Dan Snow's History Hit - Alexander's Successors at War: The Spartan Adventurer

Episode Date: February 6, 2022

Tristan of The Ancients podcasts has published his first book, Alexander’s Successors at War: The Perdiccas Years. Focussing in on 323 – 320 BC, the book tells the story of the tumultuous events that seized Alexander the Great’s empire immediately after this titanic figure breathed his last in June 323 BC. Today, we’re giving you a taster of what you can expect. Sit back and relax as Tristan reads out an abridged chapter from the book (including a swift introduction). He tells the story of a Spartan mercenary captain called Thibron, who set forth from Crete with c.6,000 battle-hardened mercenaries intend on forging his own Greco-Libyan empire in North Africa. Filled with several twists and turns the story is a symbol for the many fascinating events, and the larger than life cast, that dominates the immediate aftermath of Alexander’s death.Order Tristan’s book today here.Order from Amazon.If you'd like to learn more, we have hundreds of history documentaries, ad-free podcasts and audiobooks at History Hit - subscribe today! To download the History Hit app please go to the Android or Apple store.

Hi, buddy. Welcome to Dan Snow's History Hits. It's that time of the week when we go to one of our sibling podcasts. So we're going to go look at the ancients now. We're going way back to ancient history before even the rise of the Roman Empire. We're looking at Alexander. In fact, specifically, we're looking at just what happened when Alexander died. Now, you'll know the ancients. Tristan is the great presenter on the ancients. He arrived at History Hit as a work experience guy about three years ago. His great passion, even then, was to tell the story of ancient history online, in podcast form, on TV, but particularly the story of what happened after Alexander the Great died. Now, I think of myself as a fan of history, let me tell you. In fact, I yield to no one in my love

of history and particularly, you know, strange niche bits of it. But Tristan Hughes, which everyone in the office calls him the Tristorian, has not only taken that podcast from zero to hundreds of thousands of listens every week, but he has produced a book about what happened after Alexander the Great died. His interest in this period is almost unhealthy. I'm going to be honest, it's almost unhealthy. It's completely deranged, but good luck to him. Good luck to him, because the world needs more Tristan Huses. It needs more Tristorians. And I'm so proud of him. Not only has he been holding down his job at History Hit, not only has he built this massive podcast, Listen to Who Are On The World, but he has now published his book. Thanks to you guys. Thanks to you all, folks,

listening to him and supporting him, he found a publisher for his book. His book is basically what happened when Alexander the Great dies. Let me tell you, it makes Game of Thrones like a game of bridge, all right? It was insane. Violence spanning three continents, gigantic armies moving around trying to carve out global empires. It's a big deal. So the Tristorian's book is wonderful, and also Tristan coming on his podcast to tell us all about it. It's just as good. So everyone, this is what happened when Alexander the Great died, with our very own Tristan Hughes. If you wish to go and listen to more episodes of this podcast without the answer, or you want to go and watch some of the hundreds of hours documentaries we've got on History Hit TV, you can do that by just doing this simple thing. You just click, click with your little thumb there

on the link which is in the description of this podcast. You slide down, look down at there you go have a little click see what you see takes you through there gets you two weeks free then you pay a very small subscription after that and you get access to the wonderful world of history hit tv audio tv all sorts of things you're gonna love it in the meantime everyone we're very proud it's our boy tristan he's done well. Alexander the Great. This Macedonian king, born more than 2,000 years ago, ranks among the most famous figures in history. And with good reason.

In his short lifetime, he forged one of the largest empires the world had ever seen, conquering a superpower and leaving the world changed forever. Because of Alexander, archaeologists have uncovered hallmarks of Hellenistic culture stretching from the Mediterranean to the Indus. For better or for worse, his achievements inspired many notable names that followed him. Arthurian tales of Alexander became medieval bestsellers. The whereabouts of his body remains one of the greatest archaeological mysteries of antiquity. The legacy and achievements of Alexander are astonishing, but for me it is what followed his untimely death, aged just 32, that is most extraordinary. The figures that came to the fore, extraordinary personalities,

many of whom would quickly become locked in a bitter struggle for supremacy and survival. Alexander the Great may have forged a large empire, but it was these successes that determined its fate. Alexander's death in Babylon that fateful day in June 323 BC triggered an unprecedented crisis. Within a couple of days, Macedonian blood had stained the walls of the chamber in which he died. Within a couple of weeks, Babylon had witnessed the first siege of the post-Alexander age. Within a couple of months, a major revolt had erupted on mainland Greece. Within a couple of years, theatres of conflict had arisen across the length and breadth of what was once Alexander's empire. From a sparsen adventurer attempting to forge his own empire in North Africa, to a vast horde of veteran Greek mercenaries

heading home from ancient Afghanistan. From a merciless punitive campaign against some of the most infamous brigands of the time, to a warrior princess raising an army and pressing ahead with her own power play during this ancient game of thrones. What followed Alexander's death was an imperial implosion. This book attempts to explain why it happened. The Spartan Adventurer Spartan shields glimmered in the Libyan sunlight. Veteran soldiers stood ready. For the past twelve months, these hardened hoplites had hired out their spears for an audacious enterprise,

enticed across the great sea by promises of wealth and glory. At their head was a Spartan condottier, an adventurer, a general who had infamously thrown himself into the limelight following Alexander the Great's demise. Fickle fortune had dominated their venture so far, an unprecedented string of successes offset by several severe setbacks. unprecedented string of successes, offset by several severe setbacks. Now this band of brigands hoped to turn the tide of their touker, their fortune, once more. Together they stood on the battlefield, united in their desire to seize one of the greatest treasures in the known world. A divine city. Rich, powerful, beautiful, the jewel of Libya.

To correctly cover the background to this story, we are starting in 324, in the penultimate year of Alexander the Great's reign to tell the story of Harplas, the disgraced Macedonian treasurer who once served at the centre of Alexander's Macedonian empire. This story is crucial to the rise of our central figure in this chapter, the Spartan adventurer Thibro. In late 324, a lone ship sailed away from Athens carrying the most wanted man in the Mediterranean. His name was Harpalus. Corrupt and crooked, the disgraced treasurer had once been at the forefront of Macedonian politics, a focal name within the empire. That time had passed. Earlier in the year, Harpalus had crossed his bridge of no return. The enormous wealth of the Persian Empire,

the wealth that they had acquired, the Macedonians had acquired from the Persians, had lured Harpalus into a decadent lifestyle. Luxury was endorsed, statecraft was sidelined. Today, he is best remembered for fawning over prominent Athenian prostitutes, a story that has come to epitomise his negligence. Such dereliction of duty fostered its own consequences. Maladministration spread like wildfire across the empire's central provinces.

Temples and tombs were sacked, subjects mistreated. The chances of retribution seemed low. Neither Harplas nor his decadent partners in crime expected Alexander ever to return from fighting in the Far East. But Alexander did return, and retribution was swift. Many of Harplis's extravagant accomplices were charged with profligacy. All were swiftly executed. Harpilas saw the writing on the wall. The consequence of reckless extravagance during Alexander's absence in the east, he feared he would be next to receive a one-way summons to the king's court. It was time to escape. In February 324, with hired muscle, a band of friends and a small fortune, Harppalus headed west, culminating in his arrival at Athens in the summer.

Thinking only of his safety, the devious Macedonian had turned completely against his king and colluded openly with Belicos Athenian's intent on revolt. His actions proved highly divisive. Though his rhetoric and bribes won him some significant supporters, many others opposed having the disgraced treasurer within their walls. Nor were the Macedonians going to stand idly by in the meantime. Three times they demanded the Athenians hand over Harpalus, three times Athens refused, although their resistance weakened. Imprisoned within the city, Harpalus' days looked numbered.

Demosthenes and the Athenians faced a dilemma. Demosthenes, by the way, was a prominent Athenian statesman, who I cover the story of in detail in a preceding chapter. They did not want to hand over Harpalus, a suppliant to the Macedonians. Nor, however, did they want to provoke a futile war with the all-powerful Alexander for continuing to house Macedon's most wanted. Enemies were circling, urging Alexander to sail west and surround the city with thousands of soldiers and siege engines. Alexander to sail west and surround the city with thousands of soldiers and siege engines. Holding on to Harpalus kept the threat of war hovering. Harpalus' liability outweighed his financial benefits. His mere presence affected Athens' ability to negotiate matters of state. Already Demosthenes was trying to persuade the Macedonians to let Athens retain control over Samos,

a colonial possession Alexander had recently ordered they return to the island's native inhabitants. Demosthenes and the Athenians were desperate to reverse this decision, but if they were to have any chance of convincing the Macedonian monarch to change his mind, ridding their city of Harpalus was essential. Securing Samos took precedence. A solution was conjured up. As the days passed, Harpalus' custody grew more and more relaxed. Fewer and fewer guards were assigned to keep watch over him, and before long all of Harpalus' armed captors had been relieved of their duties. Harpalus was free to flee, his prison having evaporated around him. Hurried down to the harbour, he boarded a boat and sailed away into the Saronic Gulf.

Macedon's most wanted was on the run once more. Having drifted out of the Gulf into the Aegean Sea, Harpalus and his crew sailed south, keeping close to the Peloponnesian coastline. His past submission had seen him sacrifice a small fortune, confiscated by the Athenians upon his arrest. But Harpalus had a fallback position. Before being admitted to Athens,

he had deposited much of his wealth at faraway Tainarum, situated at the south of the Peloponnese. Protected by his personal mercenary army, some 6,000 strong, neither the Athenians nor the Macedonians were able to seize this already stolen Achaemenid Persian treasure. It was to Tainarum that Harpalus sailed. Harpalus' stay at the mercenary camp was brief. Having gathered both money and men, a great fleet was prepared. Soldiers boarded boats, and the armada sailed away from the Greek mainland for the final time, across the Cretan Sea. Their first stop was Cydonia, a prominent coastal city-state in northwest Crete, where Harpalus and his friends considered their next move.

Several options must have been touted. They could continue east, to the strategically vital Island of Rhodes, evict the Macedonian garrison from its namesake capital and turn it into an impregnable fortress. They could head west, across the Ionian Sea, to aid the Italian-Greek city-states against growing barbarian incursions. Or they could sail south, across the width of the Mediterranean to the fertile lands of coastal Libya. For Harpalus, survivability and profit were key. Where was the best chance of fortune and victory? Where was the best chance of evading Alexander's grasp? Little did he know that this decision was to be taken out of his hands. One man's demise, another's rise. In early 323, a companion approached Harpalus. His name was Thibron, a Spartan mercenary commander who had accompanied his paymaster since he fled Babylon. Harpalus considered Thibron a loyal ally. It was a grave

mistake. Emboldened by his high standing with the mercenaries, Harpalus' lacklustre leadership and his own ambitions, Fibron approached and then assassinated his unsuspecting leader. Harpalus, the most wanted man in the empire, was dead. Fibron acted fast. Quickly he proclaimed himself the new leader of the mercenary expedition, securing their loyalty through gifts and promises of future riches. Resistance was minimal, there was no love lost for the infamous Harpalus. Thebron's calculated risk had paid off, and the rewards came fast. Within no time at all, the Spartan had risen to a prominent position on the Mediterranean stage. Around 6,000 grizzled veterans stood ready to serve, expecting

profitable conquest. Thibron knew exactly where to take them. A band of Hellenic statesmen had watched these dramatic events unfold before their eyes. But these prominent figures did not hold power in Cydonia. They were exiles, suppliants, banished from their place of birth. Far away from their home city, they craved to reverse their current misfortune. They craved to return to their homeland with a formidable force, to expel their hated foes at the tip of a bloodied spearpoint. For that, however, they needed an army. They sought a general

capable of restoring them to their homeland. They sought a liberator. They found Fibrone. Where was home for these Hellenic exiles? It was not to the north, neither in Greece nor the Aegean, nor was it to the west or east. It was to the south, in Africa, Cyrene. In the book, I here go into a bit of detail about Cyrene's background and how this Hellenic city state in modern Cyrenaica rose to become one of the wealthiest cities in the whole of the ancient Mediterranean. For now and this abridged chapter however, we're going to dive into the story at the end of the 4th century at the time of Thibron and his mercenary army. By the end of the 4th century, Cyrene's wealth was legendary. A beautiful city adorned with monumental marble temples,

thick stone walls, richly decorated racecourses and a thriving cosmopolitan marketplace. Away from the marketplaces, academia also flourished. The city boasted one of the most famous schools of philosophy in the Mediterranean. All this helped to establish Cyrene as one of the largest and most prosperous cities in the Mediterranean. Yet no kingdom enjoys endless immunity from instability. No golden age can last forever. In the mid-320s, a vicious civil war erupted within the city, as oligarchs and democrats struggled for supremacy. In the end, the oligarchs emerged victorious. They chased what remained of the democrats out of the city and banished them from their homeland.

Exiled, some of these fugitives fled north across the Mediterranean to Cydonia on Crete. It was they who turned to Thibron, seeking a swift return to Cyrene's shores. Thibron required little convincing. The possibility of controlling Cyrene was too tantalising a prize to refuse. Nevertheless, the Spartan made sure to control his ambitions in front of the exiles. He declared himself their saviour, their champion, the man who would restore them to Cyrene, by the spear if necessary. In reality, however, Thibron's ambitions stretched much further. His expedition would not simply be a noble crusade for the benefit of others. Cyrene's vast riches would be his prize.

The expedition begins. At the height of 323, Thibron's army set sail for Cyrenaica. The exiles guided Thibron and his army to a secure landing zone. Once assembled upon Terra Firma, the soldiers wasted no time and started marching towards Apollonia, which was the port of Cyrene, intending to cut off Cyrenaian communications to their port before heading inland. The Cyrenaians, however, had no intention of letting this happen without a fight. Having learnt that their exiled enemies had returned to Libyan shores with force, they amassed a sizeable army and marched to meet the mercenaries on the open field. En route to Apollonia, Thibron found his path blocked by this enemy host.

A mix of cavalry and infantry opposed his men, but the Spartans' attention must have been drawn to the most iconic unit his enemy fielded. Chariots had long been closely associated with Cyrene. Described as a city of fine chariots by the poet Pindar, racing these vehicles was the traditional sport for the city's nobility. And this is a quote from Pindar's Fourth Pythian. And this is a quote from Pindar's Fourth Pythian. Instead of the short, thinned dolphins, they shall have swift horses and reins for oars. They shall drive the storm-foot chariots. Chariot races were a keystone feature of the polis' heritage, but militarily too, they had long served an important role.

This way of warfare was iconic of an archaic age. Images of Assyrian chariot archers skirmishing enemies from a distance or Greek heroes being escorted up to the walls of Troy may well come to mind. For the Cyrenaians, however, chariotry was not an antiquated method of fighting. They had mastered the science. They had learnt to use these chariots with deadly effect. Stationed behind the front line, the chariots functioned as fast-moving troop transports. Four of the city's famous horses pulled a semi-protected cabin,

capable of carrying three passengers. At the forefront was the driver, expert at guiding his four-horse team across the battlefield. Supporting him were two infantry soldiers, the real teeth of the team, wielding spear, bow or javelin. After battle commenced, these chariot teams would ride up and down behind the army's front line, close enough to view the action but far enough away to ensure the vehicles did not become bogged down in a deadly melee. For a time, they remained at a distance.

That was, however, until the line began to falter. As soon as news reached the chariots that a part of the formation was crumbling, the horses would race across the field, urged on by their charioteers. Once they had reached their destination, the infantrymen dismounted and plugged the gap in the line. Two men on their own would do little to alleviate a faltering line, but these chariots served in large squadrons. If they worked together, these chariot teams formed one of antiquity's most ingenious mobile reinforcement units. Once the threat on one side of the line was repulsed, the soldiers would

remount the chariot and quickly be taken to another part of the battle. Though these weapons of war may have looked out of place on the Hellenistic battlefield, their function ensured they were far from obsolete. Now I must stress that what I've said just then about the chariots and how they functioned is debated. I have put forward the argument that I believe is most likely, having looked at the research, and my arguments for that can be found in a footnote at the end of the book. The Cyrenaeans fielded the best force their city had to offer to oppose Thibron. Nevertheless, despite larger numbers and their iconic chariots, the experience of the Spartans' hoplite mercenaries proved telling. Using their doru spears to knock aside those of their adversaries with ease,

time and time again the veterans landed killing blows. The Cyrenaean part-time infantry proved incapable of putting up an effective resistance. It was a slaughter. Cyrenaeans fell left, right and centre, unable to halt the mercenary onslaught. Soon the battle's outcome was beyond doubt. What remained of the Cyrenaian army fled back to the safety of their city's defences, abandoning their port to Thibron's victorious army. Having buried the dead, Thibron proceeded to Apollonia, seizing the wealthy maritime trade centre and dividing the spoils among his men. This was merely a taster of things to come.

Cyrene, the jewel of Libya, was within reach. Thibron's siege of the city did not last long. Seeing no hope in further resistance, the terrified Cyrenaians agreed to Thibron's siege of the city did not last long. Seeing no hope in further resistance, the terrified Cyrenaians agreed to Thibron's demands. To pacify the plunderers, they would tribute 500 talents of silver, over £5 million today. The Democrats were restored, but they were merely puppets. Thibron's military might ensured that he was Cyrene's ruler in all but name. The man who less than a year before had been a mere fugitive now controlled one of the greatest cities in the known world. Thibron had achieved his goal, yet the adventurer had always wanted more than simply subduing Cyrene.

The city's vast tribute would fund further expeditions. It would allow him to start extending his power along the Mediterranean's southern coastline. Cyrene was the first step in a much larger Libyan imperial dream. a much larger Libyan imperial dream. As silver-filled wagons bearing the Cyrenaean tribute began to arrive at Thibron's camp near the city, the Spartan started preparing his men for the next campaign of conquest. He showered riches and rewards among his band of brigands, spurring their eagerness to take to the field once more and seize further plunder by the tips of their spears. Thibro knew that his mercenaries formed the nucleus of his newfound military might, the veterans who had won him Cyrene. They knew it too, and their commander

took precious care to safeguard their loyalty. Nevertheless, Thibro needed more soldiers. He needed allies to aid his invaluable mercenaries in the upcoming campaign. Alongside the obligatory tribute, he had also demanded the Cyrenaians provide him military assistance. They would supply infantry and cavalry, but most importantly, they had to provide him with half of their chariot squadrons, perhaps some 50 vehicles. Thibon must have noted their potential as rapid reinforcement carriers in the previous battle. One must never underestimate the importance of logistics and an effective command structure. The Spartan condottiers' campaign plans were drawn up.

He would lead his army west, crossing Cyrenaica to the western edge of a great gulf of water that the Greeks referred to as Greater Syrtis, the Gulf of Syrtis. From there they would march south, shadowed by the navy and subduing the seaside settlements one by one. It would be no easy task. Much of this land was dominated by the Nassimones, a powerful Libyan tribe that shared a long and contentious history with Cyrene and its fellow Greco-Libyan cities. So to aid him in this campaign, Thibron sought alliances with other Greek city-states in Cyrenaica – Barca, Tauchera and Euhesperides. When Thibron's emissaries arrived, championing the Spartans' plan to subdue the tribes situated across their frontier, the city-states needed little convincing.

With money and men, they agreed to follow their new ally to war. Thibron commanded a powerful position. Through a mix of military might and shrewd diplomacy, he had united the Hellenic cities in Cyrenaica under his banner. Every passing day, his army was getting stronger. New coinage started being struck, bearing Thibron's name alongside the head of a young Heracles. The Spartan adventurer dared to dream of forging a Greco-Libyan empire. of forging a Greco-Libyan empire. Thibron had taken the time to strengthen the allegiance of his soldiers, garnering support as he generously shared out the spoils they had stolen at spearpoint.

But this distribution of plunder did not please everyone. One man was outraged with his reward, Manassacles, an experienced mercenary commander from the island of Crete. Like his Spartan overlord, this Cretan was ambitious, a hot-headed troublemaker who provided Thibron with just as many problems as his military capability provided benefits. Championing his mastery of war, Manassacles had expected his general to richly reward him once Cyrene had succumbed. He had probably played a vital role in winning the previous battle. Whatever his expectations, he was to be greatly disappointed, as Thibron rewarded Manassacles with less spoils than the mercenary captain had expected. It proved a big mistake.

Menasicles was outraged, angered by what he saw as an unfair division of Spear 1 spoils. In a fit of reckless rage, he vowed vengeance on the Spartan, mounting his horse and covertly deserting the camp, making all haste for Cyrene. Could a personal disliking of Thibron have also contributed to this extreme reaction? Almost certainly. But as soon as Monasticles rode out of the camp, there was no turning back. Monasticles made haste for Cyrene and was welcomed within the city's walls. Many citizens remained disillusioned with their Spartan conqueror. They mourned the many who had perished at his army's hand on the battlefield not long before. It was this resentment that Manassacles planned to exploit. Very quickly he commenced his troublemaking. Wherever he could, he took measures to smear Thibron's name within the city. He

emphasised the Spartans' cruelty, his dishonesty, a commander infected with vice whose continued demands would leave the city in the depths of servitude. How could they trust such a ruthless leader who would stop at nothing to forge the empire he so desired? How could they trust the man who had murdered Harpalus, his friend and employer, purely for personal gain. The man was a dishonest tyrant, Manassacles proclaimed, who they must overthrow at all cost. Using such strong-worded rhetoric, Manassacles hoped to convince the Cyrenaians to break with Thibron and pick up the spear of defiance a second time. It worked. Riled by Monasticles' vexatious words, the Cyrenaians vowed to oppose the marauding army once more and fight for their freedom. Even the

Democrats, recently restored and indebted to Thibron for their return, seemed to have been convinced. As Thibron continued preparations for his great western campaign, Cyrene's hostile change of heart was confirmed. Wagons filled with silver stopped arriving at the camp. The tribute from Cyrene ceased, only 12% of it having been paid. No longer would the city help fund the Spartans' imperial ambitions, neither with money nor with military aid. They had reneged on their commitments.

In an instant, Thibron's thought-through plans came crashing down. The Spartan was outraged, as were his men. In their eyes, the Cyrenaians had committed a heinous betrayal, breaking the previously agreed pact and shattering the fragile unity Thibron had briefly forged across Cyrenaica. Thibron vowed vengeance. Any unfortunate Cyrenaians currently residing in Apollonia were arrested in an act of immediate retaliation. He did not stop there. Gathering his forces, he marched his men inland without delay to bring the Cyrenaians' bid for freedom to a swift conclusion. Thibron had little intention of sitting in for a long-drawn-out siege.

His men had proven their superiority over their Cyrenaian foe on the open field. Now they could repeat their previous heroics, storming the battlements and exacting extreme measures to ensure these agreement renegades did not revolt again. The assault commenced. What followed was disaster. The impetuous assault proved woefully ill-prepared. Cyrene's walls held strong. Thibron's desire for a swift resolution to the revolt had resulted in spectacular failure. In fact, his army's disastrous attempt to assault the fortified plateau had made the situation worse. Cyrene became a beacon of resistance. As Thibron retreated to the port, news reached him from

western Cyrenaica of further betrayal. The citizens of Talcara, a colony of Cyrene, had torn up their alliance with Thibron and sided with the mother city. It was a big blow, further fracturing Cyrenaican loyalties. Putting his plans for further conquest on hold, Thibron regrouped his army at Apollonia and convened with his adjutants to consider their next move. The Cyrenaians would soon force their hand. Buoyed by their first major military success, they decided it was time for them to take the fight to Thibron. It was time to go on the offensive. The generals assembled their army once more, replenishing its ranks as best they could. They devised a plan. Thibron's men still commanded large swathes of Cyrenaica.

Though Talcaira had joined the Cyrenaian fightback, Barca and Euhesperides had stayed loyal to the Spartan. Rarely in ancient Greek history were neighbouring city-states on good terms with one another, and it was these Thibron-supporting allied poleis that the Cyrenaeans set their sights against. As Thibron and his advisors contemplated their next strategy, half of Cyrene's army, still many thousands strong, hurried out of the city and headed west. Reaching enemy territory, first Barca and then New Hesperides, Cyrenaean soldiers commenced their devastating raiding campaign. The ill-defended countryside burned, crops were razed, rural communities were pillaged. Soon the cities' surrounding farmland resembled desolate wasteland. It was a ruthless strategy, but it caused the predicted reaction.

Emissaries from Barca and Euhesperides made all haste for Apollonia and Thibron's camp, bringing word of the devastating onslaught on their lands. Crops burnt, villages destroyed, they demanded aid. Thibron could do little but comply. If he did not, he would lose his last allies in the region and the vital resources they provided his army, particularly grain. Assembling his troops, the Spartan marched his men out of their camp and headed west towards Barca and Euhesperides,

leaving behind a token garrison in Apollonia. With the full might of his mercenary army, he aimed to unite with his allies, cut off the Cyrenaean raiders, force them to fight and gain another crushing victory. Thibro seems to have been convinced that the entire Cyrenaic army had marched to ravage his allies' farmland. Indeed, it is easy to imagine the emissaries from Barca and Euchesperides exaggerating the size of the Cyrenaic contingent threatening their lands to ensure the Spartans' entire force came to the rescue. Thibron was gravely mistaken. Reports confirming Thibron's westerly march were quickly relayed to those within Cyrene. At first, the Cyrenaean high command was unsure how to react,

but it was Menasicles who quickly realised that their enemy had presented them with an unmissable opportunity. Apollonia, Cyrene's gateway to the Mediterranean, was vulnerable. Thibron had been successfully lured away along with almost all his mercenaries. Now was the time to recapture the port, the Cyrenaeans agreed. The small force Thibron had ordered to remain at Apollonia was not expecting trouble. Future fighting appeared destined to occur further west. Their job was simply to guard the baggage, tend the wounded and manage supplies. No one portended an imminent enemy assault. Horror must have gripped them as, one day, they were risen from slumber to see hundreds of Cyrenaean soldiers descending on

the port, Manassacles leading the way. The fight that followed was a foregone conclusion. Any resistance was quickly crushed and the Cyrenaeans restored their control over Apollonia. For Manassacles, the Cyrenaean plan had proved a resounding success. The port was theirs once more, as was the great abundance of wealth Thibron had previously stolen from them. He gave the traders back what remained of their cargoes and put the port under close guard. A quote from Diodorus. The tables of fortune had turned. Monasticles had completely outmanoeuvred his Spartan foe.

As news of Apollonia's recapture reached Thibron and his men, its repercussions hit home like a hammer blow. All the hard-earned riches they had left behind, their enemy had seized. The ill fortune of Thibron's western expedition only compounded their demoralising situation. Little progress had been made. The Spartan had failed to bring the Cyrenaic raiding expedition to the pitched battle he so desired Thiburon and his army were in dire straits but the Spartan persisted continuing west Thiburon's force set their vengeful sights on Talcaira unleashing all their might upon the city their siege was swift it was not long before they overwhelmed any defences, stormed the settlement and terrorised

its inhabitants. Cyrenaica was firmly divided. To the west, Thibron's army held control. In the east, Cyrene remained a revived bastion of resistance. Nevertheless, Monasticles' successful seizure of Apollonia continued to have serious knock-on effects for Thibroen's forces, particularly his fleet. And this is another quote from Diodorus. Since they had no access to the port and were short of food, the crews of his ships were in their habit of going out every day into the countryside and foraging for their food. It was not long before Thibroen's sailors were openly encroaching on the countryside of neighbouring Libyan tribes, perhaps the Bakales or Kizai. The Libyans were enraged. Gathering their guerrillas, a large band of their tribesmen lay in ambush for the foraging parties. As soon as their unsuspecting foe arrived, they unleashed hell on the surprised sailors.

Isolated and unprepared, a slaughter ensued. Death or capture was the result for many, though a few did manage to flee back to the safety of their ships. In their haste to escape, the survivors set sail, intending to head to the safety of either Euhesperides or Talqueira. It was not to be. By then it was the winter months of 323-322, a time when stormy seas were common. As the ship set sail, according to Diodorus, a violent wind arose and most of the ships were

swallowed up by the sea. Of the few survivors, some were driven ashore on Cyprus and others on Egypt. Thibron had lost all of his fleet. It was the latest in what was becoming a long strand of military disasters. The days when he and his men had been the supreme power over all Cyrenaica must have seemed a distant memory. His insatiable desire for military conquest, always a high-stakes game, had done more harm than good. Thibarone had lost Cyrene, he had lost Apollonia, he had lost his spear one plunder, and now he had lost his fleet. Still, the Spartan did not give up. Though disheartened, his men remained loyal, perhaps resigned to the fact that their best chance of survival in this distant land was by remaining within Thibarone's service. Together, Thibarone

and his mercenaries were more than a match for most adversaries. But if they were to reverse their misfortunes, they needed more men. They needed more veteran soldiers. We listened to Dan Snow's history. We're hearing all about what happened when Alexander the Great died. It's wild.

More coming up. I'm Matt Lewis. And I'm Dr. Eleanor Yonaga. And in Gone Medieval, we get into the greatest mysteries. The gobsmacking details and latest groundbreaking research from the greatest millennium in human history. We're talking Vikings. Normans.

Kings and popes. Who were rarely the best of friends. Murder. Rebellionsions and crusades. Find out who we really were by subscribing to Gone Medieval from History Hit, wherever you get your podcasts. As winter ended, Thibron initiated his fresh recruitment strive. The most capable and persuasive recruiters were selected from among his adjutants and sent across the great sea, their task to enlist more mercenaries. Tynarum, that famous mercenary haven situated on the southern tip of the Peloponnese, was their destination. Tynarum had transformed since Harplis and Thibron had sailed away more than a year

earlier. No longer was it brimming with nearly 10,000 soldiers. Thousands had left. Still, over 2,500 hardened hoplites remained, seeking employment. Having arrived at the mercenary camp, Thibron's agents pitched their offer to its occupants. The wealth of Cyrenaica was emphasised to strengthen the appeal of Thibron's cause. It worked. Within little time, Thibron's friends had managed to recruit many mercenaries, lured by the opportunity of a short-term, lucrative venture overseas. Without delay, Thibron's reinforcements boarded boats and set sail for Cyrenaica. Tainara had been emptied. It was late spring by the time Thibron's soldiers spotted these ships on the horizon. Their arrival could not have been more

timely. As Thibron's friends disembarked and marched their fresh recruits into camp, relieved soldiers greeted them, recovering from another more recent disaster. Encouraged by their recent successes, Manassacles and the Cyrenaeans had launched a fresh offensive against their adversary, marching west and confronting Thiburon in a battle of their choosing. This time there was to be no repeat of the Spartans' previous heroics. Overwhelmed, the adventurers' browbeaten army had been routed. Dead hoplites scattered the field, having paid the ultimate price of their profession. The defeat was the Spartans' latest setback, but it was not decisive. Fibron had survived the battle, as had many of his mercenaries. Together they were still a capable fighting force, but to lose the

martialed quality their fallen comrades had possessed would have been a bitter blow. No matter how small their number, these were losses Thibron could ill afford. Each mercenary's skill and expertise was vital. Whereas the Cyrenaians could quickly bolster their forces with raw recruits and Libyan allies, Thibron could not easily replenish his mercenary nucleus. The defeat had sent Thiburon to the brink of despair. His enemy, riding high on recent successes, tasted victory. The Spartan considered abandoning any attempt to recapture Cyrene. It was then, as he pondered whether to fight on any longer, that Thibarone's friends had returned bringing more than 2,500 professional reinforcements. This changed everything. Once again Thibarone's feelings dramatically transformed,

from despair to determination, from forlorn hope to renewed confidence. Once more the adventurer gathered his men. Once more cheers erupted as he announced that they would resume the war with renewed vigour and conquer the Cyrenaians. Significantly reinforced, the recently defeated army took the offensive yet again. The expedition headed east. Thousands of soldiers marched, an awesome spectacle for any onlooker. At the heart of the army remained the mercenary spear-wielding heavy infantry, many of whom had served with their seasoned generals since the start. They had witnessed the successes, they had witnessed the setbacks.

Still, they remained committed to the adventurers' cause, their eyes firmly fixed on obtaining lucrative plunder. Alongside the veterans, an array of other units marched. Light infantry, cavalry and a draft of citizen hoplots, provided by those Greek city states in western Cyrenaica that still rested their hopes on the Spartan's success. A versatile mix of units, the adventurer had cobbled together a capable army several thousand strong. He knew his foe would outnumber him, but as previous experience had shown, numbers only counted for so much when facing a force of superior fighting

ability. In a time where rash provocations by overconfident commanders were becoming a mainstay, Fibron had thrown down the gauntlets to his Cyrenaean foe, to face him on the open field one final time. They accepted the challenge. In the meantime, the city had been a hive of activity. News of the Spartans' strengthening had been swift in reaching the Cyrenaians. Recognising the increased power of their adversary, they had reacted accordingly, using their great wealth to recruit a sizeable army of citizen soldiers, Libyans from neighbouring tribes such as the Aspistai, Gilgamesh and Bakales, and perhaps even some Carthaginians. By the time Fibrone had taken the offensive, the Cyrenaean army was ready for a final, decisive face-off. They prepared to settle things, once and for all. Spartan shields glimmered in the Libyan sunlight.

and for all. Spartan shields glimmered in the Libyan sunlight. Veteran soldiers stood ready to confront their Cyrenaean foe. Once again, the size of the enemy force must have astonished Thibron and his men. Hoping to end this condottier menace once and for all, the Cyrenaeans had amassed one of the largest armies in their city's history. 30,000 soldiers had been mustered, history. 30,000 soldiers had been mustered, called to arms to oppose the Spartan and his mercenaries. Once again, the infantry nucleus consisted of citizen hoplites, part-time soldiers equipped with spears and shields and trained to fight in dense phalanx units. Screening the heavy infantry were the lighter footmen, presumably provided by their local Libyan allies. A Greco-Libyan cavalry force may well have covered its flanks, ready to pursue fleeing troops in wake of the upcoming Phalanx vs Phalanx clash. Finally, there were the famous four-horse chariots,

ready and waiting behind the front line to provide rapid relief to wherever Cyrenaean courage wavered. Thebrone's troops were vastly outnumbered. The Cyrenaians had thrown everything into confronting their foe in one final battle. Both sides intended the clash to be decisive. Both sides staked all on victory. Under the sweltering Libyan sun, probably on a plain in western Cyrenaica not far from the coast, the two forces finally clashed.

One can imagine javelins hailing through the air, shield walls colliding with one another, fighting for more ground, chariots racing up and down behind the lines, shouting encouragement to their allies and obscenities at their foe. Thibarone's smaller but more experienced force soon started to win the all-important infantry fight, using their skill with spear and shield to block, parry and strike with deadly efficiency. Steadily, Cyrenaean soldiers fell back, many succumbing to spear thrusts from their foe. Among the dead were the Cyrenaean generals, who it seems had decided to fight alongside their soldiers. It was an extremely powerful, charismatic style of leadership. It was also extremely risky, and this gamble did not pay off. As the commanders fell to the floor one by one, the Cyrenaean chain of command came crashing down. Barely trained and losing ground,

the resolve of the Greco-Libyan force evaporated. The citizen phalanx was irreversibly punctured. Cyrenaean casualties began to mount rapidly, and as soon as the soldiers saw their shield wall disintegrate, all thought of further fighting evaporated. They fled. The battle was over. Thebron had done it. What may well have been the largest army the Cyrenaeans had ever fielded in their history had transformed into a shattered, leaderless rabble. As Diodorus says,

he was delighted, believing that the nearby cities would fall to him in short order. Thibron had won the decisive victory he so craved. He had turned the tide once more, reversing previous misfortunes. Now all he and his men had to do was conquer the enemy bastions and Cyrene would finally be his. You can imagine the despair that seized the Cyrenaians as the defeated, leaderless remnants of their grand army came trickling back into the city, relaying news of the catastrophic disaster. Once more their resurgent foe was coming to conquer their city. The chances of a vengeful Thibron showing leniency to those in power were slim, and no one was more

aware of this than Manassacles, the cunning Cretan. He had been the mastermind behind past Cyrenaean successes. He had proved Thebrone's greatest foe. Through either absence or fortune, he had not lost his life in the previous battle. He vowed to fight on. To be continued... kings and popes, who were rarely the best of friends, murder, rebellions, and crusades. Find out who we really were by subscribing to Gone Medieval from History Hit, wherever you get your podcasts. Knowing that only a slow, painful death awaited him if he fell into his former commander's hands, Manassacles acted, convincing the Cyrenaeans to continue resisting from behind their strong walls.

The Cyrenaeans complied, gathering supplies for a siege and electing Manassacles to their new council of generals. They readied the defences for the blockade that was sure to come. Thebrone's plan of attack was twofold. Placing his army between Cyrene and Apollonia, he targeted the two objectives simultaneously. Some of his men laid siege to the port, aided by whatever remained of the fleet. Others marched inland, launching daily assaults on Cyrene's walls and hammering home to the besieged some terrible facts. Thibarone's men controlled the countryside. Thibarone's men had deprived theming home to the besieged some terrible facts. Thibron's men controlled the

countryside. Thibron's men had deprived them of access to the port. Days, weeks, the siege dragged on. An isolated island surrounded by a sea of enemies, food supplies and Cyrene dwindled. Fresh assaults kept coming with every passing day. Resources became more and more strained. coming with every passing day. Resources became more and more strained. Resentment grew among the population. For their current misfortune, they pinned the blame on those in power, to Monasticles and his fellow oligarchs. Political enemies sensed opportunity to exploit this crisis, and it was not long before resentment boiled over into revolution. Political strife erupted within Cyrene's besieged walls. The democratic party riled the citizens up against the oligarchs and evicted them from the city.

Stranded in political no-man's land, the outcast oligarchs faced a difficult choice. Submitting to Thibron seems their best chance of survival, hoping their pitiful state would allow them to gain their foes forgiveness and favour. Many took this course of action and were welcomed into Thibron's camp. Others, however, did not. For those exiles, Manassacles among them, the idea of laying themselves at Thibron's mercy was a risk they did not dare. Fortunately, they had another option. Eluding Thibron's patrols, Manassacles and his companions fled towards the coast, where they boarded a boat and sailed east. Their destination was Egypt. They had heard that a new governor had recently arrived in the province, a proven general and former friend of

Alexander the Great. Monasticles and his comrades hoped he would be their saviour. hoped he would be their saviour. In the chapter itself, here I go into a bit of detail about Ptolemy's early ruling of Egypt, but now we're going to go straight to Manassicles, their arrival in Egypt and the Cyrenaian call for aid. Manassicles and the oligarchs disembarked onto Egyptian soil. Immediately they made for Ptolemy and, reaching the new governor, informed him of the tumultuous events in the west, of Thebron's arrival, the back and forth campaign that followed, his final decisive victory and its consequences. They looked to Ptolemy as their saviour. They pleaded with him to march to their aid, send an army west, liberate Cyrene from their

foes and restore a sense of peace and stability to their beloved city. Ptolemy needed little convincing. The opportunity to further strengthen his power had arrived at his provincial court at Memphis. Very quickly he acknowledged the oligarchs' call for aid. He would gather a strong task force. He would have it sail west, confront Thibron and liberate Cyrenaica from

these brigands. In reality, however, his motives ran far deeper. Controlling prosperous Cyrene and its neighbours was his main incentive. Restoring the exiles was simply a facade, a convenient pretext under which he could conceal his own ambitions. Similarly, self-serving motives had influenced Thibron's decision to aid the exiled Cyrenaic Democrats over a year earlier. Now it was the turn of the city's fugitive oligarchs to be exploited by an external ally. Ptolemy's military forces began to bustle with activity. Near the Mediterranean coast, the expeditionary army gathered during the summer of 322. Macedonians and mercenaries prepared to board ships and sail

west to Cyrenaica. Ptolemy had invested in the enterprise's mobilisation, but he would play no active part in the campaign. He was needed in Egypt to govern the province. In his stead, supreme commander of the Cyrenaian campaign was assigned to one of the governor's most trusted subordinates, Ophelas. A veteran of Alexander the Great's expedition, Ophelas had accompanied Ptolemy to Egypt in the wake of Alexander's death. An experienced commander, loyal and dependable, the man was the perfect choice. It was not long before rumours started reaching those in and around Cyrene about developments to the east. A small armada had been sighted sailing west from Egypt and transporting a large army.

It was a troubling whisper, swiftly followed by more distressing confirmation that the fleet had arrived in eastern Cyrenaica and disembarked its army. Its intention was clear. A fresh enemy was marching to destroy Thibon and restore oligarchic rule to Cyrene. History was repeating itself for Thibon. Once again, when seemingly in a position of great strength, unforeseen developments had greatly disrupted his strategy. The siege had been going well, Cyrene's fall seemed imminent, yet the arrival of this new major threat forced him to drastically alter his plans. The size and skill of Ophelas' approaching army caused fear to spread through

senior figures in Fibron's army. Coming against them were veterans of Alexander the Great's conquests, many of whom had served in at least two of the conqueror's famous pitched battles. Leading them too was no raw general, but a man who had ventured to the edges of the conquerors' famous pitched battles. Leading them too was no raw general, but a man who had ventured to the edges of the known world, a battle-hardened, confident commander. Panic gripped the oligarchs who had chosen to throw themselves in with Fibron. No longer did they favour their patrons' fortunes in the war. With no love lost for their commander, one night these men unanimously agreed to flee the camp and reconvene with their fugitive friends accompanying Ophelas.

Covertly, under cover of darkness, they aimed to switch sides. It was not to be. As the oligarchs put their escape plan into action, the Spartan soldiers spotted them and gave chase. The escapees were soon overwhelmed, cut down to a man by their enraged pursuers. The arrival of Ophelas had cost Thibron his Cyrenaean exiles. But the loss of such disloyal allies was far from disastrous. In fact, it offered him opportunity. Cyrene's democrat generals were in dire straits, terrified by the arrival of this new expeditionary force championing the cause of those who they had so recently expelled.

They sought a strong ally, someone to stand with them against their most hated rivals. At the same time, they discovered that Fibron had put to death the Cyrenean oligarchs within his ranks. He'd executed many of their political enemies. The Democrats sensed opportunity. Putting aside past differences, they reached out to the Spartan, offering terms. Let them unite against the greater threat. Thibron saw the logic. Meeting with the Democrats, former friends turned foes, the two sides agreed terms in the face of this immediate danger. What remained of the war-weary Cyrenaic army marched outside the city's walls and united with their former enemy. It was not long before Ophelas' expedition, full of fresh professional warriors, arrived near the city. Theobrone's conglomerate force stood ready to oppose them. The Spartans'

mercenaries boasted a glowing military record, the victors of several stunning successes that only confirmed their capability for combat on the open field. But this would be no rerun of previous engagements. In the ensuing battle, the superior quality of Ophelas' force became clear, his infantry carving through Thibron's mercenaries and the supporting Cyrenaeans. The result was decisive, a disaster for Thibron. After over a year of campaigning, of retreats and resurgences, for Thibron this was the end. There had been no recovery from this setback. As his army melted away, the adventurer fled west with whatever troops remained. Abandoned, defeated, and with little stomach for further fighting,

it was not long before the Cyrenaeans sued for peace, the city once again at the mercy of a foreign commander. Ophelas did not stop there. With Cyrene subdued, he rapidly went in pursuit of Thibron, capturing his strongholds one by one and instating loyal subordinates in each. Within no time at all, Ptolemy's influence stretched the length of Cyrenaica. Thibron found himself in a hopeless situation. Devoid of allies and labelled the most wanted man in the region, the Spartan was forced to flee deeper and deeper into Libya. This did not save him. And here is a quote from Arrian of the following. He was brought in by Libyan horse herders and

taken before Epikides of Olympus at Tauchera which is the city that Ophelas had saved. The Taucheren citizens demanded it for the past misery they had suffered at Thibron's hands. Ophelas obliged. Epikides handed the Spartan over to the Taucherens for torture. Beaten and bruised a broken Thibron was then marched east to Apollonia, the place where this one-time mercenary leader had planned a great Libyan venture many months before. Times had changed. There had been no miraculous reversal of fortune for the Spartan that day. A shadow of his former self, Thibron was paraded through the port and crucified.

Thibron, son of Tantalus, a man who was softly out-talented of his talents. And that is a quote from Athenaeus. Thibron was dead. In one decisive campaign, Ophelas had completed what Thibron had so spectacularly failed to do. He had subdued Cyrenaica. Despite being a mere spectator for most of the anarchy that had gripped Cyrenaica, Ptolemy, through Ophelos, had landed the decisive blow. The remarkable story of Thibon, the damaging intrigues, the decisive successes, the catastrophic failures, had ended pitifully. Today his tale has become sidelined to a few insignificant lines in the history books,

but no longer. How different his story might have looked if Manassacles had not betrayed him that day in 323. I feel the hand of history upon our shoulders. All this tradition of ours, our school history, our songs, this part of the history of our country, all were gone and finished. Well, thanks for listening to that episode of The Ancients on Dan Snow's History. I'm so proud of what Tristan has managed to achieve over at The Ancients.

It's turning into an absolute juggernaut. Congratulations to him. The Ancients has its own feed, of course. You go wherever you get your podcasts, search The Ancients. It's turning into an absolute juggernaut. Congratulations to him. The Ancients has its own feed, of course. You go wherever you get your podcasts, search The Ancients, and you can subscribe, and you can share, and you can like, and you can get involved in the whole vibe over there. Please do that because it makes a huge difference to us. We're really, really grateful. Thank you for listening. you