Classic Audiobook Collection - The Revolutions of Civilization by William Matthew Flinders Petrie ~ Full Audiobook [history]

Episode Date: June 2, 2026

The Revolutions of Civilization by William Matthew Flinders Petrie audiobook. Genre: history In this compact work of historical interpretation, pioneering archaeologist William Matthew Flinders Petrie sets out to explain why great cultures seem to rise, peak, decline, and return in recurring waves. Drawing on evidence from ancient Egypt, Minoan Crete, Greece, Rome, and medieval Europe, he compares sculpture, architecture, literature, science, politics, and wealth in an effort to map the rhythm of civilisation across centuries. Petrie serves as both guide and provocateur, arguing that art, especially sculpture, offers one of the clearest measures of a society's vitality, and then building a sweeping theory from those patterns. The book's central drama lies in its attempt to turn scattered ruins and historical fragments into a single grand story about growth, exhaustion, renewal, and the forces that push societies forward or pull them apart. Short but ambitious, it blends archaeology, cultural criticism, and philosophy of history into a bold meditation on progress, decay, and the future. Modern listeners should note that some of Petrie's assumptions about race and cultural development reflect the dated and controversial views of his era. For ad-free listening try our premium subscription Chapters (Approximate) (00:00:00) Chapter 01 (00:06:59) Chapter 02 (00:24:25) Chapter 03 (00:35:27) Chapter 04 (00:47:10) Chapter 05 (01:02:52) Chapter 06 (01:27:56) Chapter 07 Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

The Revolutions of Civilization Chapter 1 The nature of civilization 1. The meaning of life The meaning of life has in all ages been the goal of human thought. The search for the causes and effects of the changes that man has undergone has laid the foundations of his religion and his philosophy. The solutions of the different problems have been inaccurate as they are varied,

nor could any better results be expected from the very insufficient acquaintance with the past. The last 50 years had greatly extended our knowledge of history, and we stand on a very different footing to all those who in earlier times have dealt with the position of man. While formerly nothing could be learned that it was not in written record, handed down from generation to generation, we now handle manuscripts that last saw the light when Rome ruled. We read the records that were compiled thousands of years before the father of history, and we know how to reconstruct the unwritten past for the many other activities and products of human work. It seems, therefore, that the time has arrived when we may begin to take some general outlook over the history of human nature. A material for observation is far greater than others have had. Our method is more developed since we have learned that comparison is the principle or almost the only useless line of study. Can we then extract to meaning from all the ceaseless turmoil and striving and success and failure of these thousands of years?

Can we see any regular structure behind it all? Can we learn any general principles that may formulate the past or be projected on the mists of the future? Here the row the comparatively brief outlook of Western history has given us only the great age of classical civilization before modern times. We have been in the position of a child that remembers only a single summer before that which he enjoys. To such and one, the cold, dark, miserable winter that has intervened seems a needless and inexplicable interruption of a happier order. of a summer which should never cease. Overleaf in illustration is displayed. 1. The grave steel of Higasol, Athens. Only a few years ago a writer of repute deplored the mysterious fall of the Roman Empire, which in his view ought to have been always prosperous and never

have fallen to the barbarians. He was the child who could not understand the winter. 2. Intermitt Civilization From what we now know, it is evident, even on the most superficial view, that civilization is an intermittent phenomenon. When we look at Greek art, as in the exquisite grave steels, Ficker 1, then at the decay before the time of the barbarian invasions, as in the figure of Belica, Felicia, from the catacombs, figure 2, and then again at the splendid sculpture of the 15th century, as in the San Giorgio of Donateau, Figure 3. The intermission of art is obvious. We therefore need to compare the various periods to see what they have in common, and to gather what may be taken as the type of them all. Further, when a longer view, we can trace in these several intermissions. We may say that

civilization is a recurrent phenomenon, as such as should be examined like any other action of nature. Its recurrences should be studied and all the principles which underlie its variations should be defined. Figure 2 is displayed on the following page, the grave still of Belika, Rome. Figure 3 is displayed on the following page, San Giorgio Gior by Donatello, Florence. 3. Sculpture of the definite test. We need to look at some of the features of the complex mass of interests which are grouped under the name of civilization in order to make accurate comparisons. We should only be confused if we contrast things differing in their nature, such as Egyptian instruction, Greek poetry, and medieval self-denial. Those sculpture is only one, and not the

most important, of the many subjects there might be compared throughout various ages. Yet, it is available over so long a period in so many countries and so rarely presented to the mind, that it may be well to begin with that as a standard subject for comparison, and afterwards look at other activities. For the Great Year. We've used this simile of summer and winter for the growth and fall of civilization. This analogy of the Great Year was familiar to the ancients.

In the east, Berlusus, the Babylonian rites of the Summer and Winter of the Great Year. In the West, the Etruscans also spoke of the Great Year as a period of each race of men that should arise in succession. When their own great year of 1,100 years came to an end, in the turbulent time of Sulla 87 BC, we read, One day when the sky was serene and clear, there was heard in it the sound of a trumpet so shrill and mournful that it frightened and astonished the whole city. The dusk and sages said that it portended a new race of men and a renovation of the world, for they observed that there were eight several kinds of men, all differing in life for manners,

that heaven had allotted to each its time, which was limited by the circuit of the great year, and that when one race came to a period and another was rising, it was announced by some wonderful sign from either earth or heaven. So that it was evident at one view to those who attended to these things and were versed in them, that different sort of men was common to the world, with other manners and customs, and more or less the care of the gods than those who had preceded them. Such was mythology of the most learned or respectable of the Tuscan soothsayers, Plutarch and Sulla.

Apart from the innate belief in divination, we see the broad idea which the Etruscans had of history, that each successive race had its period of a great year in which it sprouted, flourished, decayed and died. And the simile is the more precise, as there may be bright, warm days in winter, or cold times in summer, and there are always irregular fluctuations of weather. So in the course of each civilization,

there are similar variations, but they do not prevent recognizing the broad outlines of its summer and its winter. End of Section 1. Section 2 of Revolutions and Civilization by Flinders Petrie. This is a Librivox according, all Librivox recordings in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit Librevox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey.

Chapter 2. The Periods of Civilization To learn what the nature of any recurring phenomenon may be, we should examine the longest series of its revolutions and see what they have in common. In Egypt, we can trace the past of man in continuous history for over 7,000 years. They can put in order a prehistoric age which may well extend our view to about 10,000 years. Over the whole of that time, we know what were the products of every century. In that long range of vision, we can discern eight success. periods of civilization, each separated by an age of barbarism or decline before and after

it. Here then the discoveries of the last 20 years have put in our hands a series which is sufficient to enable us to compare periods together and learn what they may have in common. We shall here denote these periods by Roman numerals 1-2-8, and the stages in other countries which may be contemporary will bear the same numbers. 5. The first period. Prehistoric Apart from the Paleolithic flintage, which cannot be treated consecutively, the beginnings of the continuous civilization of Egypt is seen in their shallow, circular pits which each contain a body doubled up, with a goat skin thrown over it, and a simple pot and saucer at its side. Shortly after this stage, a variety of pottery appears, or the same materials, among which are red cups and vases decorated with white cross lines, like the modern Algerian wear. This painted pottery gives us the best material for observing the changes of the age, as it is fairly abundant and has been already classified into several stages by its relations with other kinds of pottery.

We see in the earlier examples of this pottery, figure four, the careful imitation of basket work lines, and the central circle on which the basket was built. In the middle stage the circle has dropped. The decoration has almost freed itself from the basket origin, and has become a clear and independent design. A Maltese cross-rids springs between the arms. In the late stage only an unintelligent degradation of the basket pattern has survived. Thus, in this remote age, there is proof of the rise of ornament from natural limitation, the development of it as pure ornament and its decay into unintelligent copying.

A few remains of this age of any artistic bearing do not suffice to trace a regular sequence like this in other materials. But the general style of the pottery was rising. the pottery was rising in character and variety for some time, and the work in hard stones and flint was slightly developed. The connections of this age are with the West in the style and decoration of the pottery. Figure 4 is displayed on the page, growth in decay of patterns on white-lipped balls, Egypt First Period. 6.

The second period, prehistoric. A new order arises with various eastern connections. every kind of product was changed. The older pottery ceased to develop new types and only lingered on in decay. By its side, a course of styler appears with entirely new decorations in red. Stone vases changed from tubular to barrel shapes. The forms of flints, of slate pallets, of ivory working, and the material of beads, all start afresh. The burials are all single, instead of two or more together, as in earlier times.

Throughout this letter time a continuous decay may be seen, Ficker 5, which we can illustrate by the forms of slate padlets, degrading from the tortoise or fish into a senseless outline, and the rise and decay of flint working, which was the special art of this age. The degradation of all the products down to the close period is very marked, not only in those here illustrated, but also in the abutted pottery, which became coarse and rough without any artistic feeling. 7. The 3rd Period. Zero to Second Dynasties

The distinctive art of Asia begins to appear shortly before the First Dynasty. Eroglyphic writings was being rapidly developed from an ideographic stage, and we can see the rise of bold, naturalistic style of sculpture. The archaic stage is seen in the vigorous figure of a warrior, figure 6, carrying his standard and flourishing his double-headed axe. By the time a mena was founded the First Dynasty, the carving was emerging from the archaic. They're not yet free. Figure 5 is displayed on the following page, growth and decay of flint work and slate animal figures. Egypt's second period. The head of a king in limestone, figure 7, is of this age or slightly later.

By the second dynasty decay had set in, and the bad proportions and pose of the red-credit figure, figure 8 are quite out of keeping with the work of the previous dynasty. For a more consecutive view of the changes we may look at the series of Royal Hawks, Figure 9, emblems on the king's soul. They are enlarged here, and therefore detail is not to be looked for. The eight at the beginning are of the eight kings of the First Dynasty. The other four of the second and third dynasties. The first figure, the time of Minna, hardly attempts the characteristics of a hawk.

In the second figure, the form of the wings and the shape of the head have been seized. In the third figure, the type is at its best. The points of the bird are fully grasped, as in the detail of the marking near the eye and on the neck, the feathering the legs and the gripping claws. The fourth observes these points, but in the artificial style of a copyist. The fifth and six rapidly deteriorate, and further on there are only fluctuations of decay, the the latter ones even losing the form of the head and copying the type as mere routine. These hawks serve as an example of the rapid rise, the current changes and long decay of art

in the first three dynasties. The degree of correctness of these drawings corresponds very closely, rain by rain, with the work of the royal tombs of the kings and the general products. The third figure comes from the largest and finest tomb, the six is from the worst tomb, inferior to those that follow. Illustrations displayed on the previous page, 7. Study in limestone of early king, best period. 6. Prehistoric Warrior, Slate Pellet, archaic. 8. Granite figure, decadent, second dynasty.

An illustration is displayed on the previous page, 9. Growth and decay of hawk figures. Egypt in the third period. The best hard stone phases are the middle of the dynasty. The softer stones are commoner at the close to the dynasty, while stone vases are much scarcer in the second dynasty and in the third only soft alabaster is found. In every respect, therefore, the beginning of the first dynasty is archaic. The early middle is the finest age, and from that onwards there is only a little fluctuation in the decay. The sculpture of the early third dynasty in Sinai is a rudest there, and is unspeakily worse than the excellent figures from the first dynasty.

8. The fourth period. Third to sixth dynasties. The now arises the great age of the pyramid builders. At the close of the Third Dynasty, the rise of the art was probably as rapid as in the First Dynasty. There is an interval of only 130 years in the list between the king whose work is the worst, Netoket, and the almost perfect art of Sneferu. Unfortunately, we have no examples definitely dated to the rise of this art, but we can see the remains of its archaic period in the portrait of Queen Mertitev's figure 10. The careful working of detail separately without treating it as part of the whole to be blended together is the essential mark of archaism.

The well-known head of Neffert, figure, figure, must again appear as the earliest figure of the Pyramid Age, which is perfectly free in execution. An example of the relief sculpture is shown in the vigorous design of the boatmen, figure 12. In contrast to this, we see how the arts sank in the early part of the 11th dynasty by the figure of Antifa, figure 13. Every state of gradual decay can be traced through the intervening age. Figure 10 is split on the page, Queen Metadefs, Kirol. Vigua 11 is displayed on the page, Princess Neferet, Kirol. These changes in the art agree with the state of the architecture arose to its greatest accuracy of work, and boldest handling of immense masses in the generation which saw the statue of Nefert,

and from that point there was continuous decline. The buildings were less in size and ophyrian work, until in the Sixth Dynasty the mass of the Pyramists were merely of Loose Lowell. In the rest of this period, no periods are known. The small brick ones in the 11th Dynasty rather belonging to the rise in the next period. As Mr. Withers has remarked, the age of engraving monumental inscriptions had deteriorated greatly as early as the Sixth Dynasty all over Egypt, even in the centres of civilisation. From the 6th to the 11th Dynasty, the barbaric stelae present many extraordinary attempts to render the half-forgotten signs in detail. With a monumental revival at the end of the 11th dynasty, the knowledge of hieroglyphs revived. Petri Dendere, 53

Figure 12 is displayed on the previous page, Fight of the Boatman. Fifth Dynasty, Cairo. Figure 13 is displayed on the page, and Tifa, 11th Dynasty, Dendera. 9. The 5th period. 7th to 14th dynasties. This period opens with a minute attention to detail, much like the archaism of the pre-Persian sculptures in Greece. The varieties of growth can be best seen in the sculptures from Dendere, and as a well-ad advanced example, is a tablet at Marseille, figure 14. The rise of this new art was rapid up to its full beauty in the 12th dynasty. The length dynasty may have occupied and most two centuries from its first Princeton, and the old style lasted well until its early stages. Probably the whole rise occupied only a century, and certainly not more than a century and a half.

Under a menem heart, the first, the most delicate low relief was in use, as in the head of Min shown here, figure 15. The hard modelling and bad proportion of the 11th dynasty head has developed rapidly into the most refined relief. By the latter part of the 12th dynasty, there was a There was a manifest decline, as for instance in the head of Anamhart III, here given, figure 16. The continuous series of scarabs shows the same decline, finest and most perfect under Sinocert the First. They steadily became coarsened down to the end of the dynasty, and those of the 13th and 14th dynasties show a continued decadence. The best sculpture of the 13th dynasty kept up some of the earlier style, but was weak and formal as in the figure of Neferhotep.

Figure 17. The latter stages at this period are lost in the darkness of civil confusion and decay, finally closed by the Huyksos invasion. Figure 14 is displayed on the page, head of Horteptu, Marseal. Figure 15 is displayed on the page, Head of Min, Univ, Kohl, London. Figure 16 is displayed on the following page, Aminamhat, third, Cairo. Figure 17 is displayed on the following page. Defermhotep III, Bologna.

Figure 18 is displayed on the following page. Frisco of Dancers, 17th Dynasty, Oxford. Figure 19 is displayed on the following page, Head of Statuette Turin. See Arachiac Seventh Period, Figure 39. Figure 20 is displayed on the following page, Dahutmas, the 3rd. Massalt, Cairo.

Figure 21 is displayed on the following page. Ramessu II, Red Granite, Luxor. 10. The sixth period. 15th to 20th dynasties. This age is the best known of the profusion of remains, especially at Thebes. Of the archaic stage, one of the most vigorous examples is the scene of dancers, figure 18, which resembles the coffin paintings of the 17th dynasty. In the 18th dynasty there were several stages with different styles. At first a delicate and ingenious type prevailed, especially on the statuettes, as in the head

here shown, figure 19. The foreign conquests, which brought in Syrian influence, changed the type. The best example of its portraiture is that of Tahitman's III, Figure 20, and after his time, greater riches and material and variety of color was reached, but with a less decided style. The great break of the naturalism of Akenaten, and the revulsion from it, closed the dynasty. After that, there was only continuous decay, as seen in the latter sculpture of Ramisou II, figure 21. 11. The 7th period. 21st to 33rd dynasties.

The scarcity of statuary prevents our scene the lowest stage of the new period. A statue of Amenanities, figure 22, as well, some heaviness and lack of a portion which afterwards disappears. The 26th dynasty excelled in portature, such as the basalt head here shown, figure 23. Its reliefs, though without the real vitality of the old kingdom, which supplied the model, yet show considerable grace in a genius design, as in the row of bearers carrying farm produce, Fegger 24. Death to which this art sank may be guessed from the head of a Roman statue, figure 25, which is by no means the worst of its kind. Greek and Roman art was so incongruous to be a prop to Egyptian design, and the old style passed away forever.

12. The 8th period, the Arabs. How base the style became is panically seen by the Coptic sculpture, figure 26. The influences upon it were the decayed classical and the Persian art, and is curious how the geometrical style of the Arab art is anticipated in the straight lines and mechanical curves of the Coptic videos. Figure 22 is displayed on the following page, Head of Amanides, Cairo. Number 23 is displayed on the following page, basalt head, Louvre. Figure 24 is displayed on the following page, Youth and Maids with Offerings, Cairo. Figure 25 is displayed, Roman Statue, Berlin.

Figure 26 is displayed on the following page, early Coptic Head, University Cole, London. Figure 27 is displayed on the page, Bab El Futu, AD 1087, Cairo. Figure 28 is displayed on the following page, Porte of Scyl. Sultan Hassan, AD 1358 Cairo. Figure 29 is displayed on the following page. Portch of Kate Bay, AD 1480, Cairo. The Muslim, abandoning all animate forms, cannot be judged in the same manner as the workers of earlier periods. We must turn to his architecture for comparisons and style.

The early work case in the citadel and fortifications of Cairo might almost pass as one with the Norman, which was contemporary with it in Europe. The gate of Bab Elfoto, shown here, figure 27, was built in 1087, the period of the Tower of London, and Miling Abbey. Further comparison see Chapter 4 The squares of pattern on the arch following pairs on opposite sides, but without any repetitions in either side, just as in the pairs of mosaic bands along the walls at the Cathedral at Monreal, known to the grand relieving arch, high above the gateway arc, coming down to the full-blown period of the 14th century, that of the decorated style in England. We see, figure 28, in the porch of the entrance of Sultan-Hussarons Mosque, 1358, the development of elaborate bracketing around the recesses to contract this ban sufficiently to throw a safe arc over it.

The relieving arc has shrunk to a useless band of masonry. Next, the decay of its design is shown, figure 29, in the gate of Kate Bay, 1480. equivalent to the perpendicular style, where the noble deep recesses is flattened out to a surface decoration. The bracketing has changed to mere superficial pendentatives, and the decadence is evident. We have now seen how we can trace through eight successive periods the repeated growth, glory, and decay of art in Egypt, indicating the revolutions of civilization through some 10,000 years. End of Section 2 Section 3 of Revolutions of Civilization

by Flinders Petrie This is the Librevox recording Or the Brevox recordings in the public domain For more information on to volunteer Please visit Libravox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 3 The periods of civilisation in Europe 13

The fourth period, the early Cretan Age This period was contemporary With the fourth period of Egypt And as the earliest that has yet been clearly disentangled In Europe The remains parallel to the first three periods in Egypt still lie in the 21 fate of Neolithic ruins at Nossus. This death is a greater amount of accumulation

than at which contain the ruins of the subsequent three periods of the early, middle and late Creton ages. I have to thank Dr. Evans for assigning the relative periods of many Cretton remains which should not appear in his printed classification and for supplying several illustrations. Illustration is displayed on the page, 30. Objects from Tholos

of Hagea Treadier. Of the early Cretan age, the most important examples have not yet been published, those found at Mokloss. It is hardly practicable to show the growth and decay of art clearly from the published material, how we therefore only give here the remains of the fullest tomb at Hedia Tredia. The seals, figure 30, are primitive in style. The two dogs of leaf patterns are the best work here. The wavy band is apparently the earliest stage of the spiral patterns.

which dominate the art of Europe in later periods. There is also an elaborate wavy band pattern on a similar plaque. The figures are like those the Egyptian prehistoric age, period two, having no arms and the legs ending in a point. They show the earliest rise of figure carving, the well-known Greek island figures, from the cyclades, belong to this age. Illustrations displayed on the previous page,

31, polychrome vase, nosus, 32, Feience, Goaten Kids, Nozzas 14. The fifth period, the middle Cretan Age. In the fifth period, the main feature is the development of brilliant polychrome painting on the vases, and the broad designs of noble curves, figure 31. The period begins with rude figures of men and fishes, and the founding of the first palace at Nozus. There is a steady growth in naturalism, and at the close of this period, there is the shrine of Nosus, with the goddess holding snakes.

There is also the beautiful group of the Goetan Kids, Figure 32. Both of these examples are wrought and colored glaze wear. A general catastrophe ended this period. 15. The sixth period, the late Cretan Age. We here reached the period of art, which is the rival, if not as a superior, of the classical age. The level of which it sprang is seen in the fishermen of Philocopy, figure 33. There, though the drawing is crude, the sense of average. and vitality of it is full of promise. The splendid steer-tight vases, with

reliefs of figures soon flow on this. However the figure painting developed is seen by the magnificent figure of the vase-bearer, Figure 34, and the other spirited frescoes of that time. The masterpieces of the gold cups of Vafiol, with the scenes of Bulls, figure 35, showed the greatest amount of spirit. The bronze vases have beautiful leaf patterns embossed around them. The pottery vases have paintings of tall lilies, life size, which remind us of the finest Florentine work. The architecture was grand and elaborate, as seen in the Great Palace of Nosos. Illustration is displayed on the following page, 33, Fisherman, Phylacopi, 34, Vaysberra, Nossos.

But all this splendor suffered a sudden catastrophe in the Dorian invasion. The remains of the style lingered on in some places, as seen in the grave slab from Mike Kinney, Figure 36. and the subduit vest painting of a chariot figure 37. Those centres which were not occupied were the Dorians as Cyprus and some cities on the mainland such as Athens retained the decaying forms of their old arts. Illustrations are displayed on the following page. 35, Bulls on Cold Cup.

Fepheil. 36, grave steel, McKinney. 37, Cherry on vase, Cyprus. 16. The sixth period, classical. The rise of a new art began to dawn in the diffion vases. The rich spirals of the old art gave way to fret patterns and geometrical rectilineo decoration and motors take the place of the free design of forms in action. Fresh styles of architecture arise and Asiatic influences supply the new motius. The figures are stiff and formal, as in the head, probably of Athena,

who appears in sighting Perseus to the decapitation of Medusa. This metup of Sziliness, figure 38, is of the early part of the 6th century BC. A century later, the sculpture had advanced to its most expressive stage, and almost its highest technical perfection, as in the statues of maidens on the acropolis at Athens, figure 39. To this succeeded the perfect freedom of work in the figure of the piping maiden, Figure 40, upon the end of the Lerda Visey throne, and the steel of Higiesel.

Figure 1. The great mass of Greek sculpture gradually fell off from this standard during several centuries. The next come the still lower Roman copies of Greek work, of wearying banality, until he reached the stumpy, clumsy, clumsy figures of the age of Constantine, Figure 41, or the still-corsor outlines from the catacomb tombs, such as that of Beliscia, figure 2. 17 The eighth period, medieval The northern immigrants brought new ideals

With them into the Mediterranean world And an entirely different style arose Which in its vertical lines and lengthy figures Recalls the pre-classical work of Italy And the attenuated style of Celtic animals An example of an early stage AD 1139 Is a scene of an exorcism in Boston bronze

On the gate of San Zeno at Verona Figure 32. The bishop and a marker holding the arms of the possessed woman, from whose mouth a devil is jumping out. This is the parallel in this period to the salineous designs in the previous period. A century later, the newly perfect work is reached of the Ecclesia at Bamberg,

Vicar 43, which should be compared to the similar stage in period 7, shown in figure 39. The last trace of archaism in this overlaps the age the most perfect sculpture as seen in the head of the Emperor Henry the Sixth at Bamberg, figure 44, about 1245 AD. How much Europe afterwards deteriorated is painfully seen in all the latest sculpture, until in Elizabethan or Jacobin Times, we reach such productions as the alabaster effigy afferogic, Figure 45.

Nor was this decline peculiar to the examples. Compared to the figures of the English queens, that of Eleanor, Figure 144, 46, Queen of Henry II at Fontrault, with its archaic smile and arrangement of drapery, dates about 1190. By 1290, there is the exquisitely graceful figure of Eleanor of Castile at Westminster, figure 47. The statue of Vanne of Bohemia has retained the grace of expression, but the dress has become stiffer by 1395, while Jonathan Rivera, figure 48, shows much more formalism in 1415. Illustrations are displayed on the previous pages. 38, head of Athena, Selenius Palermo.

39, head of maiden, Athens. 40, piping maiden. Ludovizi, Theron. 41, tribe of Constantine, Rome. 42, scene of exorcism. S. Zeno, Therona. 43, Ecclesia, AD 12, 1245, Bamberg. Compare 7, Archaic, Figure 39, and 6, Archaic, figure 19.

44, Kaiser Henrik the 6, AD1245, Banberg. 45, Robert Dudley, Waterwick. In the series of Brasses, the same decline is very familiar, though this series has not begun early enough to show the archaic stage. Perhaps the most perfect in design is that of Joan de Copham in 1320, figure 49. And for the grace of attitude and the flow of the drapery, this is unsurpassed. Descending a century, we meet with the stiff lines bad anatomy of the arms, and formal expression of Lady Bagot in 1407, Figure 50.

Yet another century later, in 1512, the style has become entirely stiff and wooden, as in the brass of Anne Astley, Figure 51, with the swaddled twins in her arms. And another century, by 1605, we have passed out of all the traditions, and reach an age of trivial externals in the figure of Afro Hawkins, Figure 52. The same degradation appears on the seals of the kings and others. Perhaps the most perfect artistic feeling when any seal is seen in that of Simon de Montfort, with a hunter at full gallop blowing his horn and graved about 1240. By the 15th century the designs with great seals have become heavy, formal and badly proportioned.

Thus we see in every branch of sculpture and engraving how the latter part of the 13th century was the turning point when complete mastery was attained, and how continual was the decay after that time. The Renaissance was but the resort of copying in earlier period, owing to the decay and loss of the true style of the eighth or medieval age of art. The history of copying, good, bad or indifferent, does not concern us here. Copying is an artificial system which has no natural development or root in the mind, and which browses it indifferently on anything that may be the fashion of the day. Illustrations are displayed on the following pages.

46. Eleanor Quinn of Henry II. Fonteverult, 1190. 47. Eleanor Castile, Edward I, Westminster, 1290. 48. Joan and M.vere. Henry 4th. Westminster, 1415. 49. Joan de Cobham, 1320. 50, Lady Bagot, 1407. 51, and Astley, 1512.

52, Afro-Hawkins. 6005 End of Section 3 Section 4 of Revolutions of Civilization by Flinders Petitre This is a Libreox recording or Librevox recordings of the public domain

For more information on a volunteer, please visit Librevox.org Recorded by Leon Hemi Chapter 4 The Fluctuations 18 Egypt and Europe Contemporary

The many recurrences of Civilisation in Egypt and in Europe, which we have observed, suggests the question as to how far these changes are contemporary. This is to say in the same phase at one time. To take the most recent age, we may compare some of the best-known buildings of the 8th period. Two columns are displayed on the page with East and England. The massive fortifications, Cairo Gates, 1087 to 1091. Tower of London, 1078, Newcastle, 1080.

The Beginning of Light of Style. Cairo Cedal, 1183. Dome in the Rock, 1189. Canterbury Choir, 1180. Lincoln Choir, 1186. End of Good Enrichment. Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo, 1362. Trinity College, Cambridge, 1350.

Gloucester Choir, 1350. Overloaded decoration, pendentives. Tomb of Cat Bay, 1460. 174, Palace of Yishbet, 1476, Crosby Hall, 1470, St. George's Windsor, 1476. It will be seen that, even as far apart as Egypt, England, right across Europe, the developments of the two architectures were as newly contemporary as we can estimate them. There is certainly not a century of discremency. In the seventh period is difficult to date the Egyptian position, for there are very few dated sculptures

after a thousand BC, until we reached Petunnian times, when Greek influence prevailed. The new style was beginning by 600 BC, was strong by 550, and had developed by 525, at the Persian invasion. On the Greek side, the architecture was strong before 600 BC, Corinth, Salinas, and fully developed by 500. Agrigentum. Though sculpture did not well develop till 500, or lose its archaise until 450 BC. In this period, therefore, the Egyptian phase was half a century or a century before the Greek phase, doubtless due to the much larger amount of older models known to the Egyptian. In the sixth period, the archaism disappears in Egypt, about 1550 BC.

A freestyle is reached by 1,500, and decadence is clear by 1,300. At Nosos, the highest point of this period, is at the close of the Second Palace, which, by its Egyptian connections, was about 1,500 BC, and the Tel-L. Marana pottery of 1370 BC belongs to the decadence of Crete. Here we may say that there is not a century of discrepancy in the phase of the two countries. In the fifth period in Creek has its middle stage linked with the middle of the 12th dynasty in Egypt, and from the time of its decadence there comes a statuette of the 13th dynasty. The phase was therefore the same within two or three centuries, but the material does not define the connection closer than that. For the fourth

The third period, the latter stage of it in Crete is linked by the seal patterns with the 6th to 8th dynasties in Egypt. And the third period in Egypt has pottery which seems to have been imported from Crete, where it is found in the sub-Nolithic, or stratum immediately on the Neolithic level, and before any palace buildings. The first and second periods of Egypt are yet to be sought in the 25 feet of ruins of the Neolithic age at Nossos, or 15 feet at Phaestos. Thus it seems that the phase of the wave of civilization was identical in Egypt and Europe to within a century, where it can be observed in three periods, and that in three earlier periods it was generally connected and may have been identical. The Mediterranean and Egypt, as a whole, formed, therefore, a single group in the history of civilization.

19. Length of Period The length of period thus shown by the sculpture is next to be considered. Here the question of early chronology comes in, which has been for the period. fully discussed this year in historical studies, British school in Egypt. I shall therefore take it as there stated. No valid reason has yet been given for abandoning the history written by the Egyptians, which is strongly supported by external evidence at each stage, and is accepted by all the other Egyptologists. The best defined position in the development of art is the close of the archaic age in sculpture, when a perfect harmonising of the several

parts is first reached. This is independent of personal touch. which may prefer this stage, or the archaic rather before it, or the full-blown glory rather later. We may take the close of the archaic at the following dates. 8th period AD 1240, interval 1690. 7th period BC 450, interval 1100. 6 period BC 1550 interval 1900. 5th period BC, 3,450. Interval, 1300.

Fourth period BC, 4,750. Interval, 650. Third period, BC, 5,400. So the average period is 1,330 years. The shortest about half that amount, and the longest half as long as long a gain. 20. Curves of Egyptian and European art. We can only give some appreciation of the waves of art in the successive periods, figure 53. Figure 53 is displayed on the page, waves of art in Egypt and Europe. It is, of course, a more or less personal matter,

how far certain periods are to be ranked on the same or on a different level. But the judgment of it is very constant, as my estimate made 11 years ago and not referred to since is almost identical in height of curves and in form of rise and four, except in one or two details which led discoveries have added to our knowledge. And in the addition of the waves 3 to 5, on the European side, which were then quite unknown. The upper curve at the beginning shows the fluctuations in the Egyptian art.

The third period, first dynasty, intermediate inequality between the fourth and fifth periods, fourth and twelfth dynasties. Its art is as good as the fourth period, much better than the fifth, but its architecture is inferior to either. The sixth period, eighteenth dynasty, is rather inferior in every way to the fifth. The decadence from it scarcely rises up to the seventh period, the whole excellence of which is derived from copying. The eighth period, Arab, which has no sculpture in Egypt, it is impossible to assess, except by the general artistic products of architecture and metalwork.

Judged by these, it may fairly be put as equal to the seventh Seyet period. There is another way to compare these periods. The crest of one wave is on the same level as part of the decline of another wave, and the out of the two points should be equivalent. For instance, the highest of the fifth period, 12th dynasty, is equal to 800 years down to the fourth period, or the middle of the 5th dynasty, and this seems fair. Similarly, the highest of period 3 is equal to 300 years down, period 4, or the beginning of the 5th dynasty. Period 6, 18th dynasty is ranged as equal to 150 years down period 5, or the middle of the 12th dynasty. Similarly, the Seat period

7th is reckoned equal to that of Remusiezer second. This may be a low estimate of it, but, as all the good work at that date is only copying, we can highly rank it higher. The lower curve of the beginning is that of European art, which rises to be

the higher at the end, as all architectural sculpture since 1500 has been mere copying and playing variations, whether any continuous natural development. The last four centuries are omitted as being very, very appreciated. For my own part I should regard this eighth period as a declining like the others, without taking into account an entirely artificial archaistic revival of the last

50 years, which has no root in the feelings of the majority, and will die like all mere fashions. No doubt in Hadrian's time they worshipped archaistic minervavers as the revival of beauty. All this, however, is only a personal opinion which I do not care to defend. The medieval wave 8 is here ranked as intermediate in values between the Machinian 6 and the classical 7 Such heads as Henry the Lion at Brunswick AD 1227 and the Emperor Henry at Bamberg

1240 are more perfect expressions of character free of conventionality than anything which the Macanian age can show They are fairly equal to the best portraiture of the first century BC and accordingly the crest of the medieval wave, 8, is put as equivalent to 50 BC. The Machinian wave, 6, is put at the level of the Antonides, and it is impossible to equate work so much differing and feeling, but we could scarcely say that it was equal to either earlier or later work. The depth of degradation of the chariot on the cryptiot face.

Figure 37 is certainly blow anything in the 8th century AD. By 600 BC, there was a considerable rise, as in the Salinas Metaps. By 550, almost perfect work was reached, and it is hard to choose between 504.50 for the best. The fall of classical work was uniformly continuous, from about 400 BC to AD 200. At each century, the work was distinctly poorer than that of 100 years before it. The rapid descent comes later, after comodus or severus, as best seen on the coinage, and the coinage also shows how AD 600-800-800 was a bottom of all in art. In the rise of medieval art, Henry I, 1135 at Rochester, is Blow My Canier Art.

Henry the second at Fontraveld 1190 is a great advance, showing only a little archism, and my 1240 the crest is reached. Such are the grounds for judging the former waves of the best known ages in Europe. The medieval was but little below the classical level may be seen not only in the heads of figures 43 to 44, also in the technical work of drapery. Where we may compare the finest Greek example, the Nike 54, with the advancing work of figure 55, and the fully-wought figures of the death of the virgin, figure 56. These examples form an instructive comparison of the treatment of thin and thick draperies.

Illustrations displayed on the previous page, 54, Nike tying sandal, Athens, 55 S. Philip early 12th century, Halberstadt. The early 15th the Virgin, mid-13th century, Strasbourg. The earlier periods, 3, 4, 5 in Europe are only sketched in the diagram. Their values are scarcely comparable with others, since there is no figure sculpture and the vast decorations stand by themselves. Moreover, we know nothing yet of the depth of the decay between these waves. End of Section 4.

Section 5 of Revolutions of Civilization by Flinders Petitius. This is a Librevox recording or Librevox recordings of the public domain. For more information on a volunteer, please visit Libravox.org, recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 5. Relations of Different Activities 21, Subjects in the 8th Period So far we have only looked at sculpture as being the most fully represented and most readily valued product of civilisation, but it must not be thought that it is the most essential.

product, or that other activities have necessarily the same phase of wave as we find in sculpture. Most of the other evidences of civilization appear later than that of sculpture, and our object in this chapter is to estimate the order in which they are evolved, and their relation one to another. We begin naturally with the best-known period, that are the last six centuries, and examine the changes in that before looking to earlier periods. The great and important elements on moral ideas and religion are omitted here, because they are so largely subjective and their standards necessarily vary with the requirements of the phase of the civilization. Sculpture and architecture go closely together in all ages, so far as we can see. In sculpture, the turning point of freedom

has been here set at AD 1240, mainly on the strength of the well-debted Bamberg sculptures, which are remote from Mediterranean tradition. In architecture, Salisbury Cathedral stands for the perfect acquirement of freedom and grace without the least trade of over-elaboration, as it was founded in 1220, and completed without the staple before the consecration in 1258. This coincides as closely as possible with the highest point of sculpture. We are here following the test period of the disappearance of archaism, apart from the personal question of appreciation of style. The next development is at a painting.

Some of the drawings by Matthew of Paris, about 1240 are very beautiful, such as a royal marriage, M. S. Cot, Nero, D.I., but yet not of archism. There is no work of Giotto that is beyond the archaic stage, down to 1330. The chapel of S. Felice at Padua shows that as early as 1379, complete freedom was attained by Atichario and Jacopo di Avanzol. They were the earliest masters to stand clear of archism, which is not fully passed by other men until about 1450. We may say then that the turning point in painting is 150 or 200 years later than that in sculpture. In literature, we must compare only plain prose as poetry and plays have, by their nature, an artificial structure.

Bacon and Ben Johnson are the turning point. Bacon, with his high education, retained the archaicist structure, while Johnson shows, that in popular use, hierarchyism had gone, and many of his sentences might have been written at any later date. 1600 may then be taken

as a turning point of freedom in writing, and none can deny that it was the greatest age of Vigoran literature. In music, the development is so much nearer to our own time that is difficult to estimate

it impartially. Perhaps we may say that Hayden was still archaic in most of his life, but steps freely for the first time in his great symphonies of 1790. while Biedhoeven only shows some memories of archaism rarely in his earlier symphonies from 1796 onward.

Hence, perhaps 1790 may be accepted as a turning point. Our difficulty of estimation is still greater in later developments. In mechanics or the adaptation of long familiar principles and materials, the full freedom of design was clearly not attained in the earlier railway work. Brunel's tubular bridge, though new, was by no means of perfect adaptation, to its requirements. Perhaps Baker's fourth bridge may be the typical example of freedom from needless restriction, in meeting one of the oldest needs a man with methods and material already well known, apart from fresh discovery. Or maybe that further work will show that

archaism has even clung to that, for the present we may put down 1890 as a close of archaism in mechanics. It is obvious that in natural science discovery is still flowing rapidly, and there concept and by no means outgrowing the stage of casting of previous ideas and only developing what is in hand. Material wealth is also still rapidly on the increase. We can now summarize the turning points of the freedom from archism in the 8th period as being at AD 1240 in sculpture, 1,400 painting, 1,600 literature, 1790 music, 1890 mechanics. After 80 1910, science, In 1910, Wealth 22. Subjects in 7th Period

The estimation of the dates of these several phases in the previous civilisation of the classical period is next in our view. The sculpture we have already estimated, as reaching the turning point at 450 BC. Painting was of latter development, but in the absence of any dated paintings for pre-Roman times, we can only glean a view from the vague descriptions and remarks preserved to us. Polygnotos, 460 BC, whose style was strictly ethnic, seems to have been almost parallel to Guoto in design. The establishment of light and shade and abandonant of flat tints is attributed to Apollodorus, 400 BC.

Zuxis, by 400 BC, scoff the adopted correct proportion, by about 350, paroisesis and Eupomps, with his direct appeal to nature, seemed to have finally left Archaeism. Appels appears to have belonged to the latter for Blown Age, the Raphael of his period. In Italy, there is flat-tinted painting of high quality from Pestum, probably before 400 BC, for soon after this date the Greeks were conquered by the Lucanians. The more advanced paintings of Fulci and Cronetto cannot be dated by history, but there is nothing on this side discorded with the development in Greece. we may take then 350 BC as a turning point of archism in painting in literature the close the archaic style

and development of complete freedom of structure and deportation of descendants might perhaps be put between Thucydides and xenophon say 380 BC in Greece in Italy on the contrary it was later and can hardly be put before Cicero 50 BC we may adopt the mean date of 200 BC in musical knowledge is almost entirely always theory and not of its history or development and practice so it is useless to try to judge its evolution from Archesum the mechanics of the Greeks continued without a

break into Roman use Dimitrius Poliorichitz so 300 BC greatly developed machines for siege purposes diode 25 his great siege tower is 150 feet high but such a structure does not demand as much resource and ability as he originally of Obelisks. Those which Augustus erected were 78 and 71 feet high, that of Caligula 83 feet and that of Constantius 105 feet. To set up such masses seems to prove a greater amount of mechanical facility and structure than is shown by any other Roman work. This skill was continued into the lower empire as seen by the Obelisk at Constantinople. In construction, the greatest dome that at the Pantheon, 140 feet across, dates probably from age.

The Basilica of Maxentius, AD 310, is only 85 feet across the nave, and, fast as the whole is, it can hardly rank as a bolder work than the Pantheon. The date of full mechanical freedom may thus perhaps be put at the beginning of the first century, where the continuance scarcely abated till the fourth century. Since both mathematical and organic continued to develop into Roman times, Strabo's introduction to geography, AD20, is excellent in its geometry and its scientific spirit. But Patermally, AD 150, as a geometer and the radical astronomer, and as a vast organizer of material in geography, gave the final freedom to these sciences. The enormous works of Gallen, AD 180, did much the same for medical science. It seems doubtful if there was any advance in knowledge after AD 200,

and within one or two centuries later, ground was certainly been lost. We may take AD 150 as a point of freedom of thought from archaic hypothesis. In observing wealth we must either select the maximum of precious metals or the maximum of invested capital of conveniences of life. Though our facts are very scanty and a result must be more a general impression that divine statement, yet the two stages must be kept apart. Alexander planted the accumulated treasures of the eastern world in Prussia and Rome gradually stripped the Greek world of all its wealth by conquest and taxation,

as well as drawing largely from Gaul and Spain. Probably the first or second century AD saw the greatest accumulation of gold. Certainly, after Aurelius, AD 170, there was a sudden drop in the weight of the Aureus, and there was no rain, with a free coinage of gold except Cerverus Alexander. This points to the capital stock, having been mainly exhausted by AD 170, probably buy the prodigious waste in Gilding during the first two centuries. The drain of buying off the barbarians came later. The maximum of precious metals might then be set somewhere in the first century, say AD 50,

before the gigantic waste of Nero's golden house. The accumulated capital of the means and conveniences of life probably continue to grow to the beginning of the breakup, about AD 200. But in the less disturbed provinces such as Britain, Egypt and Syria, we can see the most widespread prosperity later about AD 300, as shown by the principal abundance of buildings and settlements of that age. The turning points of the civilization of the 7th period may then be stated as follows. BC 450 in sculpture, 350 painting, 200 literature, Zero. Mechanics.

AD 150, Science. 200, Wealth. 23, subjects in the sixth period. Of the sixth period, we can only judge in detail from Egypt, and the distinctions of succession in Greece are too slightly known in the Mycenaean age. Sculpture, as we have noticed, passed from its last trace of archism about 1550 BC, early into the reign of Ammonhotep, the first. Painting was fully free and not. natural by 1470 under de Hottoms, the third. Of literature, there are a few datable remains.

A Kenythens' great hymn to the Aten seems fully developed in structure and noble use of language in 1380, while the poem of Pentor in 1290 is tooted. In the tales, The Taking of Joppa, 1470 BC, is but an artless folk tale, the doomed prince, about 1300 BC is well composed. Anpoo and Butar is as fully developed as any writing of this period and can hardly be later than 1200 BC. Perhaps 1350 BC may be taken as a date

to the first freedom in style. In mechanics, the largest masses, cut and erected were the Colossi of Remusil the second, at Thebes and at Tannus, of 1,900 tons. These were made about 1280 BC. Of science we have no detailed accounts. The wealth shown by the diffused comforts of life seem to have grown down to Remusuf the 3rd, 1180,

and magnificent objects are shown in the tomb of Amat Dua, about 1140 BC. There certainly was a decline after this. The summary then stands for the sixth period as BC 1550 in sculpture, 1470 painting, 1350 literature, 1280 mechanics, 1180 wealth. 24, subjects in the fifth period. For the fifth period, our data is still more scanty. The sculpture freed itself for the rise of the 12th Dynasty, 3,450 BC. Painting was certainly free in the figures of the wrestlers at Ben-I-Hassan, late in the reign of Cinesert I,

the first, the burial of Benin in his 43rd year, 3,396 BC. Of literature, the best example is a hymn to Sinocert III, about 3,3,320 BC, and the adventures of Sainhat were very probably written about this time, referring to persons of two or three generations earlier. Mechanically, the greatest work known is the cutting and placing of the quartzite monolithic tomb chamber of Aminemot, the 3,270 BC. Of wealth we have little idea, but it certainly increased down to the close of the dynasty about 3,250 BC, but probably not later. The summary of the fifth period then is BC, 3,450 in sculpture, 3,400 painting, 3,320 literature, 3,270 mechanics, 3,250 wealth. 25, subjects in the fourth period. In the fourth period of the pyramid builders, the scanty data points to the following stages. Sculptures emerge from the archaic by 4,750 BC in the reign of Sniphiru, painting scenes were

seen a little later as the geese of Niframat may be a generation over the tomb of Rahhotep. The mechanical ability is difficult to distinguish from the purely architectural maximum. For accuracy on a large scale, Kufu stands unapproached, by the flint. paint slab of Asa is a most highly finished piece of work in this period. We know so little the history of literature or wealth in this period that we cannot hope to estimate their exact position. The summary of the fourth period is thus. BC, 4,750 in sculpture, 4,700 painting, 4,650 mechanics. In these last three periods, it may well be said that we are trusting to only one or two examples of some subjects that happen to have survived, but it might be a must be said, but it

must be remembered that is the work for the fullest age that is most likely to survive, and it is the literature or the principal age that is the most valued and copied. We may now receive all the stages of civilization together, taking the earliest phase, that of sculpture, as the zero of each period. Table was displayed on the page, comparing sculpture, painting, literature, and mechanics, science and wealth to the periods of the 8th, 7th, 6th, 5th and 4th. Less than the order of the development of the successive phases of each period is usually the same, though the intervals lengthened in the latter ages. End of Section 5

Section 6 of the Revolutions of Civilization by Flindus Petrie. This is at Librefox According, or Libby Fox Accordings in the public domain. For more information or a volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey Chapter 6. The National View of Civilization 26. The highest and lowest conditions. The comparison of the successive periods may, usefully, be made by defining the greatest feature of each period in Egypt or Europe, and the nature of the collapse at the close of each period in Europe by conquest. The table is played on the page comparing the greatest feature to the collapse in Europe.

Greatest Feature Column reads 4. Power of Construction 4th Dynasty 5. Foreign Connections 12th Dynasty 6. Utilizing of Natural Products 18th Dynasty 7. Cataloging of Nature Roman

8. Utilizing Natural Forces Modern Collapse in Europe column reads says Extermination of the Concord Destruction of Mayors only Slavery Dorians taking share property north races We can thus see that the widening of the outlook in the summer of each period

and the amelioration of the collapse in the winter This is the real nature of human progress 27, the period in other continents So far we have only regarded the Mediterranean and European civilization Which is the same phase throughout But this is not necessarily the phase in other parts of the world In the Friates and Tigris system there was always a strong civilization, which seems to have begun in the highlands to the east of the Great Valley.

The mound of Susar accumulated 26 feet in 4,000 years, and if the 50 feet of rain below that grew at the same rate, that would imply beginning of 12,000 BC. If it only grew at the rate found in Palestine mounds, then it dates from 6,000 BC. Probably we have to deal with a culture as early as any trace in Europe. We cannot here distinguish the phases exactly as we can. can on the Mediterranean, and we must merely state the most notable rules from the artistic point of view in each period. In Etam, BC, 4,450, years 700. Naram Zinn, 3,750 BC, 1,650 years.

Kamarubai, 2,100 BC, 1,460 years. Ashurbanapal, 640 BC, 1,460 years. L. Mumang, AD, 820. The first of these periods is quite uncertain, as there is nothing to show whether such a stage was not attained earlier. The average of the three defined periods is 1,520 years, which is not far from the 1,320 years, by the time which the eastern period anticipates the Western years. A table is displayed on the page, comparing East, West and the Difference with an average

of 365 years. Thus the Eastern Phase, on the whole, keeps about three and a half centuries in advance of the Mediterranean, varying from two to five and a half centuries. These results give some insight into the general meaning of historical conditions. The impression that civilization always comes from the East is due to the East being a few centuries ahead of the West in its phase. As on the rise of a wave, the east is more civilized, or on the fall of a wave which does not attract attention, is less civilized.

The cause of the constant struggle between east and west is likewise seen to be due to the difference of phases. In Mesopotamia and Europe, where in the same phase, it would be a balance of power as there is around the Mediterranean, when even a political incidences does not involve a change of population. But with Mesopotamia always leading, it is bound politically to a modern. over on the West a few centuries before the rise of the West in each period. The Mediterranean was almost an Arab lake at the time of El Muman.

Persia dominated all the civilised Mediterranean in the 6th century BC, but on the whole of the West more usually controls the East, because from the time of its maximum, during the gradual decline of each period, it is always on a higher plane than the East. In some other cases, also the period from one wave of greatness to the next can be traced. In India, Asuka had the great level. is known in ancient times, including all India, except the southern tip, Kashmir, Afghanistan, and Belushistan. This rule was at its height in 250 BC. The next great age of rule was

on the completion of the Mongol Empire, AD 1550. The interval is 1,800 years. In Mexico, the highly civilized Maya kingdom is traditionally stated to have been founded in the 10th century BC. Orance 4, it was succeeded by the 12th century. also highly civilized in the 6th century AD. The interval is 1,500 years. Thus the period of a civilization is Mediterranean average 1,330 years, or admitting the earliest, 1,500.

Mesopotamia average 1,520 years. India, 1.8-100 years. Mexico, about 1,500. It is evident, therefore, that the length of period is practically alike in different parts of the globe, suggesting that it's due to the human constitution rather than to external causes. The phase, however, varies greatly. 28. The phase belonging to folk, not to land. Here another inquiry must be made. Does this phase in each place belong to the country or to the people? The only way we can study this

is by seeing examples where a whole people have migrated and expelled a race which has a different phase. Does this subsequent history agree with their own old phase, or if that of their new country? We cannot take any modern movements, as we cannot yet see what may be the phase of the immigrant civilization, and in early times we do not know enough of the sources of nature of immigrations before the classical period. The large northern movements are out of count, as a northern same by their exquisite early bronze work, to have had the same phase as the rest of Europe. The few movements which we can examine are those of the Etruscans, evenasiatic people, the Greeks in Bactria, and the Arabs in Spain. The most curious feature

of the Roman history is the disappearance of Etrulia. The Etrudian sages themselves put their period as 1,100 years ending at 88 BC, in the passage which we have quoted in the beginning. There are great civilisation shown by engineering works, great fortress cities and richly painted tombs, all vanishes before the imperial period, when Rome was greatest, and Italy was most secure, and had the fullest opportunities for development. Eterior is absolutely a blank page. Sissalapine Gaul, the plain of Lombardi, has some political importance and produced some important men, but not so Eteria.

We must see that the Etruscan civil civilized. was in a phase that was some centuries before that of Greeks and Rome. The source of Etruscans has been endlessly debated, but they certainly were foreign to Italy, and as foreigners they bought with them a phase of civilization which was not that of the Mediterranean or of Western Europe. Of the Greeks in Bactria we know little, but certainly for some three or four centuries they show a civilization which was higher than the native. Now the east was highly civilized. Persia was far more advanced than Greece and 500 BC and probably at 400. For the Greek, therefore, to retain a superiority to the eastern implies that he kept his own phase,

which was two or three centuries later. The Arabs in Spain are as strangely neglected in current histories. To write of medieval Europe, without them, is to ignore the principal civilization of the period. But full of histories, the strongest literature at the largest life, were all south of the Pyrenees throughout the Dark Ages. yet this civilization occupies five lines that are 500 pages in the best-known handbook of that period. We read in the Arab historians of different kings having elaborate guidance with every variety of plant, of the literary academy to whom new poems were recited, on the fund for the endowment of learned men and the attraction of scholars from all parts of the world.

The crown and glory was the library of Al-Hakham, who at 970 AD, entirely filled a palace at Kordoya with books. sought from the whole known world. The classified shelves library held 600,000 volumes, all catalogued and in order. The political power was rather earlier, as its greatest extent, was when Abder Earl Raman reached the middle of France in 732. When we look further, we see that by 1030, they deplore the rapid deterioration of the people. And by 1144, a democratic system began, setting up and overthrowing rules with great frequency. by the power of the Vox Populi.

This regular feature of a decaying civilization shows that it had certainly passed all its status of growth and glory. These states of political power, Lutur and decay entirely conformed to the Mesopotamian phase, and are contrary to the European phase. Thus, apparently in the case of the Etruscan in Italy, and of the Greek in the east, and certainly among the Arabs in Spain, it is seen that the phase of intrusive people is that of their source and not that of their new religion. The phase of civilization is inherited the people and is not due to the circumstances of their position. When the phase of each group of civilization

has been further defined, it may be possible to use the phase of civilization as a criterion of the source of an evading people. The instance already noted of the Etruscan phase illustrates this. Their greatest power was about 600 BC, which was that at the phase of Mesopotamian civilization. Possibly the phase clings to a race of ages. Certainly the most flourishing period of medieval Tuscany was earlier than that or the rest of Italy by a few centuries, just as it had been earlier in the classical times. In connection with this, it may be noted how the conquest and settlement of each country of Europe by Rome is reflected in its latter history. The order of Roman influence was Italy, Spain, France, England, Germany, and the United. This is the order of political power of these countries in the last few centuries.

29. The breaks between periods. The next question is that at the separation of one period from another. We have represented that the wave of civilization has fallen to a minimum, and then suddenly rising again. To what has this changed due? In every case in which we can examine the history sufficiently, we find there was a fresh race coming into the country when the wave was at its lowest. In short, every civilization of a settled population tends to inceasing decay from its maximum condition. And this decay continues until it is too weak to initiate anything, when a fresh waste comes in

and utilizes the old stock to graft on, both in blood and culture. As soon as a mixture is well started, it rapidly grows on the old soil and produces a new wave of civilization. There is no new generation without a mixture of blood. But thenogenesis is unknown in the birth of nations. Further on we shall deal with some of the natural results of this condition. We will now review the breaks between the periods in Europe and in Egypt to show the reason for the broad statement just made.

The movements of Pables always extend over some centuries. We can only adopt the dates at which the actual race mixture seems to have occurred. The break between the classical and medieval periods, 7 and 8, is the most familiar. It is needless to detail here the continuous flow of migrations from the north of Europe to the south and from the Asiatic side westwards. Between AD 300 and 600, 15 different races broke bounds, blowing to half a dozen different stocks. Sea Migrations, Huxley Lecture, 1906. And here take 450 AD as a main date of mixture, though much was going on for two centuries before that and also after it. The beginning of the classical period, 7, and the close the Mucanian, 6, has been partially understood from recent discoveries.

The old edition of the turn of the Heraclidae is placed about 1200 BC. The Cretan civilization is supposed to have been swamped during the Alliance Wars on Egypt 1194 BC. The Egyptian connections with Greece by deaded objects all cease at this date. Hence 1200 BC may be taken as a date to the main change. The brakes in the middle creton, 5, to the late Creton or Machanian. 6, and from the early creton, 4, and the middle cretan, 5, were at approximately the dates of the breaks in Egypt, but cannot be otherwise dated from Greek sources. In Egypt, the change from period 7 to 8 is particularly definitely fixed by the Arab invasion in 641.8. After the main body, other tribes of Arabs came in, down to the 9th century.

On the other hand, there had been a filtering before the Great Migration, as Arab horsemen were Roman auxiliaries in Egypt and many centuries earlier. The break of the sixth period is not well-defined in Egypt, but is made up of various immigrations starting the Seventh period, with Easterers 950 BC, Ethiopians 750 BC, and Libyans from then onwards. The 6th period was brought in by the third. the Heiskosk migration, 2,600 BC, and had been a filtering inn of eastern people before, and two Mesopotamians even became kings of Egypt.

Also, there was probably a constant flow of further immigrants, as exemplified by Terra and Hebram, about four or five hundred years later. Probably we might date the mixture of Heikos as beginning about 2,600 BC. The fifth period is indicated by the collapse of Egyptian work after the sixth deniscus. at the appearance of the close of the 6th Dynasty and onwards of foreign button seals, which are connected with Cretton Products 4,000 PC. The fourth period of the pyramid builders apparently began in the Third Dynasty. There is continuous decline in work down to the close in the Second Dynasty and early in the Third.

Yet by the end of the Third Dynasty there had arisen the finest Egyptian art. The break indicated by the change of the dynasty is doubtless the coming in of the new period. This is dated at 5,000 BC. The rise of the third period is lost in the darkness of the pre-donastic age. The highest point of the sculptor we have shown by the Hawks to belong to 0, 5,400 BC. Before that there was 150 years to the beginning of the first dynasty and 350 years of kings before that, dynasty zero, making 500 years recorded before the age of the best sculpture. But this is only the time of the first sculpture.

settled rule and the duration of the confusion of the conquest has to be added perhaps a century more the invasion dates when a new period of civilization is started may be compared with the sculpture phases thus a table has displayed on the page comparing period with invasion the growth and sculpture it is obvious that the period of builders came in upon the early dynastic people abnormally soon taking only 150 use to rise to a fresh maximum. We know so little of the historical conditions that we cannot see the meaning of this. Perhaps it should be rather regarded as a double maximum of one

period divided in the same way as the classical age was parted to a Greek and a Roman maximum. 30. The diagram of periods. We are now in a position to review all the dates for the various phases of each period in a combined diagram, C. Figure 57 at the end. Each period is shown by a line sloping down to the right hand. The scale of the period runs along the line, as marked in the bottom period, and the line slopes down according to the vertical scale ruled in millennia. Thus, each line of a period ends at the same level as the next period line begins. These period lines may be looked on as a continuous spiral around a cylinder, divided at each invasion. The purpose of thus

arranging the facts is to enable all of the periods to be readily compared in their main features. There is no absolute fixing of the successive lines of periods one below the other. Many different adjustments might be made, and one must be arbitrarily selected. The rise or close of each period, the ends of the period lines, are not satisfactory, for a period may come to an abrupt break, as did the six. None of the phases of a period are so well to find as the close of archaism, the attainment to complete freedom in sculpture. The latter, the period, the more the various phases diverge, and is not well to place the earliest of the phases in a vertical column, as the other phases will spread so far to the right in latter

periods. The Ferris arrangement for comparison seems to be to take the best-defined phase, sculpture, as a connecting link, and to set the sculpture phases one below the other in a line square with the slope of the period lines. The earlier periods are necessarily based upon the Egyptian examples, and the latter periods upon the European examples, has been the best to find at each case. So much for the construction of the diagram. Now we turn to reading the diagram and drawing conclusions from it.

The first striking feature is a much wider spread of the phases as the periods to send. This means that there are lesser intervals of barbarism between the civilizations and that the civilization phase in each period is longer at each recurrence. This is in accord with a common idea that the world is getting more civilization, as the ages go on, in spite of the crushing fact that in many kinds of civilisation as successive recurrences show no improvement. Egyptian construction is as good in the fourth period as anything done in the four latter periods. Art is as good in the fourth, or as six, or as seventh, as it had ever been later, though differing in its nature. Thus, while the best

work in art is no better in successive periods, the total amount of civilization is greater, because it is longer. The gain is in quality and old quality. Another result of this widening out of the phases is to separate the best period of each form of culture. Thus in the early days the arts of sculpture and painting, mechanics and wealth were all nearly contemporaneous. Hence there was artistic mechanics executed by wealth, but as the phases space out further, the art is decadent before the mechanical ability is free and before the wealth has grown. Hence the increase tasteless use of wealth by the late Mokanean, the Roman or the modern man.

A strange feature of these successive periods is a sudden raid of Northerners that breaks through to the south of Europe in the midst of the most flourishing age and leaves no permanent trace. In 1527 AD the raid on Rome and its horrible sacking by the Germans under the Constable Diburban, see Germans on diagram, was the greatest blow the city received since Dutila. As Gibbon says, the ravages of the barbarians, who are Alaric had led from the banks of the Danube were less destructive than the hostiles exercised by the troops of Charles V.

In 390 BC, the Celts late Rome waste with fire and sword, and 279, they largely planted Greece, see Celts in diagram, in the late Menoian second period, or 1500 BC, was a great catastrophe for the destruction of the Palace of Norsos, apparently by barbarians, but nevertheless did not interrupt the general culture. The Middle Menloan II period, about the 12th Egyptian dynasty, or 3,300 BC, is cut short by a general catastrophe, which has not entered the immediate resumption of the civilisation by building the Second Palace. Evans SAD classification Thus in four successive periods, it is so far back as our detailed knowledge extends,

we see that southern Europe, as brightest, has been suddenly clouded by a northern storm which has left no permanent change. The principal conqueror of each period has arisen at the same phase. In period 8, Napoleon is marked with N below the line, between literature and mechanics. In period 7, Caesar, marked C, is in the same position. In period 6, Rmosu's 2nd, R, comes at L and M in the same connection. In period 5, Sinocert, the 3rd, S, the main Egyptian conqueror in that period coincides with With regard to the beginning and end of each period, the exact assignment is difficult, as a mixture of the incoming race is usually gradual, extending over a century or more. Hence it is not surprising if we have a couple of centuries variation in the period of growth before the phase of sculpture, the rather longer interval between the fifth and sixth civilizations is seen to be due to the slower development of the six, the fifth ending normally.

On the other hand, the short interval between the 6th and 7th is seen to be due to the violent end of the 6, cutting off entirely the normal 4 centuries or so of slow decay after the maximum of wealth was attained. Thus the study of the diagram shows clearly what were the exact seats of the irregularities of the periods. 31 stages of government Forms of government are left to the last as a regulation of daily affairs and the repression of wrong is of little meaning in civilization, when compared with the great formative interests of man's mind, whose phases we have studied.

It is true that man thinks and talks much about government in all ages, but then the concern of man is no measure of the real value of a subject, as appears by his perennial interest in gambling, which now occupies a large part of the printing in this country. So also government is of great concern, but of little import. constitutional history is a barren figment compared with the permanent value of art, literature, science, and economics. What man does is the essential need to civilization, how he advances in capacities, and what he bequeaths to future ages. The relations between the different classes of a country are merely a subsidiary.

England, France and Russia will be remembered by Newton, Pasteur and Mendeleif, when all their forms of government are forgotten. At every invasion by the new people, which, as we have seen, is a necessary foundation of a new period of civilization, there must be strong personal rule. The holding together of the invaders, the decisive subjection of the invaded, the strife through the fusion of peoples, all require an autocracy of greater or less scope. This period lasts during four to six centuries. The next stage is an oligarchy, when the leadership is still essential, but the unity of the country can be. maintained by law instead of autocracy. This stage varies in length. In Greece and Rome was about four centuries, in medieval Europe, about five or six centuries. Then gradually the transformation to a democracy takes place, beginning about the great phase of literature

in Greece, Rome and modern Europe. During this time of about four centuries, wealth, that is, the accumulated capital of facilities, continues to increase. When democracy is attained full power, the majority without capital necessarily ate up the capital of the minority, and the civilization steadily decays until the inferior population is swept away to make room for a fit of people. The consumption of all the resources of the Roman Empire, from the second century when democracy was dominant until the Gothic kingdom arose on its ruin. Here is a best known example in detail. Such as a regular connection of the forms of government or the relation of classes which is inherent in the conditions of the revolutions of civilization.

End of Section 6. Section 7. Of the Revolutions of Civilization by Flinders Petrie. This is a Librebox recording, or the Vox Accordings of the public domain. For more information on a volunteer, please visit Librevox.org. Recorded by Leon Harvey. Chapter 7. Conditions of Civilization.

32. Advance through strife. In another point of view, the periods of civilization bear a fresh meaning. There is no advance without strife. Man must strive with nature or with man, if he is not to fall back and degenerate. The harder a nation strives, the more capable it will be. This is not only the slow result of selection, but it is the immediate result in each individual, produced by the attitude of his mind. The northern nations, accustomed to striving against climate, thrive vastly when they get into easier countries.

until their tone is left down to their conditions. Hence almost all migration is from colder to warmer climates, and within the same country, as in England at present, there is a steady flow of families pushing south. This necessity of striving implies a rapid advance during the centuries after an invasion. There is the whole organization of the new period to be evolved by continuous strife of ideas and personalities. There is a new civilization to be evolved by striving of ideals until a total

definite platform is reached. So as soon as each subject lose its archaism and reaches a full freedom of expression, there is no more strife with difficulties and uncertainties of mode. Then strife being ended, decay sets in shortly after. Further, the accumulation of the facilities of life, or capital in every form, diminishes the need for striving. There is so much the less worth striving for, there is so much more to enjoy that strife. Hence the easier life is rendered. The more easiest decay is intergeneration. The maximum of wealth must inevitably lead to the downfall. 33. Causes of period. We have now seen how general is a regular recurrence of civilization in all

countries that we have examined, and how constant is the order of its phases. Another question remains to us, why is this period so far regular? What determines the spring, summer and autumn of the great year? The first most obvious causes would be periodical changes of climate. The American expedition due to Turkestan has brought to light regular cycles of wet and dry climate there, and Mr. Huntington has pointed out the effects of such cycles of climate in Western Asia and Greece. Royal Geographical Society, 26, May 1910 It is clear that such changes have an effect in precipitating upon the richer lands, the pastoral races, who live on lands too dry for agriculture. We find an age of famines along with such movements and continuing after them.

The Heik-Soss movement from the Arabian Plains was followed by famine in Syria and then seven years famine in Egypt. The Arab movement started from a great famine in AD 600, followed by famines during four centuries, in 866, 866, 9.63, 928, 929, 969, 970, 1025, 1055, yearly to 1072, and then some sporadic famines in 1201, 12601, 1260s, These were caused by the Low Nile in Egypt, which implies a short supply in Abyssinia. Thus the increased dryness does accompany an age of migration and may be one cause for it. But that would not account for the regular phases already described, nor can it account for a race-caping to its own phase when it has passed into a country of a different phase, as we have noticed. There may be a normal rate of change from stage to stage produced by the process of the human mind.

Each generation may average a certain extent of change, as each year averages a certain amount of growth or decay in the body. Yet against this as an entire cause, there is the alteration in the closeness of the phases. The different activities were grouped much more closely together in early times. They are by now separated by some generations each. This may imply that each subject is more elaborately developed as it comes forward, and absorbs all the best intellect for a long time, and so postpones the rise to the next subject. There is, however, another possible cause of the length of period.

The rise of the new civilisation is conditioned by immigration of different people. That is to say, it arises from a mixture of two different stocks. That effect of mixture cannot take place all at once. There are barriers of antipathy, barriers of creed, barriers of social standing, but every barrier to race fusion gives way in time, when two races are in contact. Even if every marriage in the first generation was a mixed one, that would only give two elements of the native fusion to each child. And what seems to be needed is an ancestry of all the elements of two different races completely intermingled to produce a new era of activities. Now with generations average 30 years, we may take it that each man has ten ancestors a century ago, apart from related marriages.

Hence each man has a million ancestors in six centuries, 10 millions and 7 centuries, 100 million and 8 centuries. Thus, apart from related marriages, 7 or 8 centuries of mixture of two races ensures that an ordinary-sized country, the full maximum number of different ancestors are blended, and every strain of one race has crossed with every strain of the other. This is the period of greatest ability,

beginning almost 8 centuries after the mixture, and lasting for 4 or 5 centuries in different subjects. The extension of the time may well balance the delay mixture due to related marriages. Thus we may say that the complete crossing of two races produces the maximum of ability, and that, from that point, repeated generations diminish the ability. This may well be the basal cause the length of period which we have noticed, as it well accords with it in the time required. But probably each of the other causes before noted may bear apart.

For instance, a dry period and famine may precipitate a migration, which cuts short a civilization as in period 6. 34. The Future And what of the future? We have at last a fairly constant view of the whole system of civilization, its causes of development, its status of growth and decay. How far can that suggest the future? This is by no means a fatalist view, for there is much difference between an unhealthy and a healthy

civilization as much to care for and strive for as there is between a man worn out by middle life and one who is vigorous and useful to a green old age. If we look at the diagram of all the stages, figure 57, we see that the winding apart of the stages means that wealth of improvements can be accumulated later in each stage and the maximum wealth in Europe promises in our own stage to reach to near the end of our period, when an entire mixture with another race will be requisite. We do not see any tendency to shorten the stage of growth in successive periods, that may be because he is conditioned by a complete crossing of the two stocks, as we have noticed, so that the production of a new European art and subsequent activities cannot be expected for many

centuries. But are not the conditions of the world so radically altered that no past phenomena will be repeated again? The mixture of race going on in many countries at present will tend to the whole world, owing to the case of communication which has never existed before. In a few centuries, will not the people of every country be blended and be alike? Hardly so as conditions of climate will always make men black or white. The conditions of their countries will always separate pastoral, agricultural, and manufacturing communities. The present rate of spread is the effect of a sudden facility.

It will tend to diminish, as suitable conditions are found and established, and a more stable adjustment of population will arise in future. It is parallel to the great diffusion which must have taken place on the development of shipping. Yet the view becomes really grasped that the source of every civilization has lain in race mixture, it may be that eugenics will, in some future civilization, carefully segregate fine races, and prohibit continual mixture until they have a distinct type, which will start a new civilization when transplanted. The future progress of man may depend as much.

on isolation to establish a type as on fusion of types when established. End of Section 7. An End of The Revolutions of Civilization by Flinders Petrie.