They claim the country in which they rove, embracing the upper portion of Red River of Lake Winnipe and St. Peters.

Starting point is 04:32:41 It is a level country intersected with many small lakes. the land is fertile and free of stone, the majority of it open plains. This country abounds more invaluable fur animals, beaver, otter, and Martin, than any portion of Louisiana yet known. This circumstance furnishes the citones with the means of purchasing more merchandise in proportion to their number than any nation in this quarter. A great proportion of this merchandise is reserved by them for their trade with the titans, whom they annually meet at some point previously agreed on upon the waters of the James River in the month of May. This Indian fair is frequently attended by the Yanktons of the North and Anna.

Starting point is 04:33:24 Yanktons of the North. This band, although they purchase a smaller quantity of merchandise than the Sissotones, still appropriate a considerable portion of what they do obtain in a similar manner with that mentioned of the Sicitones. This trade, as small as it may appear, has been sufficient to render the Teton's independent of the trade of the Missouri in a great measure, and has furnished them with the means, not only of distressing and plundering the traders of the Missouri, but also of plundering and massacring the defenseless savages of the Missouri, from the mouth of the River Platte to the

Starting point is 04:33:57 Minotare's and west to the Rocky Mountains. Yankton's Anna These are the best disposed Sioux who rove on the banks of the Missouri, and these even will not suffer any traitor to ascend the river, if they can possibly avoid. it. They have heretofore invariably arrested the progress of all those they have met with, and generally compelled them to trade at the prices nearly, which they themselves think proper to fix on their merchandise. They seldom commit any further acts of violence on the whites. They sometimes visit the River Des Moines, where a partial trade has been carried on with them, for a few years

Starting point is 04:34:34 past, by a Mr. Crawford. Their trade, if well regulated, might be extremely valuable. End of Section 17. Section 18 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 16.

Starting point is 04:35:05 Titans Boys Brule. Titans Okandas. Titans Minicaneazzo. Titans Sahone. these are the vilest miscreants of the savage race and must ever remain the pirates of the missouri until such measures are pursued by our government as will make them feel a dependence on its will for their supply of merchandise unless these people are reduced to order by chorus of measures i am ready to pronounce that the citizens of the united states can never enjoy but partially the advantages which the missouri presents relying on a regular supply of merchandise through the channel of the River St. Peters, they view with contempt the merchants of the Missouri, whom they never fail to plunder, when in their power. Persuasion or advice with them is viewed as supplication, and only

Starting point is 04:35:55 tends to inspire them with contempt for those who offer either. The tameness with which the traders of Missouri have here-to-for submitted to their rapacity has tended not a little to inspire them with contempt for the white persons who visit them through that channel. A prevalent idea among them, and one which they make the rule of their conduct is that the more ill they treat the traders the greater quantity of merchandise they will bring them and that they will thus obtain the articles they wish on better terms they have endeavored to supply the ricaras with similar sentiments but happily without any considerable effect they claim jointly with the other bands of the sioux all the country lying within the following limits, viz, beginning at the confluence of the Des Moines and Mississippi, thence up the west side of the

Starting point is 04:36:43 Mississippi to the mouth of the St. Peter's River, thence on both sides of the Mississippi to the mouth of Crowing River, and upwards with that stream, including the waters of the upper portion of Red River, of Lake Winnipe, and down the same nearly to Penimbar River, thence a southwesterly course to intersect the Missouri at or near the Mandans, and with that stream downwards to the entrance of the Warkon Creek, thence passing the Missouri. It goes to include the lower portion of the River Cheyenne, all the waters of White River and River Teton, includes the lower portion of the River Quicare, and returns to the Missouri, and with that stream downwards to the mouth of Wapadon River, and thence eastwardly to intersect the Mississippi at the beginning.

Starting point is 04:37:32 Cheyennes They are the remnant of a nation once respectable in point of number, formerly resided on a branch of the Red River of Lake Winnipe, which still bears their name. Being oppressed by the Sioux, they removed to the west side of the Missouri, about 15 miles below the mouth of Warkon Creek, where they built and fortified a village. But being pursued by their ancient enemies, the Sioux, they fled to the Black Hills, about the head of the Cheyenne River, where they wander in quest of the Buffalo, having no fixed residence. They do not cultivate. What to Pahatat They are a wandering nation, inhabit an open country, and raise a great number of horses,

Starting point is 04:38:14 which they barter to the Rikares, Mandans, etc. for articles of European manufacture. They are a well-disposed people, and might be readily induced to visit the trading establishments on the Missouri. From the animals their country produces, their trade would, no doubt, become valuable. Dottames The information I possessed, with respect to this nation, is derived from Indian information. They are said to be a wandering nation, inhabiting an open country, and who raise a great number of horses and mules. They are a friendly, well-disposed people, and might,

Starting point is 04:38:49 from the position of their country, be easily induced to visit an establishment on the Missouri, about the mouth of the Cheyenne River. They have not, as yet, visited the Missouri. Castahana What has been said of the Dottomes is applicable to these people, except that they trade principally with the Crow Indians, and they would most probably prefer visiting an establishment on the Yellowstone River or at its mouth on the Missouri. Crow Indians These people are divided into four bands, called by themselves

Starting point is 04:39:22 Aha Aro Pyrnopa, Nootah, Paiska, and Iheartsar. They annually visit the Mandans, Mentare's, and Awahaways, to whom they barter horses, mules, leather lodges, and many articles of Indian apparel, for which they receive in return, guns, ammunition, axes, kettles, alls, and other European manufacturers. When they return to their country, they are in turn visited by the Ponce and Snake Indians, to whom they barter most of the articles they have obtained from the nations on the Missouri, for horses and mules, of which those nations have a greater abundance than themselves. They also obtain of the snake Indians, bridle bits, and blankets, and some other articles which

Starting point is 04:40:09 those Indians purchase from the Spaniards. Ponch Indians These are said to be a peaceable, well-disposed nation. Their country is a variegated one, consisting of mountains, valleys, plains, and woodlands, irregularly interspersed. They might be induced to visit the Missouri at the mouth of the Yellowstone River, and from the great abundance of valuable furred animals, which their country were. country, as well as that of the Crow Indians produces, their trade must become extremely valuable.

Starting point is 04:40:40 They are a roving people, and have no idea of exclusive right to the soil. End of Section 18. Section 19 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Librevox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Maryweather Lewis and William Clark Chapter 17

Starting point is 04:41:07 M. Manatopa Ossiga Matopanato are the descendants of the Sioux and partake of their turbulent and faithless dispositions. They frequently plunder and sometimes murder their own traitors. The name by which this nation is generally known was borrowed from the Chippewas, who called him a sineboin, which literally translated is Stone's Sioux, hence the name of stone Indians, by which they are sometimes called. The country in which they rove is almost entirely uncovered with timber, lies extremely level,

Starting point is 04:41:43 and is but badly watered in many parts. The land, however, is tolerable, fertile and unencumbered with stone. They might be induced to trade at the River Yellowstone, but I do not think that their trade promises much. Their numbers continue about the same. These bands, like Sue, act entirely independent of each other, although they claim a national affinity and never make war on each other. Chippewas of Leach Lake Claim the country on both sides of the Mississippi, from the mouth of the crow wing river to its source, and extending west of the Mississippi to the lands claimed by the Sioux, with whom they contend for Dominion. They claim also east of the Mississippi, the country extending as far as

Starting point is 04:42:28 Lake Superior, including the waters of the St. Louis. this country is thickly covered with timber generally lies level and generally fertile though a considerable portion of it is intersected and broken up by small lakes morasses and small swamps particularly about the heads of the mississippi and river st louis they do not cultivate but live principally on the wild rice which they procure in great abundance on the borders of leech lake and the banks of the mississippi chippewise of red lake claim the country about Red Lake and Red Lake River, as far as the Red River of Lake Winnipe, beyond which last river they contend with the Sufer territory. This is a low-level country, and generally thickly covered with timber, interrupted with many swamps and morasses. This, as well as the other bands of Chippewise, are esteemed the best hunters of the northwest country, but from the long residents of this band in the country they now inhabit, game is becoming scarce. Therefore, their trade is supposed to

Starting point is 04:43:31 its greatest extent. Of River Pambina. These people formerly resided on the east side of the Mississippi at Sand Lake, but were induced by the Northwest Company to remove about two years since to the River Pembina. They do not claim the lands on which they hunt. The country is level and the soil good. The west side of the river is principally prairies or open plains. On the east side there is a greater proportion of timber. Their trade at present is a very valuable one. Algonquins of Rainy Lake With the precise limits of country they claim, I am not informed. They live very much detached in small parties. The country they inhabit is but an indifferent one. It has been

Starting point is 04:44:17 much hunted, and the game, of course, nearly exhausted. They are well disposed towards the whites. Their number is said to decrease. Of Portage de Prairie. these people inhabit a low flat marshy country mostly covered with timber and well stocked with game they are immigrants from the lake of the woods and the country east of it who were introduced some years since by the northwest traders in order to hunt the country on the lower parts of red river which then abounded in a variety of animals of the fur kind chrytonos they are a wandering nation do not cultivate nor claim any particular tract of country they are well disposed towards the whites and treat their traitors with respect the country in which they rove is generally open plains but in some parts particularly about the head of the assiniboine river it is marshy and tolerably well furnished with timber as are also the fort dauphin mountains to which they sometimes resort from the quantity of beaver in their country they ought to furnish more of that article than they do at present aliathans snake indians these are a numerous and well-disposed people inhabiting a woody and mountainous country They are divided into three large tribes who wander at a considerable distance from each other, and are called by themselves Sosanah, Sosububar, and Lakhar.

Starting point is 04:45:42 These are again subdivided into smaller, though independent bands, the names of which I have not yet learnt. They raise a number of horses and mules, which they trade with the Crow Indians, or are stolen by the nations to the east of them. They maintain a partial trade with the Spaniards, from whom they obtain many articles of clothing and ironmongery, but no warlike implements. Of the West. These people also inhabit a mountainous country, and sometimes venture in the plains east of the Rocky Mountains, about the head of the Arkansas River. They have no more intercourse with the Spaniards of New Mexico than the Snake Indians.

Starting point is 04:46:21 They are said to be very numerous in warlike, but are badly armed. The Spaniards fear these people, and therefore take the precaution not to fear. furnish them with any warlike implements. In their present unarmed state, they frequently commit hostilities on the Spaniards. They raise a great many horses. La Plais They inhabit the rich plains from the head of the Arkansas, embracing the heads of Red River, and extending with the mountains and highlands eastwardly as far as is known towards the Gulf of Mexico. They possess no firearms, but are warlike and brave. They are as

Starting point is 04:46:58 well as the other Alliotans, a wandering people. Their country abounds in wild horses, besides great numbers which they raise themselves. These people, and the West Alliotans, might be induced to trade with us on the upper part of the Arkansas River. Paniapik. These people have no intercourse with the inhabitants of the Illinois. The information, therefore, which I have been enabled to obtain with respect to them, is very imperfect. They were formerly by the name of the white panias, and are of the family with the panias of the River Platte. They are said to be a well-disposed people, and inhabit a very fertile country. Certain it is that they enjoy a delightful climate.

Starting point is 04:47:42 Paducas This once powerful nation has, apparently entirely disappeared. Every inquiry I have made after them has proved ineffectual. In the year 1724, they resided in several villages on the head of the Kansas River, and could at that time bring upwards of two thousand men into the field. See Monsieur Dupras History of Louisiana, page 71, and the map attached to that work. The information that I have received is that being oppressed by the nations residing on the Missouri, they were moved to the upper part of the river Plat, where they afterwards had but little

Starting point is 04:48:18 intercourse with the whites. They seem to have given name to the northern branch of the river, which is still called the Paducaus Fork. The most probable conjecture is that being still further reduced, they have divided into small wandering bands, which assumed the names of the subdivisions of the Paduca Nation, and are known to us at present under the appellation of Wetapahatos, Kiwas, Kanenevish, Katika, Dottome, etc., who still inhabit the country to which the Paducas are said to have removed. End of Section 19. Section 18 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark

Starting point is 04:48:57 This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 18. Historical Sketches of the several Indian tribes in Louisiana, south of the Arkansas River, and between the Mississippi and River Grand. They live about 35 miles west of the main branch of Red River, on a bayou or creek called by them Soto, which is navigable for parobes only within about six miles of their village,

Starting point is 04:49:36 and that only in the rainy season. They are distant from Natchitoches about 120 miles, the nearest route by land, and in nearly a northwest direction. They have lived where they now do only five years. The first year they moved there, the small pocket, got amongst them and destroyed nearly one half of them. It was in the winter season, and they practiced plunging into the creek on the first appearance of the eruption, and died in a few hours. Two years ago they had the measles, of which several more of them died. They formerly lived on the south bank of the river, by the course of the river, 375 miles higher up, at a beautiful prairie, which has a clear lake of good water in the middle of it, surrounded by a pleasant and fertile country,

Starting point is 04:50:22 which had been the residents of their ancestors from time immemorial. They have a traditionary tale, which not only the Caddo's, but half a dozen other smaller nations believe in, who claim the honor of being descendants of the same family. They say, when all the world was drowned by a flood that inundated the whole country, the great spirit placed on an eminence near this lake, one family of Caddox, who alone were saved. From that family all the Indians originated. the french for many years before louisiana was transferred to spain had at this place a fort and some soldiers several french families were likewise settled in the vicinity where they had erected a good flour-mill with burr stones brought from france these french families continued there till about twenty-five years ago when they moved down and settled at comtee on the red river above natchitoges where they now live and the indians left it about fourteen years ago on account of a dreadful sicknesses

Starting point is 04:51:22 that visited them. They settled on the river, nearly opposite, where they now live, on a low place, but were driven thence on account of its overflowing, occasioned by a jam of timber choking the river at a point below them. The whole number of what they call warriors of the ancient Cato Nation is now reduced to about one hundred, who are looked upon somewhat like knights of Malta, or some distinguished military order. They are brave, despise danger of death, and, but that they never shed white man's blood. Besides these, there are of old men and strangers who live among them nearly the same number, but there are 40 or 50 more women than men.

Starting point is 04:52:03 This nation has great influence over the Yatesis, Nandakos, Nabadoches, Ineis, or Yachis, Nakajotches, Kichis, Adais, and Yachitoches, who all speak the Cato-Language, look up to them as their fathers, visit and intermarry among them, and join them in all their wars. Yateses. They live on Bayou Pierre, or Stony Creek, which falls into Red River, western division, about 50 miles above Natchitoches. Their village is in a large prairie about halfway between the Caddopes and Natchitoses surrounded by a settlement of French families. The Spanish government at present exercised jurisdiction over this settlement, where they keep a guard of non-commissioned officers and eight soldiers. A few years ago, the capital, the capitalized.

Starting point is 04:52:52 shadow chief with a few of his young men were coming to this place to trade and came by that way which is the usual road the spanish officer of the guard threatened to stop them from training with the americans and told the chief if he returned that way with the goods he should take them from him the chief and his party were angry and threatened to kill the whole guard and told them that that road had always been theirs and that if the spaniards attempted to prevent their using it as their ancestors had always done he would soon make it a bloody road he came here purchased the goods he wanted and might have returned another way and avoided the spanish guard and was advised to do so but he said he would pass by them and let them attempt to stop him if they dared the guard said nothing to him as he returned this settlement till some few years ago used to belong to the district of natchitoches and the rights to their lands were given by the government of louisiana before it was seated to spain its now being under the government of texas was only an agreement between the commandant of natatoches and the commandant of nagadoches the french formerly had a station and factory there and another on the sabine river nearly one hundred miles northwest from the bayou pierre settlement the yadassies now say the french used to be their people and now the americans but of the ancient yadassies there are but eight men remaining and twenty-five women besides children but a number of men of other nations have intermarried with them and lived together i paid a visit at their village last summer there were about forty men of them altogether their original language differs from any other but now all speak cato they live on rich land raised plenty of corn beans pumpkins, tobacco, etc. have horses, cattle, hogs, and poultry.

Starting point is 04:54:43 Nandakos. They live on the Sabine River, 60 or 70 miles to the westward of Yadassiz, near where the French formerly had a station in a factory. Their language is Caddo, about ten men only of them remaining. A few years ago they suffered very much by the small-pops. They consider themselves the same as Catoes, with whom they intermarry and are a occasionally, visiting one another in the greatest harmony, have the same manners, customs, and attachments. Adais. They live about forty miles from Natchitoches, below the Yadisees, on a lake called Lake Macedon,

Starting point is 04:55:21 which communicates with the division of Red River that passes by Bayou Pierre. They live at or near where their ancestors have lived from time immemorial. They being the nearest nation to the old Spanish fort, or mission, of Adais, that place was named after them, being about 20 miles from them to the south. There are now but 20 men of them remaining, but more women. Their language differs from all others, and is so difficult to speak or understand, that no nation can speak ten words of it, but they all speak Cato, and most of them French, to whom they were always attached, and joined them against the Natchez Indians.

Starting point is 04:56:00 After the massacre of the Natchez in 1798, while the Spaniards occupied the post of Adais, Their priests took much pains to proselyse these Indians to the Roman Catholic religion, but I am informed were totally unsuccessful. Ayesh. Commonly pronounced Ayish. They live near Nakadoches, but are almost extinct as a nation, not being more than twenty-five souls of them remaining. Four years ago the smallpox destroyed a greater part of them.

Starting point is 04:56:30 They were some years ago a considerable nation, and lived on a bayou which bears their name, which the road from Nacajochus crosses about 12 miles west of Sabine River, on which a few French and American families are settled. Their native language is spoken by no other nation, but they speak and understand Cato, with whom they are in Amity, often visiting one another. Keys or Kichies They live on the east bank of Trinity River, a small distance above where the road from Natchitochis to Saint-Antigni crosses it. There are of them sixty men. have their peculiar native language, but mostly now speak cato, intermarry with them,

Starting point is 04:57:11 and live together in much harmony, formerly having lived near them on the headwaters of the Sabine. They plant corn and some other vegetables. Ines or Tachis From the latter name, the name of the province of Tacus or Taksus is derived. The Innes live about 15 miles west of Natchatotius, on a smaller river, a branch of Sabine, called a Natchez. They are, like all their neighbors, diminishing, but have now 80 men. Their ancestors for a long time lived where they do now. Their language is the same as that of the Cados, with whom they are in great amity.

Starting point is 04:57:50 These Indians have a good character, live on excellent land, and raise corn to sell. Nabadachis. They live on the west side of the same river, about 15 miles above them, have about the same number of men, speak the same language, live on the best of land, raise corn and plenty, have the same manners, customs, and attachments. Betties. They are on the Trinity River, about sixty miles to the southward of Nacadoches, have one hundred men, are good hunters for deer, which are very large, and plenty about them,

Starting point is 04:58:25 plant and make good crops of corn. Language differs from all others, but speak cato, are appeasable people, and have an excellent character for their honesty and punctuality. Akakasovs Their ancient and principal place of residence is on the west side of Colorado or Rio Rouge, about 200 miles southwest of Nacadoches, but often changed their place of residence for a season, being near the bay,

Starting point is 04:58:52 make great use of fish, oysters, etc., kill a great many deer, which are the largest and fattest in the province, and their country is universally said to be inferior to no part of the province in soil, growth of timber, goodness of water, and beauty of surface, have language peculiar to themselves, but have a mode of communication by dumb signs, which they all understand, number about 80 men. Thirty or forty years ago the Spaniards had a mission here, but broke it up or removed it to Nacadoches. They talk of resettling it, and speak in the highest terms of the country.

Starting point is 04:59:27 Mayes They live in a large creek called St. Gabriel, on the bay of San Bernard, near the mouth of guadalupe river are estimated at two hundred men never at peace with the spaniards towards whom they are said to possess a fixed hatred but profess great friendship for the french to whom they have been strongly attached since m de salle landed in their neighbourhood the place where there is a talk of the spaniards opening a new port and making a settlement is near them where the party with the governor of st antoine who were there last fall to examine it say they found the remains of a french blockhouse some of the canon now at labidi are said to have been brought from that place and known by the engraving now to be seen on them the french speak highly of these indians for their extreme kindness and hospitality to all frenchmen who have been amongst them have a language of their own but speak atacapa which is a language of their neighbors the caron cows they have likewise a way of conversing by signs caron cows they live on an island or peninsula in the bay of st bernard in length about ten miles and five in breadth. The soil is extremely rich and pleasant, on one side of which there is a high bluff or mountain of coal, which has been on fire for many

Starting point is 05:00:45 years, affording always a light at night, and a strong, thick smoke by day, by which vessels are sometimes deceived and lost on the shoally coast, which shoals are said to extend nearly out of sight of land. From this burning coal there is emitted a gummy substance the Spaniards called chetta, which is thrown on the shore by the surf, and collected by them in considerable quantities, which they are fond of chewing. It has the appearance and consistence of pitch, of a strong, aromatic, and not disagreeable smell. These Indians are irreconcilable enemies to the Spaniards, always at war with them, and kill them whenever they can. The Spaniards call them cannibals, but the French give them a different character, who have always been treated kindly by them

Starting point is 05:01:33 since Monsieur de Salle and his party were in their neighborhood. They are said to be 500 men strong, but I have not been able to estimate their numbers from any very accurate information. In a short time, expect to be well informed. They speak the Atacano language, are friendly and kind to all other Indians, and I presume are much like all others,

Starting point is 05:01:53 notwithstanding what the Spaniards say of them, for nature is everywhere the same. Last summer an old Spaniard came to me from Labahi, a journey of about 500 miles, to have a barbed arrow taken out of his shoulder, that one of these Indians had shot in it. I found it under his shoulder blade, near nine inches, and had to cut a new place to get at the point of it, in order to get it out the contrary way from that in which it had entered. It was made of a piece of iron hoop, with wings like a fluke and an inch. Canoes. They are a very numerous nation, consisting of a great many different tribes. I

Starting point is 05:02:32 occupying different parts of the country from the Bay of St. Bernard across River Grand, towards La Verre Cruz. They are not friendly to the Spaniards, and generally kill them when they have an opportunity. They are attached to the French, are good hunters, principally using the bow. They are very particular in their dress, which is made of neatly dressed leather. The women wear a long loose robe, resembling that of a Franciscan friar, nothing but their heads and feet are to be seen. The dress of the men are straight leather leggings, resembling pantaloons, and a leather hunting shirt, or frock. No estimate can be made of their number. Thirty or forty years ago the Spaniards used to make slaves of them when they could take them.

Starting point is 05:03:16 A considerable number of them were brought to Natchitoshes and sold to the French inhabitants at forty or fifty dollars ahead, and a number of them are still living there, but are now free. About twenty years ago an order came from the King of Spain that no more India should be made slaves, and those that were enslaved should be emancipated, after which some of the women who had been servants and good families, and taught spinning, sewing, etc., as well as managing household affairs, married natives of the country, and became respectable, well-behaved women, and have now, growing up, decent families of children,

Starting point is 05:03:50 have a language peculiar to themselves, and are understood by signs by all others. They are in amity with all other Indians except the Hittans. tankaways or tanks as the french call them have no land nor claim the exclusive right to any nor have any particular place of abode but are always moving alternately occupying the country watered by the trinity braces and colorado towards santa fe resemble in their dress the cancies and heitans but all in one horde or tribe the number of men is estimated at about two hundred are good hunters kill buffalo and deer with the bow have the best breed of horse horses, are alternately friends and enemies of the Spaniards. An old trader lately informed me that he had received five thousand deer skins from them in one year, exclusive of tallow, rugs, and tongues. They plant nothing, but live upon wild fruits and flesh, are strong, athletic people, and excellent horsemen.

Starting point is 05:04:51 Tawakenos, or three cames. They are called by both names indifferently, live on the west side of the braces, but are often for months at a time, lower down than their usual place of residence, in the great prairie town at the Tortuga, or turtle, called so from its being a hill in the prairie, which at a distance appears in the form of a turtle, upon which there are some remarkable springs of water. Their usual residence is about two hundred miles westward of Nacajosius, towards Santa Fe. They are estimated at two hundred men, are good hunters, have guns, but hunt principally with the bow are supplied with goods from Nagadocious and pay for them in rugs, tongues, tallow and skins. They speak the same language as the Paneus or Tauaiacis, and pretend to have descended

Starting point is 05:05:39 from the same ancestors. Panillas or Tauaiacis. The French called them Panias and the Spaniards Tawaichis. The latter is the proper Indian name. They live on the south side of Red River, by the course of the river upwards of 800 miles above Natchitoches. and by land by the nearest path is estimated at about four hundred and forty they have two towns near together the lower town where the chief lives is called natch and the other is called tawahatch they call their present chief the great bear they are at war with the spaniards but friendly to those french and american hunters who have lately been among them they are likewise at war with the osages as are every other nation for many hundreds of miles round them the country is rich prairie, covered with luxuriant grass, which is green, summer, and winter, with skirts of wood on the riverbank, by the springs and creeks. They have many horses and mules.

Starting point is 05:06:37 They raise more corn, pumpkins, beans, and tobacco than they want for their own consumption. The surplus they exchange with the heightens for buffalo rugs, horses and mules. The pumpkins they cut round in their shreds, and when it is in a state of dryness that it is so tough it will not break but bend, they plate it and work it into large mats, in which state they sell it to the Hietans, who as they travel, cut off and eat it as they want it. Their tobacco they manufacture and cut as fine as tea, which is put in leather bags of a certain size, and is likewise an article of trade. They have but few guns and very little ammunition. What they have they keep for war, and hunt with the bow. Their meat is principally buffalo,

Starting point is 05:07:22 seldom kill a deer, though they are so plenty that they come into their villages and about their houses, like a domestic animal. Elks, bears, wolves, and antelopes and wild hogs are likewise plenty in their country, and white rabbits or hares, as well as the common rabbit. White bears sometimes come down amongst them, and wolves of various colors. The men generally go entirely naked, and women nearly so, only wearing a small flap of a piece of skin. They have a number of Spaniards among them, a fair complexion, taken from the settlement of Santa Fe when they were children, who live as they do, and have no knowledge of where they came from. Their language differs from that of any other nation, the Tawakhanos accepted.

Starting point is 05:08:06 Their present number of men is estimated at about 400. A great number of them were swept off by the smallpox. End of Section 20. Section 21 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Librevox recording. recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit librovocs dot org the journal of lewis and clark by maryweather lewis and william clark chapter nineteen hightens or camanchies who are likewise called by both names have no fixed place of residence have neither towns nor villages divided into so many different hordes or tribes that they have scarcely any knowledge of one another no estimate of their numbers can well be made they never remain in the same place more than a few days but follow the buffalo the flesh of which is their principal food

Starting point is 05:09:06 some of them occasionally purchase of the peneas corn beans and pumpkins but they are so numerous that any quantity of these articles the peneas are able to supply them with must make but a small proportion of their food they have tents made of neatly dressed skins fashioned in the form of a cone sufficiently roomy for a family of ten or twelve persons those of the chiefs will contain occasionally fifty or sixty persons when they stop their tents are pitched in very exact order so as to form regular streets and squares which in a few minutes has the appearance of a town raised as it were by enchantment and they are equally dexterous in striking their tents and preparing for a march when the signal is given to every tent two horses or mules are allotted one to carry the tent to carry the tent and another the poles or sticks, which are neatly made of red cedar. They travel on horseback. Their horses, they never turn loose to graze, but always keep them tied with a long, cubress or halter, and every two or three days they are obliged to remove, on account of all the grass near them be eaten up.

Starting point is 05:10:13 They have such numbers of horses. They are good horsemen and have good horses, most of which are bred by themselves, and being accustomed from, when very young, to be handled, they are remarkably docile and gentle. They sometimes catch wild horses, which are everywhere among them in immense droves. They hunt down the buffalo on horseback, and kill them either with a bow or a sharp stick like a spear,

Starting point is 05:10:37 which they carry in their hands. They are generally at war with the Spaniards, often committing depredations upon the inhabitants of Santa Fe and Sant'Antoine, but have always been friendly and civil to any French or Americans who have been among them. They are strong, athletic, and the eastern. elderly men as fat as though they had lived upon American beef and porter. It is said that the man who kills a buffalo catches the blood and drinks it while warm.

Starting point is 05:11:03 They likewise eat the liver raw before it is cold, and use the gall by way of sauce. They are for savages uncommonly clean in their persons. The dress of the woman is a long, loose robe that reaches from their chin to the ground, tied round with a fancy sash or girdle, all made of neatly dressed leather, on which they paint figures of different colors and significations. The dress of the men is close leather pantaloons and a hunting shirt or frock of the same. They never remain long enough in the same place to plant anything. The small cayenne pepper grows spontaneously in the country, with which, and some wild herbs and fruits, particularly a bean that grows in great plenty on a small tree resembling a willow,

Starting point is 05:11:47 called mosquito. The women cook their buffalo beef in a manner that would be grateful to an American Squire. They alternately occupy the immense space of the country from the Trinity and braces, crossing the Red River to the heads of Arkansas and Missouri, to the River Grand and beyond it, about Santa Fe, and over the dividing ridge on the waters of the western ocean, where they say they have seen lardes per ropes, with masts to them, in describing which they have seen vessels ascending a river, over which was a drawbridge that opened to give them a passage. Their native language of sounds differs from the language of any other nation, and none can either speak or understand it. But they have a language by signs, that all Indians understand, and by which they converse much

Starting point is 05:12:33 among themselves. They have a number of Spanish men and women among them, who are slaves, which they made prisoners when young. An elderly gentleman now living at Natchitoches, who some years ago carried on a trade with the Hightons, a few years ago related to me the following story. About twenty years ago a party of these Indians passed over the Grand River to Tuawa, the residence of the Governor General of what is called the five internal provinces, lay an ambush for an opportunity, and made prisoner the governor's daughter, a young lady going in her coach to mass, and brought her off. The governor sent a message to him, my informant, with a thousand dollars, for the purpose of recovering

Starting point is 05:13:15 his daughter. He immediately dispatched a confidential traitor for the purpose of recovering his daughter, then in his employ, with the amount of the thousand dollars in merchandise, who repaired to the nation, found her, and purchased her ransom. But to his great surprise she refused to return with him to her father, and sent by him the following message, that the Indians had disfigured her face by tattooing it, according to their fancy and ideas of beauty, and a young man of them had taken her for his wife, by whom she believed herself pregnant, that she had become reconciled to their mode of life, and was well treated by her husband, and that she should be more unhappy by returning to her father under these

Starting point is 05:13:54 circumstances than by remaining where she was, which message was conveyed to her father, who rewarded the traitor by a present of three hundred dollars more for his trouble and fidelity. His daughter is now living with her Indian husband in the nation, by whom she has three children. Natchitochus Formerly lived where the town of Natchatotius is now situated, which took its name from them. An elderly French gentleman lately told me he remembered when they were 600 strong. I believe it is now 98 years since the French first established themselves at Natchitoges, ever since these Indians have been their steady and faithful friends.

Starting point is 05:14:34 After the massacre of the French inhabitants of Natchez by the Natchez Indians in 1728, those Indians fled from the French, after being reinforced, and came up Red River and encamped about six miles below the town of Natchatotochus. near the river by the side of a small lake of clear water, and erected a mound of considerable size, where it now remains. Monsieur Sondini, a French Canadian, was then commandant at Natchitoges. The Indians called him the Big Foot, were fond of him, for he was a brave man. Sandinie, with a few French soldiers and what militia he could muster, joined by the Natchatotosius Indians,

Starting point is 05:15:15 attacked the Natchez in their camp, early in the morning. defended desperately for six hours, but were at length totally defeated by Saint-Denie, and those of them that were not killed in battle were driven into the lake, where the last of them perished, and the Natchez, as a nation, became extinct. The lake is now called by no other name than the Natchez Lake. There are now remaining of the Natchitoches but twelve men and nineteen women, who live in a village about twenty-five miles by land above the town, which bears their name, near a lake called by the French, Laque de Mure.

Starting point is 05:15:51 Their original language is of the same as the Yatesi, but speak Cato, and most of them French. The French inhabitants have great respect for this nation, and a number of very decent families have a mixture of their blood in them. They claim but a small tract of land, by which they live, and I am informed have the same rights to it from government that other inhabitants in their neighborhood have. They are gradually wasting away.

Starting point is 05:16:16 The smallpox has been the same. their great destroyer. They still preserve their Indian dress and habits, raise corn, and those vegetables common in their neighborhood. Bulluxes are immigrants from near Pensacola. They came to Red River about forty-two years ago, with some French families, who left that country about the time Pensacola was taken possession of by the English. They were then a considerably numerous tribe, and have generally embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and were ever highly esteemed by the French. They settled first at Avoyal, then moved higher up the Rapide Bayou, and from thence to the mouth of Regula de Vando, a division of Red River, about forty miles below Natchitochus, where they now live, and are reduced to about thirty in number. Their native language is peculiar to themselves, but speak Mobilian, which is spoken by all the Indians from the east side of the Mississippi.

Starting point is 05:17:12 They are an honest, harmless, and friendly people. Appalachis They are likewise immigrants from West Florida From off the river whose name they bear Came over to Red River about the same time the Baloxas did And have ever since lived on the river about Bayou Rapide No nation have been more highly esteemed by the French inhabitants No complaints against them are ever heard

Starting point is 05:17:36 There are only 14 men remaining Have their own language But speak French and Mobillion Alabamese They are likewise, likewise, from West Florida, off the Alabama River, and came to Red River about the same time of the Biluxes and Appalachis. Part of them have lived on Red River, about 16 miles above the Bayouill Rapide, till last year, when most of this party, of about 30 men, went up Red River and have settled themselves

Starting point is 05:18:06 near the Caddox, where I am informed they last year had a good crop of corn. The Cadoaks are friendly to them, and have no objection to their settling there. They speak, the Greek and Choctaw languages, and Mobilian, most of them French, and some of them English. There is another party of them, whose village is on a small creek, in Appalusa District, about 30 miles northwest from the Church of Appalusa. They consist of about 40 men. They have lived at the same place ever since they came from Florida, are said to be increasing a little in numbers for years passed. They raise corn, have horses, hogs, and cattle, and are harmless, quiet people. Conchatas. They are almost the same people as the Alabamis, but came over only ten years ago,

Starting point is 05:18:55 first lived on Bayu Chico in Appaloosa District, but four years ago moved to the River Sabine, settled themselves on the East Bank, where they now live, in nearly a south direction from Natchitochus, and distant about 80 miles. They call their number of of men about 160, but say if they were all together, they would amount to 200. Several families of them live in detached settlements. They are good hunters. Game is plenty. A few days ago, a small party of them were here consisting of 15 persons, men, women, and children, who were on their return from a bear hunt up to Sabine. They told me they had killed 118, but this year an uncommon number of bears have come down. One man alone, on the Sabine, during the summer and fall hunting, killed 400 deer, sold his

Starting point is 05:19:46 skins at about $40 a hundred. The bears this year are not so fat as common. They usually yield from eight to twelve gallons of oil, each of which never sells for less than a dollar a gallon, and the skin a dollar more. No great quantity of the meat is saved. What the hunters do not use when out, they generally give to the dogs. The canchatas are friendly with a all other Indians and speak well of their neighbors, the Karen Howes, who, they say, live about eighty miles south of them on the bay, which I believe is the nearest point to the sea from Natchitochus. A few families of Choctaws have lately settled near them from Bayou Buf. The Conchatas speak Greek, which is their native language, and Chakta, and several of them

Starting point is 05:20:31 English, and one or two of them can read it a little. Pankanas. They are a small tribe of about thirty men who live on the Kelkoshu River, which falls into the bay between Atacapa and Sabine, and heads in a prairie called Kuku Prairie, about 40 miles southwest of Natchitochus. These people are likewise immigrants from West Florida, about 40 years ago. Their village is about 50 miles southeast of the Kanchatas, are said to be increasing a little in number, quiet, peaceable, and friendly people. Their own language differs from any other, but speak Mobillion. Atacapas. This word I am informed, when translated into English, means man-eater, but is no more applicable to them than any other Indians. The district they live in is called after them.

Starting point is 05:21:23 Their village is about twenty-five miles to the westward of the Atacapa church, towards Kelkishu. Their number of men is about fifty, but some tunicas and humas, who have married in their nation, and live with them altogether about 80. They are peaceable and friendly to everybody, labor occasionally, for the white inhabitants, raise their own corn, have cattle and hogs. Their language and the Karen cows is the same. They were, or near where they live now,

Starting point is 05:21:52 when that part of the country was first discovered by the French. Appaloosa. It is said that the word Apalusa in the Indian language means blackhead or black skull. They are aborigines of the district called by their name. Their village is about 15 miles west from the Appalusa Church, have about 45 men. Their native language differs from all other. Understand Atacapa, and speak French, plant corn, have cattle and hogs.

Starting point is 05:22:21 Tunicas These people lived formerly on the Bayou Tuna, above Point Coupie, on the Mississippi, east side. Live now at Avoyal. Do not at present exceed. twenty-five men. Their native language is peculiar to themselves, but speak Mobilian, are employed occasionally by the inhabitants' boatmen, etc., are in amity with all other people, and gradually diminishing in numbers. Paskagulas

Starting point is 05:22:49 These people live in a small village on Red River, about sixty miles below Natchitoches, are immigrants from Pascagoula River in West Florida, 25 men of them only remaining, speak Mobelian but have a language peculiar to themselves. Most of them speak and understand French. They raise good crops of corn and garden vegetables, have cattle, horses, and poultry plenty. Tennisaws. They are likewise immigrants from the Tennisau River that falls into the Bay of Mobile, have resided on Red River about 40 years, are reduced to about 25 men. Their village is within one mile of the Pascagolas, on the opposite side. but have lately sold their land and have or are about moving to bayou buff about twenty-five miles south from where they lately lived all speak french and mobilean and live much like their neighbors the pascagolas

Starting point is 05:23:47 chattus they live on bayou buff about ten miles to the southward of bayou rapide on red river towards apalusa a small honest people are aborigines of the country where they live of men about thirty diminishing, have their own peculiar tongue, speak, Mobilian. The lands they claim on Bayou Buff are inferior to no part of Louisiana in depth and richness of soil, growth of timber, pleasantness of surface, and goodness of water. The Bayou Buff falls into the Chafelli and discharges through Appalusa and Atacapa and Vermilion Bay. Washaws When the French first came into the Mississippi, this nation lived on island to the

Starting point is 05:24:30 southwest of New Orleans, called Baratowah. and were the first tribe of Indians they became acquainted with, and were always friends. They afterwards lived on Bayou La Fosch, and, from being a considerable nation, are now reduced to five persons only, two men and three women, who are scattered in French families, have been many years extinct as a nation, and their native language is lost. Chokhtaws There are a considerable number of this nation on the west side of the Mississippi who have not been home for many years. About 12 miles above the post on Washtaw, on that river, there is a small

Starting point is 05:25:08 village of them of about 30 men, who have lived there for several years, and made corn, and likewise on Bayou Chica, in the northern part of the district of Appalusa. There is another village of them about 50 men, who have been there for about nine years, and say they have the governor of Louisiana's permission to settle there. Besides these, there are rambling hunting parties of them to be met with, all over lower Louisiana. They are at war with the Caddoz, and liked by neither red nor white people. Arkansas. They live on the Arkansas River, south side, in three villages, about twelve miles above the post or station. The name of the first village is Tawanima, second Ofatu, and the third Akapa. In all it is believed, they do not at present exceed one hundred men, and diminishing.

Starting point is 05:25:59 They are at war with the Osages, but friendly with all other people, white and red, are the original proprietors of the country on the river, to all which they claim, for about 300 miles above them, to the junction of the River Cadwa with Arkansas. Above this fork, the Osage's claim. Their language is Osage. They generally raise corn to sell, are called honest and friendly people. End of Section 21. and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by Barbara Dirksen

Starting point is 05:26:49 The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Mary Weather Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 20 Origin of the American Indians The Means, says an ingenious traveler, by which America received its first inhabitants have, since the time of its discovery by the Europeans, being the subject of numberless disquisitions. Was I to endeavor to collect the different opinions and reasonings of the various writers that have taken up the pen in defense of their conjectures, the enumeration would much exceed the bonds I have prescribed to myself, and oblige me to be less explicit on points of

Starting point is 05:27:34 greater moment, from the obscurity in which this debate is enveloped, through the total disuse of letters among every nation of Indians on this extensive continent, and the uncertainty of oral tradition at the distance of so many ages, I fear that even after the most minute investigation, we shall not be able to settle it with any great degree of certainty. And this apprehension will receive additional force when it is considered that the diversity of language, which is apparently distinct between most of the Indians, tends to ascertain that this population was not affected from one particular country, but from several neighboring ones, and completed at different periods. Most of the historians, or travelers that have treated on the American Aborigines,

Starting point is 05:28:29 disagree in their sentiments relative to them. Many of the ancients are supposed to have known that this quarter of the globe not only existed, but also that it was inhabited. Plato, in his Timius, has asserted that beyond the island which he calls Atlantis, and which according to his description, was situated in the western ocean, there were a great number of other islands, and behind those a vast continent. Ovido, a celebrated Spanish author of much later date, has made no scruple to affirm that the Antilles are the famous Hesperides, so often mentioned by the poets, which are at length restored to the kings of Spain, the descendants of King Hesperus, who lived upwards of three thousand years ago, and from whom these islands received their name. Two other Spaniards, the one, Father Gregario Garcia, Dominican, the other Father Joseph Di Acosta, a Jesuit, have written on the origin of the Americans.

Starting point is 05:29:36 The former, who had been employed in the missions of Mexico and Peru, endeavored to prove from the traditions of the Mexicans, Peruvians, and others, which he received on the spot, and from the variety of characters, customs, languages, and religion abysions, observed in the different countries of the new world, that different nations had contributed to the peopling of it. The latter, Father Di Acosta, in his examination of the means by which the first Indians of America might have found a passage to that continent, discredits the conclusions of those who have supposed it to be by sea, because no ancient author has made mention of the compass,

Starting point is 05:30:19 and concludes that it must be either by the north of Asia and Europe which adjoined to each other, or by those regions that lie to the southward of the Straits of Magellan. He also rejects the assertions of such as have advanced that it was peopled by the Hebrews. John DeLate, a Flemish writer, has controverted the opinions of the Spanish fathers, and of many others who have written on the same subject. hypothesis he endeavors to establish is that America was certainly peopled by the Scythians or Tartars, and that the transmigration of these people happened soon after the dispersion of Noah's grandsons. He undertakes to show that the most Northern Americans have a greater resemblance,

Starting point is 05:31:11 not only in the features of their countenances, but also in their complexion and manner of living, to the Scythians, Tartars, and Samoids, than to any other nations. In answer to Grosius, who had asserted that some of the Norwegians passed into America by way of Greenland and over a vast continent, he says that it is well known that Greenland was not discovered until the year 964. And both Gamera and Herrera inform us that the Chichimeeks were settled on the Lake of Mexico in 721. He adds that these savages, according to the uniform tradition of the Mexicans who dispossessed them, came from the country since called New Mexico, and from the neighborhood of California. Consequently, North America must have been inhabited many ages before it could receive any inhabitants

Starting point is 05:32:10 from Norway by way of Greenland. It is no less certain, he observes, the real Mexicans founded their empire in 902 after having subdued the Chichimeeks, the Ottomias, and other barbarous nations who had taken possession of the country round the lake of Mexico, and each of whom spoke a language peculiar to themselves. The real Mexicans are likewise supposed to have come from some of the countries that lie near California, and that they performed their journey for the most part by land. Of course they could not come from Norway. To late further adds that though some of the inhabitants of North America may have entered it from the northwest, yet as it is related by plenty and some other writers that on many of the islands

Starting point is 05:33:03 near the western coast of Africa, particularly on the canaries, some ancient edifices were seen. it is highly probable from their being now deserted that the inhabitants may have passed over to America, the passage neither long nor difficult. This migration, according to the calculation of those authors, must have happened more than 2,000 years ago, at a time when the Spaniards were much troubled by the Carthaginians, from whom, having obtained a knowledge of navigation and the construction of ships, they might have retired to the Antilles, by way of the Western Isles, which were exactly halfway on their voyage. He thinks also that Great Britain, Ireland, and the Orcades were extremely proper to admit of a similar conjecture. As a proof, he inserts the following passage from the history of Wales, written by Dr. David

Starting point is 05:34:03 Powell in the year 1170. This historian says that Medoc, one of the sons of Prince Owen Gwyneth, being disgusted at the civil wars which broke out between his brothers after the death of their father, fitted out several vessels, and, having provided them with everything necessary for a long voyage, went in quest of new lands to the westward of Ireland. There he discovered very fertile countries, but destitute of inhabitants. When landing a part of his people, he returned to Britain, where he raised new levies, and afterwards transported this to his colony. The Flemish author then returns to the Scythians, between whom and the Americans he draws a parallel. He observes that several nations of them to the north of the Caspian Sea led a wandering life, which, as well as

Starting point is 05:35:00 many other of their customs and way of living agrees in many circumstances with the Indians of America. And though the resemblances are not absolutely perfect, yet the emigrants, even before they left their own country, differed from each other and went not by the same name. Their change of abode affected what remained. He further says that a similar likeness exists between several American nations and the Samoids, who are settled, according to the Russian accounts on the Great River of Obi. And it is more natural, continues he, to suppose that colonies of these nations passed over to America by crossing the icy sea on their sledges than for the Norwegians to travel all the way Grotias has marked out for them. This writer makes many other remarks that are equally sensible,

Starting point is 05:35:56 and which appear to be just. But he intermixed. with these some that are not so well founded. Emmanuel de Mores, a Portuguese, in his history of Brazil, asserts that America has been wholly peopled by the Carthaginians and Israelites. He brings, as a proof of this assertion, the discoveries the former are known to have made at a great distance beyond the coast of Africa, the progress of which being put a stop to by the Senate of Carthage, who happened to be then in the newly discovered countries being cut off from all communication with their countrymen and destitute of many necessaries of life, fill into a state of barbarism. As to the Israelites, this author thinks that nothing but circumcision is wanted

Starting point is 05:36:51 in order to constitute a perfect resemblance between them and the Brazilians. George D. Horan, a learned Dutchman has likewise written on the subject. He sets out with declaring that he does not believe it possible America could have been peopled before the flood, considering the short space of time which elapsed between the creation of the world and the memorable event. In the next place, he lays it down as a principle that after the deluge, men and other terrestrial animals penetrated into that country both by sea and land, some through accident, and some from a formed design, that birds got fither by flight, which they were enabled to do by resting on the rocks and islands that are scattered about the ocean. He further observes that wild beasts may have found a free passage by land,

Starting point is 05:37:51 and that if we do not meet with horses or cattle, to which he might have added elephants, camels, rhinoceroses and beasts of many other kinds, it is because those nations that passed thither weren't either not acquainted with their use or had no convenience to support them. Having totally excluded many nations that others have admitted as the first settlers of America, for which he gives substantial reasons, he supposes that it began to be peopled by the north, and maintains the primitive colonies spread themselves by the means of the isthmus of Panama through the whole extent of the continent. He believes that the first founders of the Indian colonies were Scythians, that the Phoenicians and Carthaginians afterwards got footing to America

Starting point is 05:38:46 across the Atlantic Ocean, and the Chinese by the way of the Pacific, and that other nations might from time have landed there by one or other of these ways, or might possibly have been thrown on the coast by tempests, since, through the whole extent of that continent, both in its northern and southern parts, we meet with undoubted marks of a mixture of the northern nations with those who have come from other places. And lastly, that some Jews and Christians might have been carried there by such-like events, but that this must have happened at a time when the whole of the new world was already peopled. After all, he acknowledges that great difficulties attend the determination of the question.

Starting point is 05:39:36 These, he says, are occasioned in the first place by the imperfect knowledge we have of the extremities of the globe, toward the north and south pole, and the next place to the havoc which the Spaniards, the first discoverers of the new world, made among its most ancient monuments. As witness, the great double road betwixt Kito and Kuzko, an undertaking so stupendous that even the most magnificent of these executed by the Romans cannot be compared to it. He supposes another migration of the Phoenicians than those already mentioned to have taken place. And this was during a three years voyage made by the Tyrian fleet

Starting point is 05:40:22 in the service of King Solomon. He asserts on the authority of Josephus that the port at which this embarkation was made lay in the Mediterranean. The fleet, he adds, went in quest of elephants' teeth and peacocks to the western coast of Africa, which is Tarshish.

Starting point is 05:40:43 then to offer for gold, which is Haiti, or the island of Hispaniola. In the latter opinion, he is supported by Columbus, who, when he discovered that island, thought he could trace the furnace in which the gold was refined. To these migrations which preceded the Christian era, he adds many others of a later date from different nations, but these I have not time to enumerate. For the same reason, I am a blubilant. For the same reason, I am obliged. to pass over numberless writers on this subject, and shall content myself with only giving the sentiments of two or three more. The first of these is Pierre de Charlevoix, a Frenchman, who in his journal of a voyage to North America, made so lately as the year 1720, has recapitulated the opinions

Starting point is 05:41:36 of a variety of authors on this head, to which he has subjoined his own conjectures, but the latter cannot without some difficulty be extracted as they are so interwoven with the passages he has quoted that it requires much attention to discriminate them He seems to allow that America might have received its first inhabitants from Tartary and Herkania. This he confirms by observing that lions and tigers which are found in the former must have come from those countries, and whose passage serves for a proof that the two hemispheres join to the northward of Asia. He then draws a corroboration of this argument from a story he says he has often heard, related by Father Grawlin, a French Jesuit, as an undoubted matter of fact. This father, after having labored some time in the missions of New France,

Starting point is 05:42:38 passed over to those of China. One day, he was traveling in Tartary. He met a Huron woman, whom he had formerly known in Canada. He asked her by what adventures she had been carried into a country so distant from her own. She made a her own. She made a her own, answer that having been taken in war she had been conducted from nation to nation till she had reached the place at which she then was. Monsieur Chalvois says further that he had been assured by another Jesuit passing through Nance in his return from China had related much such another affair of a Spanish woman from Florida. She also had been taken by certain Indians and given to those of a more distant country, and by these again to another nation, till having thus been successfully

Starting point is 05:43:32 passed from country to country, and traveled through regions extremely cold, she at last found herself in tartary. Here she had married a tartar who attended the conquerors in China, where she was then settled. He acknowledges as an ally to the probability of these stories, that those who had sailed farthest to the eastward of Asia by pursuing the coast of Jesso or Kamshatka have pretended that they had perceived the extremity of this continent, and from thence have concluded that there could not possibly be any communication by land. But he adds that Francis Gwela, a Spaniard, is said to have asserted that this separation is no more than a straight about 100 miles over, and that some late voyages of the Japanese give grounds to think that this

Starting point is 05:44:30 straight is only a bay, above which there is a passage over land. He goes on to observe that though there are few wild beasts to be met with in North America, except a kind of tigers without spots, which are found in the country of the Iroquois, yet towards the tropics there are lions and real taggers, which, notwithstanding, might have come from Hercania and Tartary, for as by advancing gradually southward they met with climates more agreeable to their natures, they have in time abandoned the northern countries. He quotes both Solanus and Pliny, to prove that the Scythian anthropophagi once depopulated a great extent of country, as far as the promontory tabin, and an often author of later date Mark Paul, a Venetian, who he says tells us that to the northeast of China and

Starting point is 05:45:29 Tartary, there are vast uninhabited countries which might be sufficient to confirm any conjectures concerning the retreat of a great number of Scythians into America. To this he adds that we find in the ancients the names of some of these nations. Pliny speaks of the Tabians. Solanus mentions the Apulians, who had for their neighbors the Massagites, whom Pliny since assures us to have entirely disappeared. Amanius Marcellinus expressly tells us that the fear of the anthropophagy obligated several of the inhabitants of those countries to take refuge elsewhere. From all these authorities, Monsieur Charlevoix concludes that there is at least room to conjecture that more than One Nation in America had a Scythian or Tartarian original. He finishes his remarks on the authors he

Starting point is 05:46:29 is quoted by the following observations. It appears to me that this controversy may be reduced to the following articles. First, how the new world might have been peopled, and secondly by whom, and by what means it has been peopled, nothing he asserts may be more easily answered than the first. America might have been peopled as the three other parts of the world have been. Many difficulties have been formed on this subject, which having been deemed insolvable, but which are far from being so. The inhabitants of both hemispheres are certainly the descendants of the same father. The common parent of mankind received an express command from heaven to people the whole world, and accordingly it has been peopled.

Starting point is 05:47:23 To bring this about, it was necessary to overcome all difficulties that lay in the way, and they have been got over. Were these difficulties greater with respect to peopling the extremities of Asia, Africa, and Europe, or the transporting men into the islands which lie at a considerable distance from those continents than to pass over into America? certainly not navigation which has arrived at so great perfection within these three or four centuries might possibly have been more perfect in those early ages than at this day Who can believe that Noah and his immediate descendants knew less of this art than we do, that the builder and pilot of the largest ship that ever was, a ship that was formed to traverse

Starting point is 05:48:15 an unbounded ocean, and had so many shoals and quicksands to guard against, should be ignorant of, or should not have communicated to those of his descendants who survived him, and by whose means he was to execute the order of the great creator? i say who can believe he should not have communicated to them the art of sailing upon an ocean which was not only more common pacific but at the same time confined within its ancient limits admitting this how easy it is to pass exclusive of the passage already described by land from the coast of africa to brazil from the canaries to the western islands and from them to the antilles from the british isles or the coast of france to newfoundland the passage is neither long nor difficult i might say as much of that from china to japan from japan or the philippines to the isles marianes and from thence to mexico there are islands at a considerable distance from the continent of asia where we have not been surprised to find inhabitants Why, then, should we wonder to meet with people in America?

Starting point is 05:49:34 Nor can it be imagined that the grandsons of Noah, when they were obliged to separate and spread themselves in conformity to the designs of God over the whole earth, should find it absolutely impossible to people almost one half of it. I have been more copious in my extracts from this author than I intended, as his reasons appear to be solid and many of his observations just. From this encomium, however, I must exclude the stories he has introduced of the Huron and Floridane woman, which I think I might venture to pronounce fabulous. I shall only add, to give my readers a more comprehensive view of Monsieur Charlevois' dissertation, the method he proposes to comment the

Starting point is 05:50:22 truth of what we are in search of. The only means by which this can be done, he says, is by comparing the language of the Americans with the different nations from whence we might suppose they have peregrinated. If we compare the former with those words that are considered as primitives, it might possibly set us upon some happy discovery. And this way of ascending to the original of nations, which is by far the least equivocal, is not so difficult as might be imagined. We have had and still have travelers and missionaries who have attained the languages that are spoken in all the provinces of the new world. It would only be necessary to make a collection of their grammars and vocabularies and to collate them with the dead and living languages of the old world that pass for originals and the similarity might easily be traced. Even the different dialects, in spite of the alterations they have undergone,

Starting point is 05:51:28 still retain enough of the mother tongue to furnish considerable lights. Any inquiry into the manners, customs, religion, or traditions of the Americans, in order to discover by that means their origin, he thinks, would prove fallacious. A disquisition of that kind, he observes, is only capable of producing a false light, more likely to dazzle, and to make us wonder from a right path than to lead us with certainty to the point proposed. Ancient traditions are effaced from the minds of such as either have not, or for several ages, have been without, those helps that are necessary to preserve them. And, in this situation, is full one-half of the world. New events and new arrangement of things

Starting point is 05:52:18 give rise to new traditions which efface the former and are themselves effaced in turn. After one or two centuries have passed, there no longer remain any traces of the first traditions, and thus we are involved in a state of uncertainty. He concludes with the following remarks, among many others. Unforeseen accidents, tempests, and shipwrecks have certainly contributed to people every habitable part of the world. And ought we to wonder after this at perceiving certain resemblances, both of persons and manners between nations that are most remote from each other, when we find such a difference between those that border on one another? As we are destitute of historical monuments, there is nothing, I repeat it, but a knowledge of the primitive languages that is capable of

Starting point is 05:53:14 throwing any light upon those clouds of impenetrable darkness. By this inquiry, we should at least be satisfied among that prodigious number of various nations inhabiting America, and differing so much in languages from each other, which are those who make use of words totally and entirely different from those of the old world, and who, consequently, must be reckoned to have passed over to America in the earth. earliest ages, and those who, from the analogy of their language with such as are at present used in the three other parts of the globe, leave room to judge that their migration has been more recent, and which ought to be attributed to shipwrecks, or to some accident similar to those which have

Starting point is 05:54:04 been spoken of in the course of this treatise. I shall only add the opinion of one author more before I give my own sentiments on the subject, and that is of James Adair Esquire, who resided 40 years among the Indians, and published the history of them in the year 1772. In this learned and systematic history of those nations, inhabiting the western parts of the most southern of the American colonies, this gentleman, without hesitation, pronounces that the American aborigines are descended from the Israeliites, either whilst they were a maritime power, or soon after their general captivity. This descent, he endeavors to prove from their religious rights, their civil and martial customs, their marriages, their funeral ceremonies, their manners, language, traditions,

Starting point is 05:55:00 and from a variety of other particulars. And so complete is his conviction on this head that he fancies he finds a perfect similitude in each. Through all these I have not time to follow him and shall therefore only give a few extracts to show on what foundation he builds his conjectures and what degree of credit he is entitled to on this point. He begins with observing that though some have supposed the Americans to be descended from the Chinese, yet neither their religion, laws, nor customs agree in the least with those of the Chinese. Chinese, which sufficiently prove that they are now almost half a year sailing for China. Our author does not here recollect that this is from a high northern latitude, across the line, and then back again greatly to the northward of it, and not directly athwart the Pacific Ocean,

Starting point is 05:55:58 for only 111 degrees, or from thence to Europe, it is very unlikely they should attempt such dangerous discoveries with their supposed small vessels against rapid currents and in dark and sickly monsoons. He further remarks that this is more particularly improbable as there is reason to believe that this nation was unacquainted with the use of the lodestone to direct their course. China, he says, is about 8,000 miles distant from the Atlantic Ocean, and we are not informed by any ancient writer of their maritime skill, or so much as any inclination that way, besides small coasting voyages. The winds blow likewise, with little variation from east to west within the latitudes 30 and odd, north and south, and therefore these could not drive them on the American coast, it lying directly

Starting point is 05:56:58 contrary to such a course. Neither could persons, according to this writer's account, sail to America from the north by the way of tartary or ancient Scythia, that from its situation, never having been or can be a maritime power, and it is utterly impracticable, he says, for any to come to America by sea from that quarter. Besides, the remaining traces of their religious ceremonies and civil and martial customs are quite opposite to the like vestiges of the old Scythians. Even in the moderate northern climates, there is not to be seen the least trace of any ancient stately buildings or of any thick settlements, as are said to remain in the less healthy regions of Peru and Mexico. And several of the Indian nations assure us that they cross the Mississippi

Starting point is 05:57:56 before they made their present northern settlements, which, connected with the former arguments, he concludes will sufficiently explode that weak opinion of the American aborigines being linearly descended from the Tartars or ancient Scythians. Mr. Adair's reason for supposing that the Americans derive their origin from the Jews are, first, because they are divided into tribes and have chiefs over them as the Israelites had. Secondly, because as by a strict permanent divine precept, The Hebrew nation were ordered to worship at Jerusalem, Jehovah, the true and living God. So do the Indians styling him Yahweh. The ancient heathens, he adds, it is well-known worshipped a plurality of gods,

Starting point is 05:58:50 but the Indians pay their religious devours to the great beneficent supreme Holy Spirit of fire, who resides as they think above the clouds, and on earth also with unpolis. people. They pay no adoration to images or to dead persons, neither to the celestial luminaries, to evil spirits, nor to any created being whatever. Thirdly, because agreeably to the theocracy of divine government of Israel, the Indians think the deity to be the immediate head of their state. Fourthly, because as the Jews believe in the ministration of angels, the Indians also believe that the higher regions are inhabited by good spirits. Fifthly, because the Indian language and dialects appear to have the very idiom and genius of the Hebrew, their words and sentences being

Starting point is 05:59:48 expressive, concise, emphatical, sonorous, and bold and often both in letters and signification, are synonymous with the Hebrew language. Sixthly, because they count their time after the manner of the Hebrews. Seventhly, because in conformity to or after the Jews, they have their prophets, high priests, and other religious orders. Eightly, because their festivals, fasts, and religious rights have a great resemblance to those of the Hebrews. Ninthly, because the Indians, before they go to war, have many preparatory ceremonies of purification and fasting, like what is recorded of the Israelites. Tenthly, because the same taste for ornaments and the same kind are made use of by the Indians as by the Hebrews. These and many other arguments of a similar nature, Mr. Adair brings in support

Starting point is 06:00:47 of his system. But I should imagine that if the Indians are really derived from the Hebrews, among their religious ceremonies, on which he chiefly seems to build his hypothesis, the principle that of circumcision would never have been laid aside, and its very remembrance obliterated. Thus, numerous and diverse are the opinions of those who have hitherto written on this subject. I shall not, however, either endeavor to reconcile them or point out the errors of each, but to proceed to give my own sentiments on the origin of the Americans, which are founded on conclusions drawn from the most rational arguments of the writers I have mentioned, and from my own observations, the consistency of these I shall leave to the judgment of my readers.

Starting point is 06:01:41 The better to introduce my conjectures on this head, it is necessary first to ascertain the distance between America and those parts of the habitable globe that approach nearest to it. The continent of America, as far as we can judge from all the researches that have been made near the poles, appears to be entirely separated from the other quarters of the world. That part of Europe, which approaches nearest to it, is the coast of Greenland, lying in about 70 degrees of the north latitude, and which reaches within 12 degrees of the coast of Labrador, situate on the northeast borders of this continent. The coast of Guinea is the nearest part of Africa, which lies about 1860 miles northeast of the Brazils. The most eastern coast of Asia, which extends to the Korean Sea on the north of China,

Starting point is 06:02:39 projects northeast through eastern Tartary and Kamchatka to Siberia, in about 60 degrees of north latitude, towards which the western coast of America, from California to the Straits of Annian, extend nearly northwest and lie in about six degrees of the same latitude. Whether the continent of America stretches any farther north than these straits and joins to the eastern parts of Asia, agreeably to what has been asserted by some of the writers, I have quoted, or whether the lands that have been discovered in the intermediate parts are only an archipelago of islands, verging towards the opposite continent, is not yet ascertained. It being, however certain that there are many considerable islands which lie between the

Starting point is 06:03:32 extremities of Asia and America, vis Sapan, Yesso, or Jetsu, Gamma's Land, Bayrings Island, with many others discovered by Asraco, and besides these, from 50 degrees north there appearing to be a cluster of islands that reach as far as Siberia, it is probable from their proximity to America that it received its first inhabitants from them. This conclusion is the most rational I am able to draw, supposing that since the Aborigines got footing on this continent, no extraordinary or sudden change in the position or surface of it has taken place, from inundations, earthquakes or any revolutions of the earth that we are at present unacquainted with. To me, it appears highly improbable that it should have been peopled from different quarters across the ocean as others have

Starting point is 06:04:32 asserted. From the size of the ships made use of in those early ages and the want of the compass, it cannot be supposed that any maritime nation would by choice venture over the unfathomable ocean in search of distant continents. Had this, however, been attempted or had America been first accidentally peopled from ships freighted with passengers of both sexids, which are driven by strong easterly winds across the Atlantic, these settlers must have retained some traces of the language of the country from whence they migrated, and this, since the discovery of it by the Europeans, must have been made out. It also appears extraordinary that several of these accidental migrations, as allowed by some,

Starting point is 06:05:24 and these from different parts should have taken place. Upon the whole, after the most critical inquiries and the maturest deliberation, I am of opinion that America received its inhabitants from the northeast by the way of the great archipelago, just mentioned, and from there alone. But this might have been affected at different times and from various parts, from Tartari, China, Japan, or Kamshatka, the inhabitants of these places resembling each other in color, features and shape, and who, before some of them acquired a knowledge of the arts and sciences, might have likewise resembled each other in their manners, customs, religion, and language.

Starting point is 06:06:13 The only difference between the Chinese nation and the Tartars lies in the cultivated state of the one and the unpolished situation of others. The former have become a commercial people and dwell in houses formed into regular towns and cities. The latter live chiefly in tents and rove about in different hordes without any fixed abode. Nor can the long and bloody wars these two nations have been engaged. in exterminate their hereditary similitude. The present family of the Chinese emperors is of Tartarian extraction, and if they were not sensible of some claim besides that of conquest so numerous, a people would scarcely sit quiet under the dominion of strangers. It is very evident that some of the manners and customs of the American Indians resemble those of the Tartars, and

Starting point is 06:07:13 I make no doubt, but that in some future era, and this not a very distant one, it will be reduced to a certainty that during some of the wars between the Tartars and the Chinese, a part of the inhabitants of the northern provinces were driven from their native country and took refuge in some of the aisles before mentioned, and from thence found their way into America. At different periods each nation might prove victorious, and the conquered by turns fly before their conquerors, and from hence might arise the similitude of the Indians to all these people, and that animosity which exists between so many of their tribes. It appears plainly to me that a great similarity between the Indians and Chinese is conspicuous,

Starting point is 06:08:05 in that particular custom of shaving or plucking off the hair and leaving only a small tuft on the crown of the head. This mode is said to have been enjoined by the Tartarian emperors on their accession to the throne of China, and consequently is a further proof that this custom was in use among the Tartars, to whom, as well as the Chinese, the Americans might be indebted for it. Many words are also used. Many words are also used. used by the Chinese and Indians, which have a resemblance to each other, not only in the sound, but their signification. The Chinese call a slave Shungo, and the Nautawesi Indians whose language from their little intercourse with the Europeans is the least corrupted term a dog shunggush. The former denominate one species of their tea, Shosong. The latter call their tobacco,

Starting point is 06:09:05 Shoshan. Many other of the words used by the Indians contain the syllables, chi, cha, and Chu after the dialect of the Chinese. There probably might be found a similar connection between the language of the Tartars and the American Aborigines, were we as well acquainted with it as we are from a commercial intercourse with that of the Chinese. I am confirmed in these conjectures by the accounts of Kamshatka, published a few years ago by the Order of the Empress of Russia, the author of which says that the sea which divides that peninsula from America is full of islands, and that the distance between Tchaoskoy Knaus, a promontory which lies at the eastern extremity of that country, and the coast of America, is not more than two degrees

Starting point is 06:10:03 and a half of a great circle. He further says that there is the greatest reason to suppose that Asia and America once joined at this place, as the coasts of both continents appear to have been broken into capes and bays which answer each other, more especially as the inhabitants of this part of both resemble each other in their persons, habits, customs, and food. Their language, indeed, he observes, does not appear to be the same, but then the inhabitants of each district in Kamshadka speak a language as different from each other as from that spoken on the opposite coast. These observations to which he adds, the similarity of the boats of the inhabitants of each coast, and a remark that the natives of this part of America are wholly strangers to wine and tobacco,

Starting point is 06:10:58 which he looks upon as a proof that they have as yet had no communication with the natives of Europe, he says, amount to little less than a demonstration that America was peopled from this part of Asia. The limits of my present undertaking will not permit me to dwell any longer on this subject, or to enumerate any other proof in favor of my hypothesis. I am, however, so thoroughly convinced of the certainty of it, and so desirious have I been to obtain every testimony which can be procured in its support, that I once made an offer to a private society of gentlemen who were curious in such researches, and to whom I had communicated my sentiments on this point that I would undertake a journey on receiving such

Starting point is 06:11:50 supplies as were needful, through the northeast parts of Europe and Asia, to the interior parts of America, and from England, making, as I proceeded such observations, both on the languages and manners of the people, with whom I should be conversant, as might tend to illustrate the doctrine I have here laid down, and to satisfy the curiosity of the learned or inquisitive. But as this proposal was judged rather to require a national than a private support, it was not carried into execution. I am happy to find, since I formed the foregoing conclusions, that they correspond with the sentiments of that great and learned historian Dr. Robertson. And though with him, I acknowledge that the investigation from its nature is so obscure and intricate, that the conjectures I have made can only

Starting point is 06:12:49 be considered as conjectures and not indisputable conclusions, yet they carry with them a greater degree of probability than the suppositions of those who assert that this continent was peopled from another quarter. One of the doctor's quotations from the journals of Bering and Shirkov, who sailed from Kamsatka about the year 1741 in quest of the New World, appears to carry great weight with it and to afford our conclusions firm support. These commanders, having shaped their course towards the east, discovered land, which to them appeared to be part of the American continent, and according to their observations, it seems to be situated within a few degrees of the northwest coast of California. They had there some intercourse with the inhabitants who seemed to them to

Starting point is 06:13:48 resemble the North Americans, as they presented to the Russians the Calumet, or pipe of peace, which is a symbol of friendship universal among the people of North America, and an usage of arbitrary institution peculiar to them. One of this incomparable writer's own arguments in support of his hypothesis is also urged with great judgment and appears to be nearly conclusive. He says, we may lay it down as a certain principle in this inquiry, that America was not peopled by any nation of the ancient continent, which had made considerable progress in civilization. The inhabitants of the new world were in a state of society so extremely rude as to be unacquainted with those arts which are the first essays of human ingenuity in its advance

Starting point is 06:14:43 towards improvement. Even the most cultivated nations of America were strangers to many of those simple inventions which were almost coeval with society in other parts of the world, and were known in the earliest periods of civil life. From this it is manifest that the tribes which originally migrated to America came off from nations which must have been no less barbarous than their posterity, at the time when they were first discovered by the europeans if ever the use of iron had been known to the savages of america or to the progenitors if ever they had employed a plough a loom or a forge the utility of these inventions would have preserved them and it is impossible that they should have been abandoned or forgotten end of section twenty two The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Mary Weather Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 21 Observations made in a voyage commencing at St. Catherine's Landing, on the east bank of the

Starting point is 06:15:54 Mississippi, proceeding downwards to the mouth of the Red River, and from thence ascending that river as high as the hot springs, in the proximity of the last-mentioned river, extracted from the journals of William Dunbar, Esquire, and Dr. Hunter. Mr. Dunbar, Dr. Hunter, and the party employed by the United States, to make a survey of and explore the country, traversed by the Washatah River, left St. Catherine's landing on the Mississippi in latitude 31, 26, 30 north, and longitude six hours, five, 56, west, from the Meridian of Greenwich. On Tuesday, the 16th, October 1840. A little distance below St. Catherine's Creek, and five leagues from Natchez, they passed the white cliffs, composed chiefly of sand, surmounted by pine, and from 100 to 200 feet

Starting point is 06:16:52 high. When the waters of the Mississippi are low, the base of the cliff is uncovered, which consists of different colored clays, and some beds of ochre, over which there lies, in some places, a thin lamina of iron ore. Small springs, possessing a petrifying quality, flow over the clay and ochre, and numerous logs and pieces of timber, converted into stone, are strewed about the beach. Fine, pure argil of various colors, chiefly white and red, is found here. On the 17th, they arrived at the mouth of the Red River, the confluence of which, with the Mississippi, agreeably to the observations of Mr. de Ferrer lies in latitude 31, 1.15 north, and longitude six hours, 7, 11 west of Greenwich. Red River is here about 500 yards wide, and without any sensible

Starting point is 06:17:46 current. The banks of the river are clothed with willow, the land low and subject to inundation, to the height of 30 feet or more above the level of the water at this time. The mouth of the Red River is accounted to be 75 leagues from New Orleans, and three miles higher up than the Chafalaya, or Opalusa River, which was probably a continuation of the Red River, when its waters did not unite with those of the Mississippi, but during the inundation. On the 18th, the survey of the Red River was commenced, and on the evening of the 19th, the party arrived at the mouth of the Black River, in latitude 31, 15, 48 north, and about 26 miles from the Mississippi. Red River derives its name from the rich, fat earth or marl, or that color

Starting point is 06:18:35 borne down by the floods, the last of which appeared to have been deposited on the high bank of astratum of upwards of half an inch in thickness. The vegetation on its banks is surprisingly luxuriant, no doubt, owing to the deposition of marl during its annual floods. The willows grow to a good size, but other forest trees are much smaller than those seen on the banks of the Mississippi. As you advance up the river, it gradually narrows in latitude 3108 north. It is about 200 yards wide, which width is continued to the mouth of a black river, where each of them appears 150 yards across. The banks of the river are covered with peevine, and several sorts of grass-bearing seed, which geese and ducks eat very greedily. And there are generally seen willows,

Starting point is 06:19:26 growing on one side, and on the other side a small growth of black oak, pecan, hickory, elm, etc. The current in the Red River is so moderate as scarcely to afford an impediment to its ascent. On sounding the Black River, a little above its mouth, there was found 20 feet of water, with a bottom of black sand. The water of Black River is rather clearer than the Ohio, and of a warm temperature, which it may receive from the water flowing into it from the Valley of the Mississippi, particularly by the Cattahoula. At noon on the 23rd, by a good meridian observation, they ascertained their latitude to be 30, 36, 29 north, and were then a little below the mouths of the Cattahula, Wachita and Bayotenza,

Starting point is 06:20:19 the united waters of which form the Black River. the current is very gentle the whole length of the black river which in many places does not exceed eighty yards in width the banks on the lower part of the river present a great luxuriance of vegetation and rank grass with red and black oak ash pecan hickory and some elms the soil is black marl mixed with a moderate proportion of sand resembling much the soil on the mississippi banks yet the forest trees are not lofty like those on the margin of the great river but resembling the growth on the red river in latitude thirty one twenty two forty six north they observed that canes grew on several parts of the right bank a proof that the land is not deeply overflowed perhaps from one to three feet the banks have the appearance of stability very little willow or other productions of newly formed soil on either side on advancing up the river the timber becomes larger in some places rising to the height of forty feet yet the land is liable to be inundated not from the waters of this small river but from the intrusion of its more powerful neighbor the mississippi the lands decline rapidly as in all alluvial countries from the margin to the cypress swamps where more or less water stagnates all year round on the twenty first they passed a small but elevated island, said to be the only one in the river for more than a hundred leagues ascending.

Starting point is 06:21:59 On the left bank, near this island, a small settlement of a couple of acres has been begun by a man and his wife. The banks are not less than 40 feet above the present level of the water in the river, and are but rarely overflowed. On both sides they are clothed with rich cane-break, pierced by creeks fit to carry boats during the inundation. They saw many cormorants and the hooping crane. Geese and ducks are not yet abundant, but are said to arrive in myriads, with the rains and winters cold. They shot a fowl of the duck kind, whose foot was partially divided, and the body covered with a bluish or lead-colored plumage. On the morning of the 22nd, they observed green matter floating on the river, supposed to come from the cateauula

Starting point is 06:22:49 and other lakes and bios of stagnant water, which, when raised a little by rain, flow into the Black River. And also many patches of an aquatic plant resembling small islands, some floating on the surface of the river, and others adhering to or resting on the shore and logs. On examining this plant,

Starting point is 06:23:10 it was found to have a hollow, jointed stem, with roots of the same form, extremely light, with very narrow willow-shaped leaves projecting from the joint, embracing, however, the whole of the tube, and extending to the next inferior joint or not. The extremity of each branch is terminated by a spike, of very slender, narrow, seminal leaves, from one to two inches in length, and one-tenth or less in brit, producing its seed on the underside of the leaf, in a double row almost in contact,

Starting point is 06:23:44 the grains alternately placed in perfect regularity, not being able to be able to be a single, able to find the flower, its class and order could not be determined, although it is not probably new. Towards the upper part of the Black River, the shores abound with mussels and periwinkles. The muscles were of the kind called peel muscles. The men dressed a quantity of them, considering them as agreeable food, but Mr. D found them tough and unpalatable. On arriving at the mouth of the Catahoula, they landed to procure information from where Frenchmen settled there. having a grant from the Spanish government, he has made a small settlement and keeps a ferryboat for carrying over men and horses traveling to and from Natchez, and the settlements on Red River and on the Washetal River. The country here is alluvial. In progress of time, the river shutting up ancient passages and elevating the banks over which their waters pass, no longer communicate with the same facility as formerly.

Starting point is 06:24:42 The consequence is that many larger tracts formerly subject to inundation are now entirely exempt from that inconvenience. Such is the situation of a most valuable tract upon which this Frenchman is settled. His house stands on an Indian mount, with several others in view. There is also a species of ramparts surrounding this place, and one very elevated mount, a view and description of which is postponed until the return. their present situation not allowing of the requisite delay.

Starting point is 06:25:15 The soil is equal to the best Mississippi bottoms. From this place, they proceeded to the mouth of the Washetal, in latitude 35, 37, 7, north, and encamped on the evening of the 23rd. This river derives its appellation from the name of an Indian tribe formerly resident on its banks, the remnant of which it is said, went into the Great Plains to the westward,

Starting point is 06:25:40 and either compose a small tribe themselves or are incorporated into another nation. The Black River loses its name at the junction of Washtaw, Catahua, and Tinsa, although are maps represented as taking place of the Washita. The Tinsa and Catahula are also named from Indian tribes now extinct. The latter is a creek, 12 leagues long, which is also the issue of a lake of the same name. eight leagues in length and about two leagues in breadth. It lies west from the mouth of the Cattahoula, and communicates with the Red River during the Great Annual Inundation.

Starting point is 06:26:21 At the west or northwest angle of the lake, a creek called Little River enters, which preserves a channel with running water at all seasons, meandering along the bed of the lake. But in other parts of his superfaces, during the dry season from July to November, and often later, is completely drained, and becomes covered with the most luxuriant herbage. The bed of the lake then becomes the residence of immense herds of deer, of turkeys, geese, cranes,

Starting point is 06:26:50 etc., which feed on the grass and grain. Bayutenza serves only to drain off a part of the waters of the inundation from the lowlands of the Mississippi, which here communicate with the Black River during the season of high water. Between the mouth of the Washatah and Velamont's Prairie on the right, the current of the river is gentle, and the banks favorable for towing. The lands on both sides have the appearance of being above the inundation. The timber generally such as highlands produce, being chiefly red, white, and black oaks,

Starting point is 06:27:25 interspersed with a variety of other trees. The magnolia grandiflora, that infallible sign of the land not being subject to inundation, is not, however, among them. Along the banks, a stratum of solid clay or marl is observable, apparently of ancient deposition. It lies in oblique positions, making an angle of nearly 30 degrees with the horizon, and generally inclined with the descent of the river. Although in a few cases, the position was contrary. Timber is seen projecting from under the solid bank, which seems indurated, and unquestionably very ancient, presenting a very different appearance from recently formed

Starting point is 06:28:07 soil. The river is about 80 yards wide. A league above the mouth of the Washatah, the Bayou Ha Ha ha comes in unexpectedly from the right, and is one of the many passages through which the waters of the great inundation penetrate and pervade all the low countries, annihilating, for a time, the currents of the lesser rivers in the neighborhood of the Mississippi. The vegetation is remarkably vigorous along the alluvial banks, which are covered with a thick shrubbery and innumerable plants in full blossom at this late season. Villamont's prairie is so named in consequence of its being included within a grant under the French government to a gentleman of that name.

Starting point is 06:28:50 Many other parts of the Washatah are named after their early proprietors. The French people projected and began extensive settlements on this river. But the General Massacre planned, and in part executed by the Indians against them, and the consequent destruction of the Natchez tribe by the French broke up all these undertakings, and they are not recommended under that government. Those prairies are plains or savannas without timber,

Starting point is 06:29:16 generally very fertile, and producing an exuberance of strong, thick, and coarse herbage. When a piece of ground has once got into this state in an Indian country, it can have no opportunity of reproducing timber, it being an invariable practice to set fire to dry grass in the fall or winter to attain the advantage of attacking game when the young tender grass begins to spring. This destroys the young timber, and the prairie annually gains upon the woodland. It is probable that the immense plains known to exist in America may owe their origin to this custom.

Starting point is 06:29:55 The plains of the Washatah lies chiefly on the east side. and being generally formed like the Mississippi land, sloping from the bank of the river to the Great River. They are more or less subject to the inundation in the rear, and in certain floods the water has advanced so far as to be ready to pour over the margin into the Washatah. This has now become a very rare thing, and it may be estimated that from a quarter of a mile to a mile in depth

Starting point is 06:30:23 will remain free from inundation during high floods. This is pretty much the case, with those lands nearly as high as the post of the Washatah, with the exception of certain ridges of primitive high land, the rest being evidently alluvial, although now not subject to being inundated by the Washatah River, in consequence of its great depth which the bed of the river has acquired by abrasion. On approaching towards the bayou, Louis, which empties its waters into the Washatah on the right,

Starting point is 06:30:56 a little below the rapids, there is a great deal of high land on both sides, which produces pine and other timber, not the growth of inundation lands. At the foot of the rapids, the navigation of the river is impeded by the beds of gravel formed in it. The first rapids lie in latitude 31, 48, 75, 5 north, a little above where there is a high ridge of primitive earth, studded with abundance of fragments of rock or stone, and which appear to have been thrown up to the surface in a very irregular manner. The stone is of a friable nature, some of it having the appearance of injurated clay,

Starting point is 06:31:39 the outside is brackish from exposure to the air. Within it is a grayish white. It is said that in the hill the strata are regular and that good grindstones may be here obtained. The last of the rapids, which is formed by a ledge of rocks crossing the bed of the entire river, was past the evening of the 27th. Above the water it became again like a mill pond,

Starting point is 06:32:01 and about 100 yards wide. The whole of these first shoals, or rapids, embraced an extent of about a mile and a half. The obstruction was not continued, but felt at short intervals in this distance. On the right, about four leagues from the rapids, they passed the bayou o'buff, a little above a rocky hill. Highlands and savannas are seen on the right. On sounding the river, they found three fathoms water on the bottom of mud and sand.

Starting point is 06:32:35 The banks of the river above the bayou seem to retain very little alluvial soil, the highland earth, which is a sandy loam of a light grey colour, with streaks of red sand and clay, as seen on the left bank. The soil not rich, bearing pines, interspersed with red oak, hickory, and dogwood. The river is from 60 to 100 yards wide here, but decreases as you advance. The next rapid is made by a ledge of rocks traversing the river, and narrowing the water channel to about 30 yards.

Starting point is 06:33:09 The width between the high banks cannot be less than 100 yards, and the banks from 30 to 40 feet high. In latitude 32, 10, 13, rapids and shoals again occurred, and the channel was very narrow. The sandbars, at every point, extended so far into the bend as to leave little more than the breadth of the boat of water sufficiently deep for her passage, although it spreads over the width of 70 or 80 yards upon the shoal. In the afternoon of the 31st, they passed a little plantation or settlement on the right,

Starting point is 06:33:45 and at night arrived at three others adjoining each other. these settlements are on a plain or prairie the soil of which we may be assured is alluvial from the regular slope which the land has from the river the bed of the river is now sufficiently deep to free them from the inconvenience of its inundation yet in the rear the waters of the mississippi approach and sometimes leave dry but a narrow strip along the bank of the river it is however now more common that the extent of the fields cultivated from one-fourth to one half mile, remains dry during the season of inundation. The soil here is very good, but not equal to the Mississippi bottoms. It may be esteemed second rate. At a small distance to the east are extensive cypress swamps, over which the waters of the inundation always stand to a depth of from 15 to 25 feet.

Starting point is 06:34:44 On the west side, after passing over the valley of the river, whose breadth varies from a quarter of a mile to two miles or more, the land assumes a considerable elevation, from 100 to 300 feet, and extends all along to the settlements of the Red River. These high lands are reported to be poor and badly watered, being chiefly what has termed a pine baron. There is here a ferry and road of communication

Starting point is 06:35:13 between the post of the Washatah and the Natchez, and a fork of this road passes to the settlement called the Rapids on Red River, distance from this place by computation 150 miles. On this part of the river lies a considerable tract of land granted by the Spanish government to the Marquis of Maison Rouge, a French emigrant who bequeathed it with all his property to Monsieur Buligny, the son of the Lake Colonel of the Louisiana Regiment, and by him sold to Daniel Clark.

Starting point is 06:35:46 It is said to extend from the post of the Washitae, with a breadth of the two leagues, including the river, down to the Bayou Calumet. The computed distance of which along the river is called 30 leagues, but supposed not more than 12 in a direct line. On the 6th of November, in the afternoon, the party arrived at the post of the Washton, in latitude 32, 37, 25 north, where they were politely received by Lieutenant Beaumar, who immediately offered the hospitality of his dwelling, with all the services in his power. From the ferry to this place, the navigation of the river is, at this season, interrupted by

Starting point is 06:36:26 many shoals and rapids. The general width is from 80 to 100 yards. The water is extremely agreeable to drink, and much clearer than that of the Ohio. In this respect, it is very unlike its two neighbors, the Arkansas and Red Rivers, whose waters are loaded with earthly matters of reddish-brown color, giving to them a chocolate-like appearance, and when those waters are low, are not portable, being brackish from the great number of salt springs which flow into them, and probably from the bids of rock salt, over which they may pass. The banks of the river presented very little appearance of alluvial land, but furnished an infinitude of beautiful landscapes. heightened by the vivid coloring they derive from the autumnal changes of the leaf.

Starting point is 06:37:15 Mr. Dunbar observes that the change of color in the leaves of vegetables, which is probably occasioned by the oxygen of the atmosphere acting on the vegetable matter, deprived of the protecting power of the vital principle, may serve as an excellent guide to the naturalist who directs his attention to a discovery of new objects for the use of the dyer. For he has always remarked that the leaves of the leaves of the leaves of the leaves, those trees, whose bark or wood are known to produce a dye, are changed in autumn to the same color which is extracted in the dyer's vat from the wood, more especially by the use of mordance

Starting point is 06:37:52 as alum et cetera, which yields oxygen. Thus, the foliage of the Hickoryan oak, which produce the quercetron bark, is changed before its fall into a beautiful yellow. Other oaks assume a fawn color, a liver color, or blood color, and are known to yield dyes. of the same complexion. In latitude 32-18 North, Dr. Hunter discovered along the riverside a substance nearly resembling mineral coal. Its appearance was that of the carbonated wood

Starting point is 06:38:24 described by Kerwin. It does not easily burn, but on being applied to a flame of a candle, it sensibly increased it and yielded a faint smell, resembling, in a slight degree, that of the gum lac of common sealing wax. soft friable stone is common and great quantities of gravel and sand upon the beaches in this part of the river a reddish clay appears in the strata much injurated and blackened by exposure to the light and air

Starting point is 06:38:56 the position called fort mero being the property of a private person who was formerly civil commandant here the lieutenant has taken post about four hundred yards lower has built himself some log houses and enclosed some log-houses and enclosed them with a slight stilcade. Upon viewing the country east of the river, it is evidently alluvial. The surface has a gentle slope from the river to the rear of the plantations. The land is of excellent quality, being a rich black loam to the depth of a foot, under which there is a friable loam of a brownish liver color. At the post on the Washataw, they procured a boat of less draft of water than the one in which they ascended the river thus far. At noon, on the 11th of November, they proceeded on the voyage, and in the evening em-camped at the plantation of Baron Bastrop. This small settlement on the Washtaw, and some of the creeks falling into it,

Starting point is 06:39:53 contains not more than 500 persons of all ages and sexes. It is reported, however, that there is a great quantity of excellent land upon these creeks, and that the settlement is capable of great extension, and may be expected, with an accession of population, to become very florist. There are three merchants settled at the post who supply at very exorbitant prices the inhabitants with their necessaries. These, with the garrison, two small planters and a tradesman or two constitute the present village. A great proportion of the inhabitants continue the old practice of hunting during the winter season, and they exchange their peltry for necessaries with the merchants at a low rate. During the summer these people content themselves with four

Starting point is 06:40:40 raising corn barely sufficient for bread during the year. In this manner, they always remain extremely poor. Some few who have conquered that habit of indolence, which is always the consequence of the Indian mode of life, and attend to agriculture live more comfortably, and taste a little of the sweets of civilized life. The lands along the river, above the post, are not very inviting, being a thin, poor soil, and covered with pine wood. To the right, the settlements on the Barthelmy and Shard are said to be rich land. On the morning of the 13th, they passed an island with a strong rapid and arrived at a little settlement below a chain of rocks,

Starting point is 06:41:22 which crosses the channel between the island and the mainland called Roque Raw. The Spaniard and his family settled here appear from their indolence to live miserably. The river requires here a more spacious appearance, being about 150 yards wide. In the afternoon, they passed the Bayou Barthelme on the right, above the last settlements, and about twelve computed leagues from the post. Here commences Baron Bastrop's great grant of land from the Spanish government, being a square of twelve leagues on each side,

Starting point is 06:41:56 a little exceeding a million of French acres. The banks of the river continue about 30 feet high, of which 18 feet from the water are a clayey loam of pale ash color, upon which the water has deposited 12 feet of light sandy soil, apparently fertile and of a dark brown color. This description of land is of small breadth, not exceeding half a mile on each side of the river, and may be called the valley of the Washatah,

Starting point is 06:42:25 beyond which there is highland covered with pine. The soil of the Bayou-Day Butte continues thin, with a growth of small timber. This creek is named from a number of number, of Indian mounts discovered by the hunters along its course. The margin of the river begins to be covered with such timber as usually grows on inundated land, particularly a species of white oak, vulgarly called the overcup oak. Its timber is remarkably hard, solid, ponderous, and durable,

Starting point is 06:42:58 and it produces a large acorn in great abundance, upon which the bear feeds, and which is very fattening to hogs. In latitude 32, 58 north, they passed a long and narrow island. The face of the country begins to change. The banks are low and steep. The river deep and more contracted from 30 to 50 yards in width. The soil in the neighborhood of the river is a very sandy loam, and covered with such vegetables as are found on the inundated lands of the Mississippi. The tract presents the appearance of a new soil, very different. from what they passed below.

Starting point is 06:43:37 This alluvial tract may be supposed the site of a great lake, drained by a natural channel from the abrasion of the waters. Since which period the annual inundations have deposited the superior soil. 18 or 20 feet

Starting point is 06:43:52 are wanting to render it habitable for man. It appears nevertheless well-stocked with beasts of the forests, several of which were seen. Quantities of waterfowl are beginning to make their appearance, which are not very numerous here until the cold rains and frosts compel them to leave a more northern climate. Fish is not so abundant as might be expected, owing, it is said, to the inundation of the Mississippi in the year 1799,

Starting point is 06:44:19 which dammed up the Washetah some distance above the post, and produced a stagnation and consequent corruption of the waters that destroyed old fish within its influence. End of Section 23 Section 24 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark This is a Lieberbox recording All Liebervox recordings are in the public domain For more information or to volunteer Please visit Librevox.org

Starting point is 06:44:50 The Journal of Lewis and Clark By Maryweather Lewis and William Clark Chapter 26, part two At noon on the 15th November, they passed the island of Mallet, and at 90 yards northeast from the upper point of the island, by a good observation, ascertained their latitude to be 32 degrees, 59 minutes, 27.5 seconds north, or two seconds and a half of latitude south of the dividing line between the territories of Orleans and Louisiana. The bed of the river along this alluvial country

Starting point is 06:45:30 is generally covered with water, and the navigation uninterrupted. But in the afternoon of this day, they passed three contiguous sandbars or beaches, called Les Trois Batur, and before evening the bayou de Grand Marais, or Great Marsh Creek on the right, and La Ciberi, Chateauro, a point of highland on the other side, which reaches within half a mile of the river. As they advanced toward the Marais de Saline, on the right, a stratum of dirty white clay, under the alluvial tract, showed them to be leaving the sunken and approaching the highland country. The salt-lick marsh does not derive its name from any brackishness in the water of the lake or marsh, but from its contiguity to some of the licks, sometimes called saline and sometimes called glaze,

Starting point is 06:46:25 generally found in a clay, compact enough for potter's wear. The bayou de la tulip forms a communication between the lake and the river. Opposite to this place, there is a point of highland forming a promontory, advancing within a mile of the river, and to which boats resort when the low grounds are underwater. A short league above is the mouth of the Grand Bayou de la Saline, Salt Lick Creek. this creek is of a considerable length and navigable for small boats the hunters ascend it to one hundred of their leagues in pursuit of game and all agree that none of the springs which feed this creek are salt it has obtained its name from the many buffalo salt licks which have been discovered in its vicinity although most of these licks by digging furnish water which holds marine salt in solution there exists no reason for believing that many of them would produce niter notwithstanding the slow and alluvial tract appears in all respects well adapted to the growth of the long moss

Starting point is 06:47:37 to lansia none was observed since entering in the latitude thirty two degrees fifty two minutes and as the pilot informed them none would be seen in their progress up the river it is probable that the latitude of thirty two degrees is about the northern limit of of vegetation. The long-leaf pine, frequently the growth of rich and even inundated land, was here observed in great abundance. The short-leafed or pitch pine, on the contrary, is always found upon arid lands, and generally in sandy and lofty situations. This is the season when the poor settlers on the Washita turn out to make their annual hunt. The deer is now fat, the skins in perfection. The bear is now also in his best state, with regard to the quality of his fur, and the quantity of fat or oil he yields, as he has been feasting luxuriously on the autumnal fruits of the forest. It is here well known that he does not confine himself,

Starting point is 06:48:41 as some writers have supposed, to vegetable food. He is particularly fond of hogs' flesh, sheep and calves are frequently his prey, and no animal escapes him which comes within his power and which he is able to conquer. He often destroys the fawn when chance throws it in his way. He cannot, however, discover it by smelling, notwithstanding the excellence of his scent, for nature has, as if for its protection, denied the fawn the property of leaving any effluvium upon its track, a property so powerful in the old deer. Footnote. It may not be generally known to naturalists that between the hoof of the deer, etc., there is found a sack, with its mouth inclining upwards containing more or less musk,

Starting point is 06:49:32 and which by escaping over the opening, in proportion to the secretion, causes the foot to leave a scent on the ground wherever it passes. During the rutting season, this musk is so abundant, particularly in old males, as to be smelled by the hunters at a considerable distance. End footnote. The bear, unlike most other priests of prey, does not kill the animal he has seized upon before he eats it, but, regardless of its struggles, cries and lamentations, fastens upon, and if the expression is allowable, devours it alive.

Starting point is 06:50:09 The hunters count much on their profits from the oil drawn from the bear's fat, which at New Orleans is always a ready sale, and much esteemed for its wholesomeness in cooking. being preferred to butter or hogs lard. It is found to keep longer than any other animal oil without becoming rancid, and boiling it from time to time upon sweet bay leaves restores its sweetness or facilitates its conservation. In the afternoon, on the 17th,

Starting point is 06:50:41 they passed to some sand beaches and over a few rapids. They had cane breaks on both sides of the river. The canes were small, but demonstrate that the water does not surmount the bank more than a few feet the river begins to widen as they advance the banks of the river show the high land soil with a stratum of three or four feet of alluvium deposited by the river upon it this super stratum is grayish and very sandy with a small admixture of loam indicative of the poverty of the mountains and uplands where the river rises near this they passed through a a new and very narrow channel in which all the water of the river passes, except in a time of freshes, when the interval forms an island. A little above this pass is a small clearing called Cache la Tulip, Tulips hiding place.

Starting point is 06:51:37 This is the name of a French hunter who here concealed his property. It continues the practice of both the white and red hunters to leave their skins, etc., often suspended to poles or laid over a pole placed upon two forked posts in sight of the river until the return from hunting. These deposits are considered as sacred, and few examples exist of there being plundered. After passing the entrance of a bay, which within must form a great lake during inundation, great numbers of the long-leaf pine were observed, and increased size of the canes along the river's bank, denoted a better and more elevated soil. On the left was a high hill, 300 feet, covered with lofty pine trees. The banks of the river present more the appearance of upland soil, the under stratum being a pale, yellowish clay,

Starting point is 06:52:34 and the alluvial soil of a dirty white surmounted by a thin covering of brown vegetable earth. The trees improve an appearance, growing to a considerable size and height, though yet in fear, to those on the alluvial banks of the Mississippi. After passing the Bayou Dashi on the left, points of highland not subject to be overflowed frequently touch the river, and the valley is said to be more than a league in breadth on both sides. On the left are pine hills, called Coad de Champignol,

Starting point is 06:53:08 the river is not more than 50 or 60 yards wide. On the morning of the 20th, they passed a number of sand beaches, and some rapids, but found good depth of water between them. A creek called Chamacouvaire, which forms a deep ravine in the highlands, here enters the river. Almost immediately above this is a rapid where the water in the river is confined to a channel of about 40 yards in width. Above it, they had to quit the main channel on account of the shallowness and rapidity of the water,

Starting point is 06:53:43 and pass along a narrow channel of only sixty feet wide. Without a guide, a stranger might take this passage for a creek. Notwithstanding the lateness of the season and the northern latitude they were in, they this day met with an alligator. The banks of the river are covered with cane or thick underbrush, frequently so interwoven with thorns and briars as to be impenetrable. birch maple holly and two kinds of wood to which names have not yet been given except waterside wood are here to be met with as also persimmons and small black grapes the margin of the river is fringed with a variety of plants and vines among which are several species of convolus on the left they pass to hill and cliff one hundred feet perpendicular crowned with pine

Starting point is 06:54:39 and called Cote du Finns Hill, from which a chain of high land continues some distance. The cliff presents the appearance of an ash-colored clay. A little farther to the right is the Bayou Dacia, Lotus Creek. The river varies here from 80 to 100 yards in width, presenting frequent indications of iron along its banks and some thin strata of iron ore. of iron ore. The ore is from half an inch to three inches in thickness. On the morning of the 22nd of November, they arrived at the road of the Chattadoquite Indian Nation, leading to the Arkansas Nation. A little beyond this is the Ecor-A-Fabri's cliffs from 80 to 100

Starting point is 06:55:31 feet high, a little distance above a smaller cliff called Le Petit d'Acourt a Fabri, the little cliff of Fabri. These cliffs appear chiefly to be composed of ash-colored sand, with a stratum of clay at the base, such as runs all along under the banks of this river. Above these cliffs are several rapids. The current is swifter and denotes their ascent into a higher country. The water becomes clear and equal to any in its very agreeable taste and as drinking water. In the river are immense beds of gravel and sand, over which the river passes with great velocity

Starting point is 06:56:13 in the season of its floods, carrying with it vast quantities of driftwood, which it piles up in many places, to the height of 20 feet above the present surface, pointing out the difficulty and danger in certain times of the flood. Accidents, however, are rare with the canoes of the country. as the party ascended they found the banks of the river less elevated being only from nine to twelve feet and are probably surmounted some feet by the freshes

Starting point is 06:56:45 the river becomes more obstructed by rapids and sand and gravel beaches among which are found fragments of stone of all forms and a variety of colors some highly polished and rounded by friction the banks of the river in the upper country suffer greatly by abrasion one side and sometimes both being broken down by every flood. At a place called Ogue Darillon, Arlen's troughs, is laminated iron ore and a stratum of black sand, very tenacious, shining with minute crystals. The breadth of the river is here about 80 yards, in some places, however, it is enlarged by islands, and others contracted to 80 or 100 feet.

Starting point is 06:57:31 rocks of a grayish color and rather friable are here found in many places on the river on the banks grow willows of a different form from those found below and on the margin of the Mississippi the last are very brittle these on the contrary extremely pliant resembling the osier of which they are probably as species at noon on the 24th they arrived at the confluence of the lesser Missouri with the washita the former is a considerable branch, perhaps the fourth of the Washita, and comes in from the left hand. The hunters often ascend the Little Missouri, but are not inclined to penetrate far up, because it reaches near the Great Plains or prairies upon the Red River, visited by the lesser Osage tribes of Indians, settled on Arkansas. These last frequently carry war, into the Cadadoqui tribe, settled on the Red River, about west-southwest from this place, and indeed they are reported not to spare any nation or people. They are prevented from visiting the headwaters of the Washita

Starting point is 06:58:44 by the steep hills in which they rise. These mountains are so difficult to travel over that the savages not having an object sufficiently desirable never attempt to penetrate this river, and it is supposed to be unknown to this nation. The Caddoqui, or Cadoo as the French pronounced the word, may be considered as Spanish Indians. They boast, and it is said with truth, that they never have imbrewed their hands in the blood of a white man. It is said that the stream of the Little Missouri,

Starting point is 06:59:19 some distance from its mouth, flows over a bright splendid bed of mineral of a yellowish-white color, most probably Marshall Pyrites, that 30 years ago, several of the inhabitant hunters worked upon this mine and sent a quantity of the oars to the government at New Orleans, and they were prohibited from working any more. There is a great sameness in the appearance of the river banks. The islands are skirted with Osier, and immediately within on the bank grows a range of birch trees and some willows. the more elevated banks are covered with cane, among which grows the oak, maple, elm, sycamore, ash, hickory, dogwood, holly, ironwood, etc. From the pilot, they learned that there is a body of excellent land on the Little Missouri, particularly on the creek called Bayou Atherneur, which falls into it.

Starting point is 07:00:19 This land extends to Red River and is connected with the great prairies which form the hunting grounds of the Cadu Nation, consisting of about 200 warriors. They are warlike, but frequently unable to defend themselves against the tribe of Osage, settled on the Arkansas River, who passing round the mountains at the head of the Washita and along the prairies, which separates them from the main chain on the west, where the waters of the Red and Arkansas rivers have their rise, pass into the Khadu County, and rob and plunder them. The water in the River Roshita rising, the party are enabled to pass the numerous rapids and shoals which they meet with in the upper country,

Starting point is 07:01:05 some of which are difficult of ascent. The general height of the main banks of the river is from six to twelve feet above the level of the water. The land is better in quality, the canes, etc., showing a more luxuriant vegetation. It is subject to inundation and shows a brown soil mixed with sand. Near Kashmason, Mason's hiding place, on the right, they stopped to examine a supposed coal mine. Dr. Hunter and the pilot set out for this purpose, and at about a mile and a half northwest

Starting point is 07:01:42 from the boat in the bed of a creek, they found a substance similar to what they found a substance similar to what they had before met with under that name, though more advanced towards a state of perfect coal. At the bottom of the creek, in a place then dry, was found detached pieces of from 50 to 100 pounds weight, adjoining to which lay wood changed into the same substance. A stratum of this coal, six inches thick, lay on both sides of this little creek,

Starting point is 07:02:13 over another of yellow clay, and covered by one foot of gravel, on the gravel are eight inches of loam, which bear a few inches of vegetable mold. This stratum of coal is about three feet higher than the water in the creek, and appears manifestly to have been at some period the surface of the ground. The gravel and loam have been deposited there since by the waters. Some pieces of this coal were very black and solid of the homogeneous appearance, much resembling pit coal but of less specific gravity it does not appear to be sufficiently impregnated with by two men but may be considered as vegetable matter in the progress of transmutation to coal below the bayou de lo frouad which runs into waschita from the right the river is one hundred and seventy yards flowing through tolerable good land they passed a beautiful forest of pines and on the twentieth fell in with an old dutch hunter and his party consisting in all of five persons this man had resided forty years on the washita and before that period had been up the arkansas river the

Starting point is 07:03:29 White River and the St. Francis. The two last, he informs, are of difficult navigation, similar to the Washita, but the Arkansas River is of great magnitude, having a large and broad channel, and when the water is low, has great sandbanks, like those in the Mississippi. So far as he has been up it, the navigation is safe and commodious, without impediments from rocks, shoals, or rapids. Its bed being formed. of mud and sand. The soil on it is of the first-rate quality. The country is easy of access being lofty open forests, unembarrassed by canes or undergrowth. The water is disagreeable to drink, being of a red color and brackish when the river is low. A multitude of creeks

Starting point is 07:04:20 which flow into the Arkansas furnish sweet water, which the voyager is obliged to carry with him for the supply of his immediate wants. this man confirms the accounts of silver being abundant up that river he has not been so high as to see it himself but says he received a silver pin from a hunter who assured him that he himself collected the virgin silver from the rock out of which he made the empinglet by hammering it out The tribe of the Osage live higher up than this position, but the hunters rarely go so high, being afraid of these savages, who are at war with all the world and destroy all strangers they meet with.

Starting point is 07:05:03 It is reported that the Arkansas Nation, with a part of the Choctaws, Chickasas, Shannese, etc., have formed a league and are actually gone or going 800 strong against these depreditors, with a view to destroy or drive them entirely off, and possess themselves of their fine prairies, which are most abundant hunting grounds, being plentifully stocked with buffalo, elk, deer, bear,

Starting point is 07:05:33 and every other beast of the chase, common to those latitudes of America. This hunter, having given information of a small spring in their vicinity, from which he frequently supplied himself by evaporating the water, Dr. Hunter, with a party, accompanied him on the morning of the 29th November, to the place. They found a saline about a mile and a half north of the camp from whence they set out, and near a creek which enters the washita a little above. It is situated in the bottom of the bed of a dry golly.

Starting point is 07:06:10 The surrounding land is rich and well timbered, but subject to inundation, except an Indian mount on the creek side having a base of 80 or in hundred feet diameter and 20 feet high. After digging about three feet through blue clay, they came to a quicksand from which the water flowed in abundance. Its taste was salt and bitter, resembling that of water in the ocean. In a second hole, it required them to dig six feet before they reached the quicksand, in doing which they threw up several broken pieces of Indian pottery. The specific gravity compared with the river was from the first pit, or that three feet deep, 102720, from the second pit, or that six feet deep, 102104,

Starting point is 07:07:04 yielding a saline mass from the evaporation of ten quartz, which, when dry, weighed eight ounces. This brine is, therefore, about the same strength as that of the ocean on our coast, and twice the strength of the famous licks in Kentucky called Bulletslicks and Manslicks, from which so much salt is made. The Fourshtikadeau-Kadogu-Fork, which they passed in the morning of the 30th, is about 100 yards wide at its entrance into the Washita, from the left, immediately beyond which on the same side the land is high, probably elevated 300 feet above the water.

Starting point is 07:07:46 The shoals and rapids here impede their progress. At noon, they deduced their latitude by observation to be 30 degrees 11 minutes 37 seconds north, receiving information of another salt lick or saline. Dr. Hunter landed with a party to view it. The pit was found in a low flat, place subject to be overflowed from the river. It was wet and muddy, the earth on the surface yellow, but on digging through about four feet of blue clay, the salt water oozed from a quicksand. Ten quarts of this water produced by evaporation six ounces of saline mass, which from taste was principally marine salt. To the taste, however, it showed an admixture of soda and muriated magnesium, but the marine salt greatly preponderated. The specific gravity was about 1.076,

Starting point is 07:08:44 probably weakened from the rain which had fallen the day before. The ascent of the river becomes troublesome from the rapids and currents, particularly at the Ildubayu de Oche, rocky creek island, where it required great exertions and was attended with some hazard to pass them. This island is three-fourths of a mile in length. The river presents a series of shoals, rapids, and small cataracts, and they passed several points of high land, full of rocks and stones, much harder and more solid than they had yet met with. The rocks were all salacious, and their fissures penetrated by spari matter. Indications of iron were frequent, and fragments of poor ore were common, but rich ore of aviice.

Starting point is 07:09:32 that or any other metal was found. Some of the hills appear well adapted to the cultivation of the vine, the soil being a sandy loam, with a considerable portion of gravel and a superficial covering of good vegetable black earth. The natural productions are several varieties of oak, pine, dogwood, holly, etc., with a smattering undergrowth of rortleberry, hawthorn, china brier, and a variety of small vines. Above the Isle de Malon, the country wears another prospect. High lands and rocks frequently approach the river. The rocks and grain resemble freestone

Starting point is 07:10:14 and are hard enough to be used as hand-mill stone to which purpose they are frequently applied. The quality of the lands improve, the stratum of vegetable earth being from six to twelve inches of a dark brown color with an admixture of loam and sand. Below Deer Island they passed a stratum of free stone, 50 feet thick, under which is a quarry of imperfect slate in perpendicular layers. About a league from the river and a little above the slate quarry is a considerable plain called Prairie du Champignol, often frequented by

Starting point is 07:10:53 buffaloes. Some salt lakes are found near it, and in many situations on both sides of this river, said to be salines, which may hereafter be rendered very productive, and from which the future settlements may be abundantly supplied. About four miles below the shoots, falls, they, from a good observation, found the latitude, 34 degrees, 21 minutes, 25.5 seconds. The land on either hand continues to improve in quality, with a sufficient stratum of dark earth of brownish color. Hills frequently rise out of the level country, full of rocks and stones, hard and flinty, and often resembling turkey oil stones. Of this kind was a promontory which came in from the right hand a little below the shoots.

Starting point is 07:11:46 At a distance it presented the appearance of ruined buildings and fortifications, and several insulated masses of rock conveyed the idea of redoubts and outworks. This effect was heightened by the rising of a flock of swans which had taken their station in the water at the foot of these walls. As the voyagers approached, the birds floated about majestically on the glassy surface of the water, and in tremulous accents seemed to consult upon means of safety. The whole was a sublime picture. In the afternoon of the 3rd of December they reached the chutes and found the falls to be occasioned by a chain of rocks of the same hard substance seen below,

Starting point is 07:12:31 extending in the direction of northeast and southwest, quiet across the river. The water passes through a number of branches borne by the impetuosity of the torrent where it forms so many cascades. The chain of rock or hill on the left appears to have been cut down to its present level by the abrasion of the waters. By great exertion enlightening the boat, they passed the chutes that evening

Starting point is 07:12:57 and encamped just above the cataracts and within the hearing of their incessant roar. Immediately above the shoots, the current of the water is slow to another ledge of hard-free stone. The reach between is spacious and not less than two yards wide, and terminated by a hill 300 feet high,

Starting point is 07:13:19 covered with beautiful pines. This is a fine situation for building. In latitude 34 degrees, 25 minutes, 48 seconds, they passed a very dangerous rapid from the number of rocks which obstruct the passage of the water and break it into foam. On the right of the rapid is a high rocky hill

Starting point is 07:13:41 covered with very handsome pincey woods. The strata of the rock has an inclination of 30 to the horizon in the direction. of the river descending. This hill may be 300 or 350 feet high. A border or list of green cane skirts the margin of the river, beyond which generally rises a high and sometimes a barren hill. Near another rapid they passed a hill on the left, containing a large body of blue slate. A small distance above the Bayou de Saline, they had to pass a rapid of 150 yards in length, and four and a half feet tall, which from its velocity, the French have denominated La Cascade.

Starting point is 07:14:26 Below the cascade, there are rocky hills on both sides composed a very hard-free stone. The stone in the bed of the river, and which has been rolled from the upper country, was of the hardest flint, of a quality resembling the turkey oil stone. Fursch-Oteigre, Tigers Creek, which comes in from the right a little above the Cascar, is said to have many extensive tracks of rich level land upon it. The rocky hills here frequently approach the washita on both sides. Rich bottoms are nevertheless frequent, and the upland is sometimes of modern elevation and tolerably level.

Starting point is 07:15:08 The stones and rocks here met with have their fissures filled by spari and crystalline matter. Wild turkey become more abundant and less difficult to approach them below, and the howl of the woves is heard during the night. End of Section 24. Section 25 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Librevox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org.

Starting point is 07:15:44 Recording by Charles Bice. The Journal of Lewis and Clark. by Maryweather Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 21, Part 3 To the Fouch O'Kalpha, Cocker's Creek, where the voyage terminates, they found level and good land on the right and high hills on the left hand. After passing over a very precipitous rapid,

Starting point is 07:16:11 seemingly divided into four steps or falls, one of which was at least 15 inches in perpendicular height, and which together could not be less than five and a half feet, they arrived at El's camp, a small distance below the Forche Ocalfa, where they stopped on the 6th of December, as the pilot considered it the most convenient landing from whence to carry their necessary baggage to the hot springs, the distance being about three leagues. There is a creek about two leagues higher called Bayou des Sourche-Schau, Hot Springs. creek, upon the banks of which the hot springs are situated about two leagues from its mouth.

Starting point is 07:16:55 The banks of it are hilly, and the road less eligible than from Ells' camp. On ascending the hill to encamp, they found the land very level and good, some plants in flower, and a great many evergreen vines, the forest oak, with an admixture of other woods. The latitude of this place is 34, 27, 31, 5. The ground on which they encamped was about 50 feet above the water in the river, and supposed to be 30 feet higher than the inundations. Hills of considerable height and clothed with pine were in view. But the land around and extending beyond their view lies handsomely for cultivation.

Starting point is 07:17:42 The super stratum is of blackish-brown color, upon a yellow basis. The whole intermixed with gravel and blue schistis, frequently so far decomposed as to have a strong aluminous taste. From their camp on the Washta to the Hot Springs, a distance of about nine miles, the first six miles of the road is in a westerly direction, without many curiosities, and the remainder northwardly, which courses are necessary to avoid some very steep hills. In this distance, they found three principal salt licks, and some inferior ones, which are all frequented by buffalo, deer, etc. The soil around them is a white tenacious clay, probably fit for potters' wear,

Starting point is 07:18:33 hence the name Glez, which the French hunters have bestowed upon most of the licks, frequented by the beasts of the forest, many of which exhibit no saline impregnation. The first two miles from the river camp is overland of the second-rate quality. The timber, chiefly oak, intermixed with other trees common to the climate, and a few scattering pines. Further on, the lands on either hand rise into gently swelling hills, covered with handsome pine woods. The road passes along a valley, frequently wet by the numerous rills and springs of excellent water, which issues from the foot of the hills. Near the hot springs, the hills become more elevated, steeper of ascent and rocky.

Starting point is 07:19:22 They are here called mountains, although none of them in view exceed four or 500 feet in altitude. It is said that mountains of more than five times the elevation of these hills are to be seen in the northwest towards the source of the washtaw. One of them is called the glass, crystal, or shining mountain from the vast number of hexagonal prisms of very transparent and colorless crystal, which are found on its surface. They are generally surmounted by pyramids at one end, rarely on both. These crystals do not produce a double refraction of the rays of light. Many searches have been made over these mountains for the precious metals, but it is believed,

Starting point is 07:20:08 without success. At the hot springs, they found an open log cabin and a few huts of split boards, all calculated for summer encampment, and which had been erected by persons resorting to the springs for the recovery of their health. They slightly repaired these huts or cabins for their accommodation during the time of their detention at the springs, for the purpose of examining them and the surrounding country, and making such astronomical observations as were necessary for ascertaining their geographical position. It is understood that the hot springs are included within a grant of some hundred acres, granted by the late Spanish commandant of the Wachdao, to some of his friends, but it is not

Starting point is 07:20:54 believed that a regular patent was ever issued for the place, and it cannot be asserted that residents, with improvement here, form a plea to claim the place. land upon. On their arrival, they immediately tasted the waters of the hot springs, that is, after a few minutes cooling, for it was impossible to approach it with the lips when first taken up, without scalding. The taste does not differ from that of good water rendered hot by culinary fire. On the tenth day, they visited all the hot springs. They issue on the east side of the valley, where the huts are, except one spring, which rises on the on the west bank of the creek from the sides and foot of a hill.

Starting point is 07:21:39 From the small quantity of calcareous matter yet deposited, the western spring does not appear to be of long standing. A natural conduit probably passes under the bed of the creek and supplies it. There are four principal springs rising immediately on the east bank of the creek, one of which may be rather said to spring out of the gravel bed of the run. A fifth, a smaller one than above mentioned, as rising on the west side of the creek, and a sixth of the same magnitude, the most northerly, and rising near the bank of the creek.

Starting point is 07:22:14 These are all the sources that merit the name of springs, near the huts. But there is a considerable one below, and all along at intervals the warm water oozes out, or drops from the bank into the creek, as appears from the condensed vapor, floating along the margin of the creek, where the drippings occur.

Starting point is 07:22:35 The hill from which the hot springs issue is of a conical form, terminating at the top with a few loose fragments of rock, covering a flat space 25 feet in diameter. Although the figure of the hill is conical, it is not entirely insulated, but connected with the neighboring hills by a very narrow ridge. The primitive rock of this hill, above the base, is principally salacious. from part of it being the hardest flint, others a free stone extremely compact and solid, and of various colors. The base of the hill, and for a considerable extent, is composed of a blackish blue schistis, which divides into perpendicular laminy like blue slate. The water of the hot springs

Starting point is 07:23:24 is, therefore, delivered from the salacious rock, generally invisible at the surface. From the mass of calcareous matter with which it is encrusted, or rather buried, and which is perpetually precipitating from the water of the springs. A small portion of iron in the form of red calcs is also deposited, the color of which is frequently distinguishable in the lime. In ascending the hill, several patches of rich black earth are found, which appeared to be formed by the decomposition of the calcareous matter. In other situations, the superficial earth is penetrated, or encrusted by limestone, with fine laminy or minute fragments of iron ore. The water of the hot springs must formally have issued at a great elevation in the hill and run over the surface,

Starting point is 07:24:19 having formed a mass of calcareous rock 100 feet perpendicular by its deposition. In this high situation they form a spring whose temperature was 140 of Fahrenheit's thermometer. After passing the Calcareous region, they found the primitive hill covered by a forest of not very large trees, consisting chiefly of oak, pine, cedar, holly, hawthorn, and others common to the climate. With a great variety of vines, some said to produce black and yellow grapes, both excellent in their kinds. The soil is rocky, interspersed with gravel, sand, and fine vegetable mold. On reaching the height of 200 feet perpendicular, a considerable change in the soil was observable. It was stony and gravelly, with a superficial coat of black earth, but immediately under it

Starting point is 07:25:14 lies a stratum of fat, tenacious, soapy red clay, inclining to the color of bright Spanish snuff. with scarcely any admixture of sand, no saline, but rather a soft agreeable taste. The timber diminishes, and the rocks increase in size to the summit. The whole height is estimated at 300 feet above the level of the valley. On examining the four principal springs, or those which yield the greatest quantity of water, or of the highest temperature, number one was found to raise the mercury to one, 150, number 2 to 154, number 3 to 136, and number 4 to 132 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The last is on the west side of the creek.

Starting point is 07:26:08 Number three is a small basin in which there is a considerable quantity of green matter, having much appearance of a vegetable body, but detached from the bottom, yet connected with it by something like a stem, which rests in calcareous matter. The body of one of these pseudo-plants was from four to five inches in diameter. The bottom, a smooth film of some tenacity, and the upper surface divided into ascending fibers of half or three-fourths of an inch long, resembling the gills of a fish in transverse rows. A little further on was another small muddy basin

Starting point is 07:26:50 in which the water was warm to the finger. In it was a vermis, about half an inch long, moving with a serpentine or vermicular motion. It was invariably observed that the green matter forming on the stones and leaves covered a stratum of calcareous earth, sometimes a little hard or brittle, at others soft and imperfect. From the bottom of one of the springs, a frequent ebullition of gas was observed, which not having the means of collecting, they could not ascertain its nature. It was not inflammable, and there is little doubt of its being carbonic acid, from the quantity of lime, and the iron held in solution by the water. They made the following rough estimate of the quantity of water delivered by the springs. There are four principal springs,

Starting point is 07:27:42 two of inferior note, one rising out of the gravel, and a number of drivel. And a number of drivet drippings and draining all issuing from the margin or from under the rocks which overhangs the creek. Of the four first mentioned, three deliver nearly equal quantities, but number one, the most considerable, delivers about five times as much as one of the other three. The two of inferior note may, together, be equal to one, and all the droppings and small springs are probably underrated at double the quantity of one of the three. That is, altogether, they will deliver a quantity equal to eleven times the water issuing from the one most commodiously situated for measurement.

Starting point is 07:28:31 This spring filled a vessel of 11 quarts in 11 seconds. Hence, the whole quantity of hot water delivered from the springs at the base of the hill is 165 gallons in a minute, or 3,771, hogsids in 24 hours, which is equal to a handsome brook and might work an overshot mill. In cool weather, condensed vapor is seen rising out of the gravel bed of the creek from springs which cannot be taken into account. During the summer and fall, the creek receives little or no water, but what is supplied by the hot springs, at that season itself is a hot bath, too hot indeed near the springs, so that a person may choose the temperature most agreeable to himself by selecting a natural basin near to or farther from the principal springs. At three or four

Starting point is 07:29:25 miles below the springs, the water is tepid and unpleasant to drink. From the western mountain, estimated to be of equal height, with that from which the hot springs flow, there are several fine prospects. The valley of the Wastah, comprehended between the hills on either side, seemed a perfect flat and about 12 miles wide. On all hands were seen the hills or mountains, as they are here called, rising behind each other. In the direction of north, the most distant were estimated to be 50 miles off, and are supposed to be those of the Arkansas River, or the rugged mountains which divide the waters of the Arkansas from those of the Washtaw, and prevent the Osage Indians from visiting the latter, of whom they are supposed ignorant. Otherwise, their excursions here would prevent this place

Starting point is 07:30:18 from being visited by white persons or other Indians. In a southwest direction, at about 40 miles distant, is seen a perfectly level ridge, supposed to be the high prairies of the Red River. Notwithstanding the severity of the weather, a considerable number and some variety of plants were in flour, and others retained their verdure. Indeed, the ridge was more temperate than the valley below. There it was cold, damp, and penetrating, here dry, and the atmosphere mild. Of the plants growing here was a species of cabbage. The plants grow with expanded leaves, spreading on the ground,

Starting point is 07:31:02 of a deep green with a shade of purple. The taste of the cabbage was plainly predominant, with an agreeable warmth inclining to that of the radish. Several tap roots penetrated into the soil of a white color, having the taste of horse radish, but much milder. A quantity of them, taken to the camp and dressed, proved palatable and mild. It is not probable that the cabbage

Starting point is 07:31:30 has been scattered on this ridge, The hunters ascending this river have always had different objects. Until further elucidation, this cabbage must be considered as indigenous to this sequestered quarter, and may be denominated the cabbage radish of the washto. They found a plant, then green, called by the French Racine Rouge, red root, which is said to be a specific in female obstructions. It has also been used, combined with the China root, to dye red, the last probably acting as a mordant.

Starting point is 07:32:07 The top of this ridge is covered with rocks of a flinty kind, and so very hard as to be improper for gun flints, for when applied to that use, it soon digs cavities in the hammer of the lock. This hard stone is generally white, but frequently clouded with red, brown, black, and other colors. Here and there, fragments of iron stone were made. with, and where a tree had been overturned, its roots brought to view fragments of schistus, which were suffering decomposition from exposure to the atmosphere. On digging where the slope of the

Starting point is 07:32:45 hill was precipitous, they found the second stratum to be a reddish clay, resembling that found on the conical hill, east side of the camp. At two-thirds down the hill, the rock was a hard free stone, intermixed with fragments of flint which had probably rolled from above. Still lower was found a blue schistis in a state tending to decomposition where exposed to the atmosphere, but hard and resembling coarse slate in the interior. Many stones had the appearance of turkey oil stones. At the foot of the hill it expands into good farming lands. Dr. Hunter, upon examining the waters of the hot springs,

Starting point is 07:33:28 obtained the following results. It differed nothing from the hot water in smell or taste, but caused a slight eruption shortly after drinking it. Its specific gravity is equal to rain or distilled water. It gave to litmus paper a slight degree of redness, evincing the presence of the carbonic or fixed air, sulfuric, and threw down a few detached particles. Oxalad of ammoniaic caused a deposition and white,

Starting point is 07:33:58 cloud, showing the presence of a small portion of lime. Preciative potash produced a slight and scarcely perceptible tinge of blue, designating the presence of a small quantity of iron. Sixteen pounds of water evaporated to dryness left ten grains of gray powder, which proved to be lime. The myrtle wax tree grows in the vicinity of the springs. At the season in which the voyagers were there, the wax was no longer green. but had changed its color to a grayish white from its long exposure to the weather.

Starting point is 07:34:34 The berry, when examined by a microscope, is less than the smallest garden pea, approaching to an oval in form. The nucleus, or real seed, is the size of a radish and is covered with a number of kidney-shaped glands of a brown color and sweet taste. These glands secrete the wax which completely envelops them, and, at this season, gives to the whole the appearance of an imperfectly white berry. This is a valuable plant and merits attention. Its favorite portion is a dry soil, rather poor and looking down upon the water.

Starting point is 07:35:14 It is well adapted to ornament the margins of canals, lakes, or rivulets. The Casina Yapon is equally beautiful and proper for the same purpose. It grows here along the banks of this stony creek, intermingled with the myrtle, and bears a beautiful little red berry, very much resembling the red current. The rock through which the hot springs either pass or trickle over appears undermined by the waters of the creek. The hot water is continually depositing calcareous and perhaps some salacious matter, forming new rocks, always augmenting and projecting their promontories over the running water of the creek, which prevents its formation below the surface.

Starting point is 07:35:55 Whenever this calcareous crust is seen spreading over the bank and margin of the creek, there, most certainly the hot water will be found either running over the surface or through some channel, perhaps below the new rock or dripping from the edges of the overhanging precipice. The progress of nature in the formation of this new rock is curious and worthy the attention of a mineralogist. the hot water issues from the fountain, it frequently spreads over the superficious of some extent. So far as it reaches on either hand, there is a deposition of, or growth, of green matter. Several laminy of this green matter will be found lying over each other, and immediately under, and in contact with the interior laminy, which is not thicker than paper,

Starting point is 07:36:46 is found a whitish substance resembling a coagulum, when viewed. With a microscope, this last is also found to consist of several, sometimes a good number of laminy, of which that next the green, is the finest and thinnest, being the last formed, those below, increasing in thickness and tenacity, until the last terminates in a soft, earthy matter, which reposes on the more solid rock. laminy of the coagulum is penetrated in all its parts by calcareous grains, extremely minute and divided in the more recent web, but much larger and occupying the whole of the inferior lamony.

Starting point is 07:37:32 The under stratum is continually consolidating and adding bulk and height to the rock. When this acquires such an elevation as to stop the passage of water, it finds another course over the rock, hill or marshes. of the creek, forming in turn accumulations of matter over the whole of the adjacent space. When the water has found itself a new channel, the green matter, which sometimes acquires a thickness of half an inch, is speedily converted into a rich vegetable earth and becomes the food of plants. The surface of the calcareous rock also decomposes and forms the richest black mold intimately mixed with a considerable portion of soil. of soil. Plants and trees vegetate luxuriantly upon it. On examining a piece of ground upon

Starting point is 07:38:23 which the snow dissolved as it fell, and which was covered with herbage, they found in some places a calcareous crust on the surface, but in general a depth of from five inches to a foot of the richest black mold. The surface was sensibly warm to the touch. In the air, the mercury in the thermometer stood at 44. When placed four inches under the surface and covered with earth, it rose rapidly to 68, and upon the calcareous rock, eight inches beneath the surface, it rose to 80. This result was uniform over the whole surface, which was about a quarter of an acre. On searching, they found a spring about 15 inches under the surface, in the water of which the thermometer showed a temperature of 130.

Starting point is 07:39:14 Beneath the black mold was found a brown mixture of lime and silax, very loose and divisible, apparently in a state of decomposition, and progressing towards the formation of a black mold. Under this brownish mass, it became gradually whiter and harder, to the depth of from six to 12 inches, where it was calcareous sparkling stone. It was evident that the water had passed away. this place and formed a flat superfaces of salacious limestone and that its position nearly level had facilitated the accumulation of earth in proportion as the decomposition advanced. Similar spots of ground were found higher up the hill resembling little savannas,

Starting point is 07:39:59 near which hot springs were always discovered, which had once flowed over them. It appears probable that the hot water of the springs, at an early period, had all issued from its grand reservoir in the hill, at a much greater elevation than at present. The calcareous crust may be traced up, in most situations, on the west side of the hill, looking down the creek and valley, to a certain height, and perhaps 100 feet perpendicular. In this region, the hill rises precipitously and is studded with hard, salacious stones. Below, the descent is more gradual, and the soil of the mountain. calcareous black earth. It is easy to discriminate the primitive hill from that which has

Starting point is 07:40:45 accumulated by precipitation from the water of the springs. This last is entirely confined to the west side of the hill and washed at its base by the waters of the creek, no hot spring being visible in any other part of its circumference. By actual measurement along the base of the hill, the influence of these springs is found to extend 70 percent, in a direction a little to the east of north. Along the whole of this space, the springs have deposited stony matter, calcareous with an addition of silex or crystallized lime.

Starting point is 07:41:22 The accumulation of calcareous matter is more considerable at the north end of the hill than the south. The first may be above 100 feet perpendicular, but sloping much more gradually than the primitive hill above, until it approaches the creek, where not unfrequently it terminate, Frequently it terminates in a precipice of from six to twenty feet. The difference between the primitive and secondary hill is so striking that a superficial observer

Starting point is 07:41:50 must notice it. The first is regularly very steep and studded with rock and stone of the hardest flint, and other salacious compounds, and a superfices of two or three inches of good mold covers a red clay. Below, on the secondary hill, which carries evident marks of recent formation, no flint or salacious stone is found. The calcareous rock conceals all from view, and is itself, frequently covered by much fine, rich earth. It would seem that this compound, precipitated from the hot water yields easily to the influence of the atmosphere, for where the waters ceased to flow over any portion of the rock it speedily decomposes, probably more rapidly from the heat communicated from

Starting point is 07:42:39 the interior part of the hill, as insulated masses of rock are observed to remain without change. The cedar, the wax myrtle, and the Casina Yapan, all evergreens, attach themselves particularly to the calcareous region, and seem to grow and thrive even in the clefts of the solid rock. A spring, enjoying a freedom of position, proceeds with great regularity in depositing the matter it holds in solution. The border or rim of its basin forms an elevated ridge, from whence proceeds a glaces all around, where the waters have flowed for some time over that part of the brim. This becomes more elevated, and the water has to seek a passage where there is less resistance, thus forming, in miniature, a crater resembling in shape the conical summit of a volcano.

Starting point is 07:43:36 The hill being steep above, the progress of petrification is stopped on that side, and the waters continue to flow and spread abroad, encrusting the whole face of the hill below. The last formed calcareous border of this circular basin is soft and easily divided. At a small depth, it is more compact, and at the depth of six feet. inches, it is generally hard white stone. If the bottom of the basin is stirred up, a quantity of red calcs of iron rises and escapes over the summit of the crater. Visitants to the hot springs, having observed shrubs and trees with their roots in the hot water, have been induced to try experiments by sticking branches of trees in the run of hot water. Some branches of the wax

Starting point is 07:44:24 Myxmurtle were found thrust into the bottom of a spring run, the water of which was 130 by Fahrenheit's thermometer. The foliage and fruit of the branch were not only sound and healthy, but at the surface of the water, roots were actually sprouting from it. On pulling it up, the part which had penetrated the hot mud was found decayed. The green substance discoverable at the bottom of the hot springs, and which at first sight has the appearance of plush, on examination by the microscope, was found to be vegetable production. A film of green matter spreads itself on the calcareous base, from which rises fibers more than half an inch in length, forming a beautiful vegetation. Before the microscope, it sparkled with innumerable

Starting point is 07:45:16 nodules of lime, some part of which was beautifully crystallized. The circumstance might cause a doubt of its being a true vegetable, but its great resemblance to some of the mosses, particularly the Bissy, and the discovery which Mr. Dunbar made of its being the residence of animal life, confirmed his belief in its being a true moss. After a diligent search, he discovered a very minute shellfish of the bivalve kind, inhabiting this moss, its shape nearly that of the freshwater mussel, The color of the shell a grayish brown, with spots of a purplish color.

Starting point is 07:45:57 When the animal is undisturbed, it opens the shell and thrusts out four legs, very transparent and articulated like those of a quadruped. The extremities of the four legs are very slender and sharp, but those of the hind legs somewhat broader, apparently armed with minute toes. From the extremity of each shell issues three or four forked hairs, which the animal seems to possess the power of moving. The forelegs are probably formed for making incisions into the moss for the purpose of procuring access to the juices of the living plant, upon which no doubt it feeds. It may be provided with a proboscis, although it did not appear while the animal was under examination. The hind legs are well adapted for propelling it in its progress over the moss, or through the water. It would be desirable to ascertain the cause of that perpetual fire, which keeps up the high temperature of so many springs as flow from this hill,

Starting point is 07:47:01 at a considerable distance from each other. Upon looking around, however, sufficient data for the solution of the difficulty, are not discoverable. nothing of a volcanic nature is to be seen in this country, neither could they learn that any evidence in favor of such a supposition was to be found in the mountains connected with this river. An immense bed of dark blue schistis appears to form the base of the hot spring hill and all of those in its neighborhood. The bottom of the creek is formed of it,

Starting point is 07:47:33 and pieces are frequently met with rendered soft by decomposition, and possessing a strong, illuminous taste, requiring nothing but lixivation and crystallization to complete the manufacture of alum. As bodies undergoing chemical changes generally produce an alteration of temperature, the heat of these springs may be owing to the disengagement of cheloric, or the decomposition of the schistis. Another and perhaps a more satisfactory cause may be assigned. It is well known that within the circle of the waters of this river, vast beds, of a martial pyrrists exist. They have not yet, however, been discovered in the vicinage of the

Starting point is 07:48:16 hot springs, but may nevertheless form immense beds under the bases of these hills, and as in one place at least, there is evidence of the presence of bitumen. The union of these agents will, in the progress of decomposition, by the admission of air and moisture, produce degrees of heat capable of supporting the phenomena of the hot springs. No sulfuric acid is present in this water. The springs may be supplied by the vapor of heated water, ascending from caverns where the heat is generated, or the heat may be immediately applied

Starting point is 07:48:53 to the bottom of an immense natural cauldron or rock contained in the bowels of the hill, from which, as a reservoir, the springs may be supplied. A series of accurate observations determined the latitude of the hot springs to be 34, 31, 45, 16 north, and longitude 6, 11, 25, or 92, 50, 45 west from the Meridian of Greenwich. End of Section 25. Recording courtesy of Weimabi Press by Charles Bice. www. charlesbyce.com. Section 26 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark.

Starting point is 07:49:45 This is a Librevox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by Bill Mosley. The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Chapter 21, Part 4. While Mr. Dunbar was making arrangements for transporting the baggage back to the river camp,

Starting point is 07:50:23 Dr. Hunter, the small party, went on an excursion into the country. He left the hot springs on the morning of the 27th, and after traveling sometimes over hills and steep craggy mountains with narrow valleys between then up the valleys and generally by the side of a branch emptying into the wash-top they reached the main branch of the calphat in the evening about twelve miles from the springs the stones they met with during the first part of the day were silicious of a whitish gray with flam Mence, white, cream-colored, red, etc. The beds of the rivulets, and often a considerable way up the hills, showed immense bodies of schistus, both blue and gray, some of it efflorescing and tasting strongly of alum.

Starting point is 07:51:24 The latter part of the day they traveled over between hills of black, hard and compact flint in shapeless masses with schist as before. On ascending these high grounds, you distinctly perceive the commencement of the piney region, beginning at the height of 60 or 70 feet and extending to the top. The soil in these narrow valleys is thin and full of stones. The next day, which was stormy, they reached a branch of the bayou, saline, which stretches toward the Arkansas, and empties into the Washetaw, many leagues below, having gone about twelve miles. The mountains they had passed being of the primitive kind,

Starting point is 07:52:13 which seldom produced metals, and having hitherto seen nothing of the mineral kind, a little poor iron ore accepted, and the face of the country, as far as they could see, presenting the same aspect, they returned to the camp and the hot springs on the evening of the 13th by another route, in which they met with nothing worthy of notice. In consequence of the rains which had fallen, Mr. Dunbar, and those who were transporting the baggage to the river camp, found the road watery. The soil on the flatlands under the stratum of vegetable mold is yellowish, and consists of decomposed schistas, of which there are immense beds in every stage of dissolution,

Starting point is 07:53:03 from the hard stone recently uncovered and partially decomposed, to the yellow and apparently homogeneous earth. The covering earth between the hills and the river is in most places sufficiently thick to constitute a good soil, being from four to six inches, and it is the opinion of the people upon the Wachita that wheat will grow here to great perfection. Although the higher hills from 300 to 600 feet in height are very rocky, yet the inferior hills and the sloping bases of the first are generally covered with a soil of a middling quality. The natural productions are sufficiently luxuriant, consisting chiefly of black and red oak intermixed with a variety of other woods, and a considerable undergrowth. Even on these rocky hills are three or four species of vines, said to produce annually

Starting point is 07:54:10 in abundance of excellent grapes. A great variety of plants which grow here, some of which in their season are said to produce flowers highly ornamental, would probably reward the researches of the botanists. On the morning of the 8th of January, 1805, the party left Ellises on the river camp, where they had been detained for several days, waiting for such a rise in the waters of the river, as would carry their boat in safety over the numerous rapids below. A rise of about six feet, which had taken place the evening before, determined, determined them to move this morning, and they passed the cutus about one o'clock.

Starting point is 07:54:57 They stopped to examine the rocky promontory below these falls, and took some specimens of the stone, which so much resembles the turkey oil stone. It appears too hard. The strata of this chain were observed to run perpendicularly, nearly east and west, crossed by the fissures at right angles from five to eight feet apart, the lamina from one-fourth of an inch to five inches in thickness. About a league below, they landed at wet stone hill and took several specimens. This projecting hill is a mass of grayish-blue schistis of considerable hardness

Starting point is 07:55:43 and about 20 feet perpendicular, not regularly so, and from a quarter to two inches in thickness, but does not split with an even surface. They landed again on the morning of the ninth in sight of the Bayou de la Prairie de Champignor to examine and take specimens of some freestone and blue slate. The slate is a blue schistis, hard, laminaric, and unfit for the covering of a house none proper for that purpose have been discovered except on the calphat which dr hunter met with in one of his excursions

Starting point is 07:56:25 on the evening of the tent they encamped near arclan's troughs having been only three days in descending the distance which took them thirteen to ascend they stopped some time at the camp of a mr he is an intelligent man a native of the illinois but now residing at the arkansas he came here with some delaware and other indians whom he had fitted out with goods and receives their peltry fur and etc at a stipulated price as it is brought in by the hunters mr lefevre possesses considerable knowledge of the interior of the country he confirms the accounts before obtained that the hills or mountains which give rise to this little river are in a manner insulated that is they are entirely shut in and enclosed by the immense plains or prairies which extend beyond the Red River, to the south and beyond the Missouri, or at least some of its branches, to the north, and range along the eastern base of the Great Chain, or dividing line, commonly known by the name of the sand hills,

Starting point is 07:57:45 which separate the waters of the Mississippi from those which fall into the Pacific Ocean. The breadth of this great plain is not well ascertained, it is said by some to be at certain parts or in certain directions not less than two hundred leagues but it is agreed by all who have a knowledge of the western country that the main breadth is at least two-thirds of that distance A branch of the Missouri called the River Plate or shallow river is said to take its rise so far south as to derive its first waters from the neighborhood of the sources of the Red and Arkansas rivers. By the expression plains or prairies in this place is not to be understood a dead flat, resembling certain savannas, the soil is stiff and impenetrable. often under water and bearing only a coarse grass resembling reeds very different are the western prairies which expression signifies only a country without timber these prairies are neither flat nor hilly but undulating into gentle swelling lawns and expanding into spacious valleys in the centre of which is always found a little timber growing on the banks of the brooks and rivulets of the finest waters.

Starting point is 07:59:18 The whole of these prairies are represented to be composed of the richest and most fertile soil. The most luxuriant and succulent herbage covers the surface of the earth, interspersed with millions of flowers and flowering shrubs of the most ornamental kinds. Those who have viewed only a skirt of these prairies speak of them, with enthusiasm, as if it was only their nature was to be found truly perfect. They declare that the fertility and beauty of the rising grounds, the extreme richness of the veils, the coolness and excellent quality of the water found in every valley,

Starting point is 08:00:04 the salubity of the atmosphere, and above all the grandeur of the enchanting landscapes, which this country presents. inspire the soul with sensations not to be felt in any other region of the globe. This paradise is now very thinly inhabited by a few tribes of savages and by the immense herds of wild cattle, bison, which people these countries. The cattle perform regular migrations, according to the seasons, from south to north, and from the plains of the mountains, and in due to the mountains,

Starting point is 08:00:44 time, taught by their instincts, take a retrograde direction. These tribes move in the rear of the herds and pick-up stragglers, and such as lag behind, which they kill with the bow and arrow for their subsistence. This country is not subjected to those very sudden diluges of rain which, in most hot countries and even the Mississippi Territory, tear up and sweep away with irresistible fury, the crop and soil together. And on the contrary, rain is said to become more rare in proportion as the great chain of mountains is approached. And it would seem that within the sphere of the attraction of those elevated ridges, little

Starting point is 08:01:32 or no rain falls on the adjoining plains. This relation is the more credible, as in that respect our new country may resemble other flat or comparatively low countries, similarly situated, such as the country lying between the Andes and the western Pacific. The plains are supplied nightly with dues, so extremely abundant as to have the effect of refreshing showers of rain, and the spacious valleys, which are extremely level, may with facility be watered by the rills and brooks, which are never absent from these situations. Such is the description of the better known country lying to the south of Red River, from Nacadoches towards St. Antonio in the province of Texas. The richest crops are said to be produced

Starting point is 08:02:29 there without rain. But agriculture in the quarter is at a low ebb, the small quantities of maize furnished by the country, is said to be raised without cultivation. A rude opening is made in the earth, sufficient to deposit the grain at the distance of four or five feet, any irregular squares, and the rest is left to nature. The soil is tender, spongy, and rich, and seems always to retain humidity sufficient, with the bounteous dews of heaven to bring the crops to maturity. the Red and Arkansas rivers, whose courses are very long, pass through portions of this fine country. They are both navigable to an unknown distance by boats of proper construction.

Starting point is 08:03:26 The Arkansas River is, however, understood to have greatly the advantage with respect to the facility of navigation. Some difficult places are met with in the Red River below the Nacotash, after which it is good for 150 leagues, probably computed leagues of the country, about two miles each. There the Voyager meets with a very serious obstacle, the commencement of the raft, as it is called, that is a natural covering

Starting point is 08:03:59 which conceals the whole river for an extent of 17 leagues, continually augmenting by the driftwood, down by every considerable fresh. This covering, which for a considerable time, was only driftwood, now supports a vegetation of everything abounding in the neighboring forest, not accepting trees of a considerable size, and the river may be frequently passed without any knowledge of its existence.

Starting point is 08:04:35 It is said that the annual inundation is, opening for itself a new passage through the low grounds near the hills, but it must be long before nature unaided will excavate a passage sufficient for the waters of the Red River. About 50 leagues above this natural bridge is the residence of the Caddo or Caddoquise Nation, whose good qualities are already mentioned. The inhabitants estimate the post of Nacotosh to be halfway between New Orleans and the Cato Nation. Above this point, the navigation of the Red River is said to be embarrassed by many rapids, falls, and shallows. The Arkansas River is said to present a safe, agreeable, and uninterrupted navigation as high as it is known.

Starting point is 08:05:36 The lands on each side are of the best quality, and well watered with springs, brooks, and rivulets, affording many situations for mill seats. From description it would seem that along this river there is a regular gradation of hill and dale, presenting their extremities to the river. The hills are gently swelling eminences, and the dale's spacious valley, with living water meandering through them. The forest consists of handsome trees, chiefly what is called open woods.

Starting point is 08:06:15 The quality of the land is supposed superior to that on the Red River until it ascends to the prairie country, where the land on both sides is probably similar. About 200 leagues up the Arkansas is an interesting place called the Salt Prairie. There is a considerable four, of the river there, and a kind of savanna where the salt water is continually oozing out and spreading over the surface of a plain. During the dry summer season, the salt may be

Starting point is 08:06:48 raked up in large heaps. A natural crust of a hand-breadth in thickness is formed at this season. This place is not often frequented, on account of the danger from the Osage Indians, much less dare the white hunters venture to ascend higher, where it is generally believed that silver is to be found. It is further said that high up the Arkansas River, salt is found in a solid form and may be dug out with the crowbar. The waters of the Arkansas, like those of the Red River, are not portable during the dry season,

Starting point is 08:07:29 being both charged highly with a reddish earth or mold and extremely brackish. This inconvenience is not greatly felt upon the Arkansas, where springs and brooks of freshwater are frequent. The Red River is understood not to be so highly favored. Every account seems to prove that immense natural magazines of salt must exist in the great chain of mountains to the westward, as all the rivers in the summer season, which flow from them, are strongly impregnated with that mineral, and are only rendered palatable after receiving the numerous streams of fresh water which join them in their course. The great western prairies, besides the herds of wild cattle, bison, commonly called buffalo, are also stalked.

Starting point is 08:08:30 with vast numbers of wild goat, not resembling the domestic goat, extremely swift-footed. As the description given of this goat is not perfect, it may from its swiftness prove to be the antelope, or it may possibly be a goat which has escaped from the Spanish settlements of New Mexico. A Canadian, who had been much with the Indians to the westward, speaks of a wool-bearer animal larger than a sheep, the wool much mixed with hair, which he had seen in large flocks. He pretends also to have seen a unicorn, the single horn of which he says, rises out of the forehead and curls back, conveying the idea of the fossil Cornu Amonis. This man says he has traveled beyond.

Starting point is 08:09:30 the Great Dividing Ridge so far as to have seen a large river flowing to the westward. The Great Dividing Mountain is so lofty that it requires two days to ascend from the base to its top. Other ranges of inferior mountains lie before and behind it. They are all rocky and sandy. Large lakes and valleys lie between the mountains. Some of the lakes are so large as to contain considerable islands. The rivers flow from some of them. Great numbers of fossil bones of very large dimensions

Starting point is 08:10:08 are seen among the mountains, which the Canadian supposes to be the elephants. He does not pretend to have seen any of the precious metals, but has seen a mineral which he supposes might yield copper. From the top of the high mountain, the view is bounded by a curve as upon the ocean, and extends over the most beautiful prairies, which seem to be unbounded, particularly towards the east. The finest of the lands he has seen are on the Missouri. No other can compare in richness and fertility with them.

Starting point is 08:10:52 This Canadian, as well as Lefevre, speaks of the Osages, of the tribe of white hares, as lawless and unprincipled and the other indian tribes hold them in abhorrence as a barbarous and uncivilized race and the different nations who hunt in their neighborhood have been concerting plans for their destruction on the morning of the eleventh the party passed the petit ecore of fabri the osier which grows on the beaches above is not seen below upon the river. And here they begin to meet with the small tree called Charnier, which grows only on the water's side, and is met with all the way down the Washita. The latitude of 33.40 seems the northern boundary of the one and the southern boundary of the other of these vegetables. Having noticed the limit, set to the long moss telansea on the ascent of the river in latitude thirty three mr dunbar made inquiry of mr lefevre as to its existence on the arkansas settlement

Starting point is 08:12:19 which is known to lie in about the same parallel he said that its growth is limited about ten miles south of the settlement and that as remarkably as if a line had been drawn east and west for the purpose as it ceases all at once and not by degrees Hence it appears that nature has marked with a distinguishing feature the line established by Congress between the Orleans and Louisiana territories. The Cyprus is not found on the Washetah higher than 34 degrees of north latitude. In ascending the river, they found their rate of going to exceed that of the current about six miles and a half in 24 hours. and that on the twelfth they had passed the apex of the tide or wave occasioned by the fresh and were descending along an inclined plain as they encamped at night they found themselves in deeper water the next morning and on a more elevated part of the inclined plain than they had been in the preceding evening from the progress of the apex of the tide during their repose At noon on the 16th they reached the post of the Washton. Mr. Dunbar, being anxious to reach the Natchez as early as possible,

Starting point is 08:13:54 and being unable to procure horses at the post, took a canoe with one soldier and his own domestic to push down to the Catahula. From whence to Concord, there is a road of 30 miles across the low grounds. He set off early on the morning of the 20th, and at night reached the settlement of an old hunter, with whom he had conversed on his way up the river. This man informed him that at the place called the mine on the Little Missouri,

Starting point is 08:14:27 there is a smoke which ascends perpetually from a particular place, and that the vapor is sometimes insupportable. The river, or a branch of it, passes over a bed of mineral, which from the descriptions given is no doubt martial pyrites. In a creek or a branch of the foreshay-a-louk, there is to be found on the beaches and in the cliffs a great number of globular bodies, some as large or larger than a man's head,

Starting point is 08:15:04 which, when broken, exhibit the appearance of gold, silver and precious stones, most probably pyrites and crystallized spar. And at the foreté des glises apoll, higher up the river than foreshe al-luc, near the river there is a cliff full of hexagonal prisms terminated by pyramids which appear to grow out of the rock. They are from 6 to 8 inches in length, and some of them are an inch in diameter. There are beds of pyrites found in several small creeks communicating with the Washatah,

Starting point is 08:15:49 but it appears that the mineral indications are greatest on the Little Missouri, because, as before noted, some of the hunters actually worked on them and sent a parcel of the ore to New Orleans. It is the belief here that the mineral contains precious metal, but that the Spanish government did not choose a mine should be opened so near to the British settlements. An express prohibition was issued against working these mines. At this place, Mr. Dunbar obtained one or two slips of the Boydark,

Starting point is 08:16:31 bow wood or yellow wood from the Missouri. The fruit of which had fallen before maturity lay upon the ground. Some were the size of a small orange with a rind full of tubercles. The color, though it appeared faded, still retained a resemblance to pale gold. The tree in its native soil, when laden with its golden fruit, nearly as large as the egg of an ostrich, presents the most splendid appearance. Its foliage is of a deep green, resembling the varnished leaf of the orange tree. Upon the whole, no forest tree can compare with it in ornamental grandeur.

Starting point is 08:17:19 The bark of the young trees resemble in texture the dogwood bark. The appearance of the wood recommends it for a trial as an article which may yield a yellow dye. It is deciduous, the branches are not. numerous, and full of short thorns or prickles, which seem to point it out as proper for hedges or live fences. This tree is known to exist near the Nacotosh, perhaps in latitude 32, and upon the river Arkansas, high up, perhaps in latitude 36. It is therefore probable that it may thrive from latitudes 38 to 40 and will be a great acquisition to the United States

Starting point is 08:18:08 if it possesses no other merit than that of being ornamental. In ascending the river, both Mr. Dunbar and Dr. Hunter searched for the place said to yield gypsum, or plaster of Paris, but failed. The former gentleman states that he has no doubt of its existence, having noted two places where it has been found, one of which is the first hill, or highland, which touches the river on the west, above the bayou calumet, and the other is the second highland on the same side. As these are two points of the same continual ridge, it is probable that an

Starting point is 08:18:54 immense body of gypsum will be found in the bowels of the hills where they meet, and perhaps extending far beyond them. On the evening of the 22nd, Mr. Dunbar arrived at the Catahula, where a Frenchman of the name of Hebrard, who keeps the ferry across the Black River, is settled. Here the road from the Washetal Forks, one branch of it leading to the settlement on the Red River, and the other up to the post on the Washetah. The proprietor of this place has been a hunter, a great traveler up the Wachita and into the western country. He confirms generally the accounts received from others. It appears from what they say that in the neighborhood of the hot springs,

Starting point is 08:19:45 but higher up among the mountains, and upon the little Missouri, during the summer season, explosions are very frequently heard, proceeding from under the ground and not really Rarely a curious phenomena is seen, which is termed the blowing of the mountains. It is confined elastic gas, forcing a passage through the side or top of a hill, driving before it a great quantity of earth and mineral matter. During the winter season, the explosions and blowing of the mountains entirely cease. From whence we may conclude that the cause is comparatively superfluous, brought into action by the increased heat of the rays of the summer sun.

Starting point is 08:20:35 The confluence of the Washatah, Catahula, and Tenza is an interesting place. The last of these communicates with the Mississippi lowlands by the intervention of other creeks and lakes, and by one in particular called Bayou de Argent, which empties into the Mississippi about 14 miles above Natches. During high water, there is a navigation for batos of any burthen along the bayou. A large lake, called St. John's Lake, occupies a considerable part of the passage between the Mississippi and the Tenza. It is in a horseshoe form and has, at some former period, been the bed of the Mississippi.

Starting point is 08:21:22 The nearest part of it is about one mile removed from the river at the present time. This lake, possessing elevated banks, similar to those of the river, has been lately occupied and improved. The Cattahula Bayou is the third navigable stream. During the time of inundation, there is an excellent communication by the lake of that name, and from thence by large streaks to the Red River. The country around the point of union of these three rivers is all to be. alluvial, but the place of Mr. Hebrard's residence is no longer subject to inundation. There is no doubt that as the country augments in the population and riches, this place will

Starting point is 08:22:16 become the site of a commercial inland town, which will keep pace with the progress and prosperity of the country. One of the Indian mounts here is of a considerable elevation. a species of ramparts surrounding a large space, which was, no doubt, the position of a fortified town. While here, Mr. Dunbar met with an American who pretended to have been up the Arkansas River, 300 leagues. The navigation of this river, he says, is good to that distance. For boats drawing three or four feet water, implicit faith perhaps ought not to be given to this relation, respecting the quantity of silver he pretends to have collected there.

Starting point is 08:23:10 He says he has found silver on the Washetau, 30 leagues above the hot springs, so rich that three pounds of it yielded one pound of silver, and this was found in a cave. He asserts also that the ore of the mine upon the little Missouri was carried to Kentucky by a person of the name of Bonn, where it was found to yield largely in silver. This man says he has been up the Red River likewise, and that there is a great rapid just below the raft, or natural bridge, and several others above it,

Starting point is 08:23:50 that the Cato Nation is about 50 leagues above the raft, and near to their village commences the country of the Great Prairies, which extend four or five hundred miles to the west of the sand mountains as they are termed. These great plains reach far beyond the Red River to the south and northward over the Arkansas River and among the numerous branches of the Missouri. He confirms the account of the beauty and fertility of the western country. On the morning of the 25th, Mr. Dunbar set out on horseback from the Catahula to Nassau. The rain, which had fallen on the preceding days, rendered the roads wet and muddy, and

Starting point is 08:24:38 it was two in the afternoon before he reached the Bayou Crocodile, which is considered halfway between the Black River and the Mississippi. It is one of the numerous creeks in the low grounds which assist in venting the waters of the inundation. On the margins of the watercourses, the lands are highest and produce canes, They fall off in the rear into cypress swamps and lakes. The waters of the Mississippi were rising, and it was with some difficulty that they reached a house near Concord that evening. This settlement was begun since the session of Louisiana to the United States

Starting point is 08:25:21 by citizens of the Mississippi Territory, who have established their residents altogether upon newly acquired lands, taken up under the authority of the Spanish, commandment, and have gone to the expense of improvement either in the names of themselves or others, before the 20th of December 1803, hoping thereby to hold their new possession under the sanction of the law. Exclusive of the few actual residents on the banks of the Mississippi, there are two very handsome lakes in the interior, on the banks of which similar settlements have been made. He crossed at the ferry and at midday of the 26 reached his own house.

Starting point is 08:26:11 Dr. Hunter and the remainder of the party followed Mr. Dunbar down the Washetaw, with the boat in which they ascended the river, ascended the Mississippi, and reached St. Catherine's landing on the morning of the 31st of January 1805. End of Section 26. by Bill Mosley, Krellsburg, Texas, USA. Section 27 of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain.

Starting point is 08:26:52 For more information or to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by The Rat King. The Journal of Lewis and Clark, by Mary Weather Lewis and William Clark. Dictionary of Indian. Words and phrases. Good spirit. Kijai Manitou. Evil spirit. Machi Manitou. Man, Athene. Woman. Esquise. Male. Nafew. Female. Non-Gents.

Starting point is 08:27:24 Infant. Awashish. Head. Yustiquan. Forehead. Eskateek. Hair. Westiki. Eyes e kissok, nose o skiwin, nostrils, o'tith e-gaumau, mouth, O Tune, My teeth, Whipita, Tong, O Taithana, Beard, Michituni, Brain, Withe Tip, Ears, O Tao Igill, Neck, O Kui-Aw, Throat, O Kut-Taski, Arms, O Nisk, Fingers, Chechee, Nails, nails, Wascosia, side, Ospingi, my back, no piscan, my belly, Natae, Thighs, Opovam, My knees, Nochequenna, Legs, Nusk, Heart, O Thea, My father, Nutawe, My mother, Nigawe, My boy, son, Negusis, My girl, daughter, Netanis, My brother, Nistess, My brother, Nistess, My brother, My sister, elder, N'emis.

Starting point is 08:28:36 My grandfather, N'emoyo Shum. My grandmother, Nyo Kum. My uncle, Nioca Miss. My nephew, Nittu Sim. My niece, Netsu Sim Esquas. My mother-in-law, Nisi-Guze. My brother-in-law, Nista. My companion, Ne Wichi-Wagam.

Starting point is 08:28:58 My husband, Nipem. Blood, Mithku. Old man. She nap. I am angry. Ne kissy washen. I fear. No, I fear.

Starting point is 08:29:09 Joy, nehithatom. Hearing, pethon. Track, Miskonah. Chief, great ruler. Haukimah. Thief, Kismuthesk. Excrement. May yee.

Starting point is 08:29:24 Buffalo, mustush. Ferret, Sissus. Polcat, Shikak. Elk. Mustush. Reindeer a tick Falo deer a tick Beaver a misk

Starting point is 08:29:39 Wolverine Quikach Squirrel Iniquatch Mink Saku Otter Nickick

Starting point is 08:29:49 Wolf Mayegan Hare Wapousie Martin Wapisten Moose Mouswa

Starting point is 08:29:58 Bear Mask Fischer Pichu, Porcupine, Kokua, Fox, Makissu, Muskrat, Wajask, mouse, abeusis, cow buffalo, Noshi, Moosey, meat flesh, weas, dog, a tim, Eagle, Macuosu, duck, sea sip, crow, corbo, cacolcan, swan, wapsico, turkey, Mesesesu. Fesans, Okesku.

Starting point is 08:30:37 Bird, pethesu. Wutar, Niskeg. White goose, weiwa. Gray goose, pestacish. Partridge, pithu. Waterhem. Chiquibish. Dove, omimi.

Starting point is 08:30:53 Eggs, wea. Pipe or Jack, Kenongay. Carp, Namebin. Sturgeon, Name. White, fish. Attykaming, Pickerel, Ockow, fish in general, Kenongy, spawn, Wakwon, Fins, Chichikan, Trout, Noguze, crawfish, ashagi, frog, a thick, wasp, ahmoo, turtle, mickenack, snake, kinibik, owl, oscajic, needle, Saboynigam, Firest steel a pet firewood mitch ta cradle tecinnigan dagger takumago arrow a goose or a tushy hook quasquee pitchikan axe shiaggan earbob chikisibisun

Starting point is 08:31:53 comb sikahun net a thahe tree mystic wood mystic paddle a Aboa, canoe, chiman, birch rind, wasquah, bark, wasqua, touchwood, pussagam, leaf, napecia, grass, masquoisy, raspberries, misquy minaei, strawberries, otaii minae, ashes, peccutche, fire, scutea, grapes, shomenac, fog, fagishihao, mud, Current Kisijewen, Road, Miscana, Winter, Pippoon, Island Ministic, Lake Sagayan, Sun, Pissim, Moon, Tibiska Pesim, the night sun, day Kigigah, night, Tibiska, snow Koshna, rain, Kimiwen, Drift Paiwan, Hail, Sheshkagan, Ice, misquamming, frost, aquatine, mist, picassio, water, nepe, mountain, meseaski, all the earth, world, watchaei, sea, kichikigami, morning, kequishipi, midday abeta quichich, portage, unigam, spring, menuskaming, river sipecac, rapid, bawash, Rivalet, sepaisis, sand, thokau, earth, eskai, star attack, thunder, tithuso, wind thutin, calm athawostin, heat quishipoy, evening Takashike, north Kiwytan, south, Sewenawin, east, Koshawcastak, west, west, Pasquismam. Tomorrow, wa bank. Bone, oscan. Broth, mitchim, wa'oy. Feast, macquassia. Grease or oil, pymis. Morrow fat, oscan, pimis. Sinu, astis. Lodge, wigwam. Bed, napowin. Within, pendogque. Door, squandam. Dish, Othagan. Fort, Wastis. Fort, Wastis.

Starting point is 08:34:33 Skyegan, Sledge, Tabanask, Sincture, Pokwa Tehoun, cap, as totin, stalks, a chickan, Shirt, Pappacee Weiam, Coat, Pipeewegan, Cloth, Manito Weigin, Thread, Asabab, Garters, Chikibizun, Mitten, Astisack, Shoes, Maski Sin, Smoking Bag, Cus Quay Petagam, Portage Sling, Appesan. Straight on, Goy Ask. Medicine, mesquay. Red, mesco. Blue, cascuch, same as black. White, wabiska. Yellow, saw, saw. Green, chibatiq. Ugly. Ugly, Magli. Higua. Handsome, katawasissu. Beautiful, kisi-sawenoga. Deaf, nima petom. Good-natured, mithywashing. Pregnant. Pail. Fat, Uthino, big, musikittier, small or little, abysashe, short, chimassish, skin, weiam, long kinwein, strong mascawa, coward, sagataha, weak nithamifu, lean, mathawa, brave, nimagustaw, young man oskweenigwish, cold, kisun, cold, kisin, Hot, king patai. Spring, Minuskaming. Summer, Nibin.

Starting point is 08:36:10 Fall, Tagoagong. 1, Piyak. 2, Nishu. 3. Nish Toe. 4. Neway. 5. Nyan. 6.

Starting point is 08:36:21 Noguisk. 7. Nishwisik. 8. Jannanu. 9. Shack. 10.

Starting point is 08:36:29 Mitat. 11. Peack o sap. 12. Nishu-Sap. 13. Nihu-O-sap. 14.

Starting point is 08:36:37 Nye Wai-O-Sap. 15. Nye-Mann-O-Sap. 16. N-G-2-Wa-Sach-A-Sep. 17. Nish-Wei-Sik-O-Sap. 18.

Starting point is 08:36:47 Jan-Nu-Met-N-N-Sap. 20. 20. 21. Nish-Mittna peyak-o-o-sa. 22, and so on. Nish-Mitna-N-Sep. 30.

Starting point is 08:37:01 Nish-Mitt-Mitt-Mitt-Met-N-F. 40. 40, newe, mitena, 50, 9an mitana, 60, 60, 90, 7, Nisweissik mitana, 80, 80, 60, 70, 60, 10, 10, 100, 100, Mitoa, 200, Noshu mitna, a mitina bintab, 1000, Mitena, Mitena, Mitena, Mitena, First, Nikan, last, Squayach, More, or Minna. Better, athiwak mitawashin. Best, Athiwak mitawasin. I or me, nitha. You or thou, Kitha. They or them, wethawa. We, nithawa. My or mine, nitaean. Yours, Kitayan.

Starting point is 08:37:50 Whom, a weone. His or hers, Otaian. All, kakitho. Some or some few, pepeyak. same, Tabescuce, all the world, Meseaki-Wanke, all the men, Kekitha, ethnoch, sometimes Iascaopiko, arrive to kuchin, beat Ota meha, to burn mistaskasu, to sing, Nagamun, to cut kisham, to hide katan, to cover aqua hun, to believe ta voitam, to sleep, nepan, to sleep, nepan, To dispute, Kekomitawok. To dance, ne mighto. To give, myth. To do, Ogitam.

Starting point is 08:38:39 To eat, we sinai. To die, nepew. To forget, we nekisu. To speak, athi metakuse. To cry, tears, mantle. To laugh, papu. To sit down, ne matapé. To walk, Pimuteus.

Starting point is 08:38:59 To fall. Thakisin, to works at Tusku, to kill Nipaha, to sell atawam, to live Pimatesi, to see Wabam, to come astamoch, enough a gothigog, it hails Shisigam. There is some Ayawa, there is Ayawa, it rains Kwimiwen. After tomorrow, I wishwa hunk, today a nuch. Thereaway, nettoa, much, mitchet. Presently, Fichisquah, make heart, quithipa. This morning, shebaas. This night, Tibiskeg, above, espiming, below, tabasish, truly, taboyi, already sashae, yet more, mina, yesterday,

Starting point is 08:39:53 Takushik, far, wa'fow, near, quichiwak, never, never, near, near. Nima wakatch. No, Nima. Yes, ah, by and by, Pah Nima. Always, kakikee, make haste, queth-epe. It's long since, me wiesha. End of Section 27. Appendix of the Journal of Lewis and Clark. This is a Libravox recording. All Libravox recordings are in the public domain.

Starting point is 08:40:29 For more information or to volunteer, to volunteer, please visit Libravox.org. Recording by E. Lee, The Journal of Lewis and Clark by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Appendix Appendix General Washington, while President of the United States, sent an agent to the Chippewyian tribe, whose friendship it was requisite we should cultivate to preserve the lucrative fur trade that we held with them.

Starting point is 08:40:59 Washington, by his agent, offered, that the United States would take two or three of the sons of their chiefs and educate them in our universities. When the agent had executed the command, the Indians who never gave an immediate answer on things that they think of importance told him that they would think of it, and after a short time returned for answer, that they had consulted on the subject and that they were of an opinion that it would render them too effeminate to be educated. in our colleges, as it would totally disqualify them to hunt or pursue the war. But, in return for the civility of their brother chief, Washington, that if he would send the sons of any of his chiefs among them, they would educate them to pursue the chase for several days without eating, and to go without clothes in extreme cold weather, and in frosty nights to lie on the ground without covering, and every other thing requisite, to make

Starting point is 08:41:58 them Indians and men. About sixty years ago, the French missionaries and traders, having received many insults from the saw-keys, a party under the command of Captain Morand, marched to revenge their wrongs. The captain and his party set out from Green Bay, in the winter, when they were unsuspicious of a visit of this kind, and pursuing his route over the snow to their village, which lay about sixty miles up Fox River, came upon them by surprise. Unprepared as they were, he found them an easy conquest, and consequently killed or took prisoners the greatest part of them. On the return of the French to Green Bay, one of the Indian chiefs in alliance with them

Starting point is 08:42:45 who had a considerable band of prisoners under his care stopped to drink at a brook. In the meantime his companions went on, which being observed by one of the women who, whom they had made captive, she suddenly seized him with both her hands, whilst he stooped to drink by an exquisitely susceptible part, and held him fast till he expired on the spot. As the chief, from the extreme tortured he suffered, was unable to call out to his friends or to give any alarm, they passed on without knowing what had happened. And the woman, having cut the bands of her fellow prisoners who were in the rear, with them made her escape. This heroine was ever after treated by her nation as their deliverer,

Starting point is 08:43:28 and made a chieftus in her own right, with the liberty to entail the same honor on her descendants, an unusual distinction, and conferred only on extraordinary occasions. Reverend J. Hubbard's compilation of Indian history The Sioux Indians, and many other tribes, train up their children with the greatest rigor to render them almost invulnerable to the inclemency of the winter and the misfortunes that unavoidably befall their mode of life. The children of the Sioux tribe, when taken from the breast of their mother, are compelled to lie on the floor like whelps, unskins, and with very little covering. When grown older, they bear incisions made on their bodies to try their fortitude, and to make them bear extreme torture as though they were inaccessible to pain. These scars are thought with them ornamental, and those who bear the torture of them until their bodies are covered with a gore of blood and with apparent pleasure are much caressed by the spectators who assemble to witness their heroism and are considered as initiated into the list of warriors.

Starting point is 08:44:39 Parties of these young warriors are after-tried in feats of daring bravery, and him who excels is considered as their chief warrior. The extreme cold that they bear without a murmur is incredible to end European. The Indian Nurse Captain Franklin, R.N., in his narrative of his journey to the polar seas, says, The Chippewine Indians professed strong affection for their children and some regard for their relations, who are often numerous, as they trace very far the ties of consanguinity. A curious instance of the former was mentioned to us,

Starting point is 08:45:18 so well authenticated that i shall venture to give it in the words of dr richardson's journal a young chippewyian had separated from the rest of his band for the purpose of trenching beaver when his wife who was his sole companion and in her first pregnancy was seized with the pains of labor she died on the third day after having given birth to a fine boy the husband was inconsolable and vowed in his anguish never to take another woman to wife but his grief was in some degree absorbed in his anxiety for his infant son to preserve its life he descended to the office of nurse so degrading in the eyes of a chippewyian as partaking of the duties of a woman he swaddled it in soft moss fed it with broth made from the flesh of the deer and distil its cries applied it to his breast praying most earnestly to the great maker of life to assist his endeavors the force of the powerful passion by which he was actuated produced the same effect in his case as it has done in some others which are recorded. A flow of milk actually took place from his breast. He succeeded in rearing his child, taught him to be a hunter, and when he attained the age of manhood, chose him a wife from the tribe. The old man kept his vow in never taking a second wife himself, but he delighted in tending his son's children, and when his daughter-in-law

Starting point is 08:46:50 used to interfere, saying that it was not the occupation of a man, he was wont to reply, that he had promised to the great master of life if his child was spared never to be proud like the other indians he used to mention too as a certain proof of the approbation of providence that although he was always obliged to carry his child on his back while hunting yet that it never roused a mouse by its cries being always particularly still at those times our informant mr winsell the guide to the expedition added that he had often seen seen this indian in his old age and that his left breast even then retained the unusual size it had acquired in his occupation of nurse great african serpent killed by regulus the roman general happy in the approbation of his country regulus continued his success and led his forces along the banks of the river bagrada there while he was waiting for the approach of the carthaginians a serpent of enormous size attacked his men as they went for water and took a position as if it intended to guard the banks of the river. It was a hundred and twenty feet long, with scales impenetrable to any weapon. Some of the boldest troops at first went up to oppose its fury, but they soon fell victim to their rashness,

Starting point is 08:48:15 being either killed by its devouring jaws or crushed to pieces by the volumes of its tail. The poisonous vapor that issued from it is represented as still more formidable, and the men were so much terrified at its appearance that they asserted they would much more joyfully have faced the whole Carthaginian army. For some time it seemed uncertain which should remain masters of the river. At last, Regulus was obliged to make use of the machines employed in battering down the walls of cities, and notwithstanding this, the serpent for a long time withstood all his efforts and destroyed numbers of his men but at length a very large stone which was flung from an engine happened to break its spine and weakened its motion when the soldiers surrounded and killed it

Starting point is 08:49:05 regulus not less pleased with his victory than if he had gained a battle ordered its skin to be sent to rome and for this the senate decreed him an ovation incredible as the roman account of this monster may appear its skin was to be seen in the capital till the time of pliny and therefore the narration is not unworthy of a place in history end of the journal of louis and clark by meriwether lewis and william clark

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